Computer Systems and Organisation

1. Basic Computer Organisation

Computer architecture is concerned with the structure and behavior of the
computer as seen by the user. The architectural design of a computer system is
concerned with the specifications of the various functional modules, such as
processors and memories, and structuring them together into a computer system
Examples- the instruction set, the number of bits used to represent various data types
(e.g., numbers, characters), I/O mechanisms, and techniques for addressing memory.
Example 2- a multiply instruction in computer

Computer organization refers to the operational units and their interconnections

that realize the architectural specifications.
Example- those hardware details transparent to the programmer, such as control
signals; interfaces
between the computer and peripherals; and the memory technology used.
Example 2- multiply instruction will be implemented by a special multiply unit or by a
mechanism that makes repeated use of the add unit of the system.

Computer design is concerned with the hardware design of the computer. Once the
computer specifications are formulated, it is the task of the designer to develop
hardware for the system. Computer design is concerned with the determination of
what hardware should be used and how the parts should be connected. This aspect of
computer hardware is sometimes referred to as computer implementation.

organizational decision may be based on the anticipated frequency of use of the

multiply instruction, the relative speed of the two approaches, and the cost and
physical size of a special multiply unit.

We can characterize a computer system by describing

1) the external behavior of each component, that is, the data and control signals
that it exchanges with other components and
2) the interconnection structure and the controls required to manage the use of
the interconnection structure.

1.2 Strengths of Computers / Characteristics

Increasing popularity of computers has proved that it is a very powerful and useful
tool. The power and
usefulness of this popular tool are mainly due to its following characteristics:
1. Automatic. An automatic machine works by itself without human intervention.
Computers are automatic
machines because once started on a job, they carry out the job (normally without am
human assistance)
until it is finished. However, computers being machines cannot start themselves and
cannot go out and find
their own problems and solutions. We need to instruct a computer using coded
instructions that specify
exactly how it will do a particular job. Some of the other characteristics of computers
(such as speed and
accuracy) are because they are automatic and work on a problem without any human
intervention.
2. Speed. A computer is a very fast device. It can perform in a few seconds, the
amount of work that a
human being can do in an entire year, if he/she worked day and night and did nothing
else. In other words,
a computer can do in a few minutes what would take a man his entire lifetime.
While talking about the speed of a computer we do not talk in terms of seconds or
even milliseconds (10 -3)
but in terms of microseconds (10-6), nanoseconds (10-9), and even picoseconds (10-
12). A powerful computer
is capable of performing several billion (109) simple arithmetic operations per second.
3. Accuracy. In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate. Accuracy of
a computer is
consistently high and the degree of its accuracy depends upon its design. A computer
performs even
calculation with the same accuracy.
However, errors can occur in a computer. These errors are mainly due to human rather
than technological
weaknesses. For example, errors may occur due to imprecise thinking by a
programmer (a person who
writes instructions for a computer to solve a particular problem) or incorrect input
data. We often refer to
computer errors caused due to incorrect input data or unreliable programs as garbage-
in-garbage-out
(GIGO).
4. Diligence. Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness, and
lack of
concentration. It can continuously work for hours without creating any error and
without grumbling.
Hence, computers score over human beings in doing routine type of jobs that require
great accuracy. If ten
million calculations have to be performed, a computer will perform the last one with
exactly the same
accuracy and speed as the first one.
5. Versatility. Versatility is one of the most wonderful things about a computer. One
moment it is
preparing results of an examination, next moment it is busy preparing electricity bills,
and in between. It
may be helping an office secretary to trace an important letter in seconds. All that is
required to change its
talent is to slip in a new program (a sequence of instructions for the computer) into it.
In brief, a computer
is capable of performing almost any task, if the task can be reduced to a finite series
of logical steps.
6. Power of Remembering. As a human being acquires new knowledge, his/her
brain subconsciously
selects what it feels to be important and worth retaining in memory. The brain
relegates unimportant
details to back of mind or just forgets them. This is not the case with computers. A
computer can store and
recall any amount of information because of its secondary storage (a type of
detachable memory)
capability. It can retain a piece of information as long as a user desires and the user
can recall the
information whenever required. Even after several years, a user can recall exactly the
same information
that he/she had stored in the computer several years ago. A computer forgets or
looses certain information
only when a user asks it to do so. Hence, it is entirely up to the user to make a
computer retain or forget
some information.
7. No I Q. A computer is not a magical device. It possesses no intelligence of its own.
Its I. Q. is zero at
least until today. It has to be told what to do and in what sequence. Hence, only users
determine what tasks
a computer will perform. A computer cannot take its own decision in this regard.
8. No Feelings. Computers are devoid of emotions. They have no feelings and no
instincts because they
are machines. Although men have succeeded in building a memory for computer, but
no computerpossesses the equivalent of a human heart and soul. Based on our
feelings, taste, knowledge, and
experience we often make certain judgements in our day-to-day life whereas,
computers cannot make such
judgements on their own. They make judgements based on the instructions given to
them in the form of
programs that are written by us (human beings).

1.3 Limitations of Computers

Computer has done this and that. Actually this is not the computer which has done this
but the user.
Despite its various features, a computer does have the following limitations:
1. No Self Intelligence
Today, a computer is able to do a work which is impossible for man. Computers are
used to do risky and
dangerous work and where sharp actually is needed. But it does not have any
intelligence of its own. It
works according to the instruction only.
2. No Decision-Making power
Computer cannot take any decision of its own. It does only those tasks which are
already instructed to it.
3. No learning power
Computer has no learning power. Once you give instructions to a computer how to
perform a task, the very
task is cannot perform if you do not give it any instructions for the next time. For
example, when you are
taught how to solve a problem and if same type of problem is given you to solve, then
you can do it.
4. Emotionless
Computers are emotionless. They do not have emotion, like dislike feelings. They are
simply machines
which work as per the instruction given to them.
5. Curtail human Capabilities
Although computers are great help to human beings, it is commonly felt that we
people have become so
dependent on calculator that we cannot make very simple calculation without
calculator. Sometimes, find it
difficult to instantly speak out even that telephone number which they use every now
and then as they have
got the habit of using them by retrieving the storage.
6. Caution
Excessive use of computers is causing various type of health injuries such as cervical
and back pain, pain
in eye, headache.

1.4 Applications of Computer System

With technology continuously evolving and intertwining into everyday life, people are
using computers for more and more simple tasks. This is possible thanks in no small
part to the continued efforts of computer manufacturers as well as software designers
to simplify computing so that anyone can sit down, power on the machine and jump
right in.
Communication
Thanks to computers and the Internet, the world has gotten much smaller in recent
years. Many people use their computers to keep in touch with friends and family using
instant messenger programs as well as email. A growing communication tool is social
networking, with sites like Facebook and Twitter becoming incredibly popular.
Games
PCs have long served as recreational devices with hundreds of games available each
year. Gaming on a PC can be an expensive hobby, with video cards ranging in price
from INR 3,000 to more than 20,000 and fully equipped gaming PCs costing in excess
of INR 75,000 in many cases. For all the top-tier AAA titles, there are other games that
users can find both pre-installed on PCs as well as online.
Entertainment
Almost all computers come with CD or DVD disk drives, which allow you to use the
computer as a CD player or DVD player. Some computers are also capable, with the
proper hardware, of viewing and recording television onto the machine's hard drives.
With an Internet connection, users have a nearly limitless of videos and music
available online as well.
Work
Almost every working environment uses computers in one capacity or another. Office
buildings use computers to keep track of everything from pay wages to hours logged,
retail stores use computers as cash registers and industries such as construction and
architecture use computers to help design buildings.
Medical Field
Computers are used in hospitals to maintain a database of patients’ history,
diagnosis, X-rays, live monitoring of patients, etc. Surgeons nowadays use
robotic surgical devices to perform delicate operations, and conduct surgeries
remotely. Virtual reality technologies are also used for training purposes. It also
helps to monitor the fetus inside the mother’s womb.

Industry
Computers are used to perform several tasks in industries like managing inventory,
designing purpose, creating virtual sample products, interior designing, video
conferencing, etc. Online marketing has seen a great revolution in its ability to sell
various products to inaccessible corners like interior or rural areas. Stock markets have
seen phenomenal participation from different levels of people through the use of
computers.
Arts
Computers are extensively used in dance, photography, arts and culture. The fluid
movement of dance can be shown live via animation. Photos can be digitized using
computers.
1.1 Introduction to computer system
A computer is a complex system. The key is to recognize the hierarchical nature of
most complex systems, including computer. A hierarchical system is a set of
interrelated subsystems, each of which, in turn, hierarchical in structure until we reach
some lowest level of elementary subsystem.
The behavior at each level depends only on a simplified, abstracted characterization of
the system at the next lower level. At each level, the designer is concerned with
structure and function:
• Structure: The way in which the components are interrelated.
• Function: The operation of each individual component as part of the structure.

Functions
basic functions that a computer can perform:
• Data processing
• Data storage
• Data movement
• Control

Operating environment
(source and destination of data)

Data
movement
apparatus

Control
mechanism

Data
Data Processing
Storage Facility
Facility

IMG Functional View of Computer

When data are received from or delivered to a device that is directly connected to the
computer, the process is known as input–output (I/O), and the device is referred to as
a peripheral.
When data are moved over longer distances, to or from a remote device, the process
is known as data communications.
There must be control of storing, processing & Moving functions.

Structure
all of computer linkages to the external environment can be classified as
• peripheral devices or
• communication lines.

There are four main structural components:

• Central processing unit (CPU): Controls the operation of the computer and
performs its data processing functions; often simply referred to as processor.
• Main memory: Stores data.
• I/O: Moves data between the computer and its external environment.
• System interconnection: Some mechanism that provides for communication
among CPU, main memory, and I/O.
Example- a system bus, consisting of a number of conducting wires to which all
the other components attach.

CPU’s major structural components are as follows:

• Control unit: Controls the operation of the CPU and hence the computer.
• Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU): Performs the computer’s data processing
functions.
• Registers: Provides storage internal to the CPU.
• CPU interconnection: Some mechanism that provides for communication
among the control unit, ALU, and registers.
Virtually all contemporary computer designs are based on concepts developed by John
von Neumann at the Institute for Advanced Studies, Princeton. Such a design is
referred to as the Von Neumann architecture and is based on three key concepts:
• Data and instructions are stored in a single read–write memory.
• The contents of this memory are addressable by location, without regard to the
type of data contained there.
• Execution occurs in a sequential fashion (unless explicitly modified) from one
instruction to the next.

A computer system is sometimes subdivided into two functional entities:

• hardware
• software
Hardware and software are complementary.
The hardware of the computer consists of all the electronic components and electromechanical devices that
comprise the physical entity of the device.
Computer software consists of the instructions and data that the computer manipulates to perform various
data-processing tasks.
A sequence of instructions for the computer is called a program. The data that are manipulated by the
program constitute the data base.

1.2 Hardware
Internal hardware components are those necessary for the proper functioning of the computer, while external
hardware components are attached to the computer to add or enhance functionality.

Internal components
collectively process or store the instructions delivered by the program or operating system (OS). These
include the following:
• Motherboard. This is a printed circuit board that holds the CPU and other essential internal
hardware and functions as the central hub that all other hardware components run through.
• CPU. The CPU is the brain of the computer that processes and executes digital instructions from
various programs; its clock speed determines the computer's performance and efficiency in
processing data.
• RAM. RAM -- or dynamic RAM -- is temporary memory storage that makes information
immediately accessible to programs; RAM is volatile memory, so stored data is cleared when the
computer powers off.
• Hard drive. Hard disk drives are physical storage devices that store both permanent and temporary
data in different formats, including programs, OSes, device files, photos, etc.
• Solid-state drive (SSD). SSDs are solid-state storage devices based on NAND flash memory
technology; SSDs are non-volatile, so they can safely store data even when the computer is powered
down.
• Optical drive. Optical drives typically reside in an on-device drive bay; they enable the computer to
read and interact with nonmagnetic external media, such as compact disc read-only memory or
digital video discs.
• Heat sink. This is a passive piece of hardware that draws heat away from components to
regulate/reduce their temperature to help ensure they continue to function properly. Typically, a heat
sink is installed directly atop the CPU, which produces the most heat among internal components.
• Graphics processing unit. This chip-based device processes graphical data and often functions as an
extension to the main CPU.
• Network interface card (NIC). A NIC is a circuit board or chip that enables the computer to
connect to a network; also known as a network adapter or local area network adapter, it typically
supports connection to an Ethernet network.
Other computing components, such as USB ports, power supplies, transistors and chips, are also types of
internal hardware.

External hardware components,

also called peripheral components, are those items that are often externally connected to the computer to
control either input or output functions. These hardware devices are designed to either provide instructions to
the software (input) or render results from its execution (output).

Input and Output Devices

• Input and output devices of a computer system are the devices that
connect you to computer.
• Input devices let you to transfer data and user command into the
computer system.
• I/O devices are used to interact with the computer system.
• Output devices display the result of input data or signals after
processing it.
• Input and output devices allow the computer system to interact with
the outside world by moving data into and out of the computer
system.

Common input hardware components include the following:

• Mouse.
• Keyboard.
• Microphone. A microphone is a device that translates sound waves into electrical signals and
supports computer-based audio communications.
• Camera. A camera captures visual images and streams them to the computer or through a computer
to a network device.
• Touchpad. A touchpad is an input device, external or built into a laptop, used to control the pointer
on a display screen. It is typically an alternative to an external mouse.
• USB flash drive. A USB flash drive is an external, removable storage device that uses flash memory
and interfaces with a computer through a USB port.
• Memory card. A memory card is a type of portable external storage media, such as a CompactFlash
card, used to store media or data files.
• OCR: OCR stands for optical character recognition, and it is a device that reads printed text. OCR
optically scans the text, character by character, turns it into a machine-readable code, and saves it to
the system memory.
• Bar Code Reader A bar code reader is a device that reads data that is bar-coded (data that is
represented by light and dark lines). Bar-coded data is commonly used to mark things, number
books, and so on. It could be a handheld scanner or part of a stationary scanner.
A bar code reader scans a bar code image, converts it to an alphanumeric value, and then sends it to
the computer to which it is connected.
• Web Camera
Other input hardware components include joysticks, styluses and scanners.
Examples of output hardware components include the following:
• Monitor.
• Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT): Pixels are minuscule visual elements that make up a CRT
display. The higher the image quality or resolution, the smaller the pixels.
• Flat-Panel Display Cathode-Ray Tube Monitor: In comparison to the CRT, a flat-panel
display is a type of video display with less volume, weight, and power consumption. They
can be hung on the wall or worn on the wrist.
Flat-panel displays are currently used in calculators, video games, monitors, laptop
computers, and graphical displays.
• Plasma Monitor: It is also a flat panel display but it is based on plasma display technology.
In a plasma monitor, a small cell is present in between two glass surfaces and these cells
contain a solution of noble gases and mercury. So when the electricity supply on the gas
present in the cell converts into plasma and produces UV light that creates an image. It is
much better than an LCD monitor.
• Printer. Printers render electronic data from a computer into printed material.
 • Impact Printer: In impact printers, characters are printed on the ribbon, which is then
smashed on the paper.
Types of impact printers:
• Dot matrix printer
• Daisy wheel printer
• Line printer
• Chain printer
• Non-Impact Printers: Non-impact printers print characters without the use of a ribbon.
These printers are often known as Page Printers because they print a full page at a time.
Some of the types of non-impact printers are:
• Laser printer
• Inkjet printer
• Plotter: A plotter is a device that prints high-quality graphics in a variety of color formats. It works
in a similar way to a printer, although it has more advanced features.
Large size prints can be taken via plotters.
Example: print large maps, architectural drawings, large-format printing, and create pictures, 3D
postcards, advertising signs, charts, and various designs of the internal structure of building
machines, as well as create pictures, 3D postcards, advertising signs, charts, and various designs of
the internal structure of building machines.
• Projector: A projector is a device that allows users to project their output onto a large area, such as a
screen or a wall. It magnifies texts, photos, and movies using light and lenses.
• Sound Card: Sound cards are computer output devices that are inserted into the computer. A sound
card, either external or internal, is required to produce sound on any computer (built-in). An external
sound card enables for better overall sound generation and is required for wide and clear sound
recording, as well as sound without noise and interference.
• Speech synthesizer: A speech synthesizer is a computerized device that takes in data, interprets it,
and generates audible words. It might be a computer card, a box connected by a cable, or software
that works with the computer’s sound card.
• Speaker.
• Headphones, earphones, earbuds.

1.3 Software
"Software is a set of programs (sequence of instructions) that allows the users to perform a well-defined
function or some specified task."

System Software
System software is software that directly operates the computer hardware and
provides the basic functionality to the users as well as to the other software to operate
smoothly. Or in other words, system software basically controls a computer’s internal
functioning and also controls hardware devices such as monitors, printers, and storage
devices, etc.
It is like an interface between hardware and user applications, it helps them to
communicate with each other because hardware understands machine language(i.e. 1
or 0) whereas user applications are work in human-readable languages like English,
Hindi, German, etc. so system software converts the human-readable language into
machine language and vice versa.

Features of system software:

1. System Software is closer to the computer system.
2. System Software is written in a low-level language in general.
3. System software is difficult to design and understand.
4. System software is fast in speed(working speed).
5. System software is less interactive for the users in comparison to application
software.
The further classifications of system software are as follows:
1. Operating System
2. Device Drivers - is an operating system-specific and hardware-dependent
program, and it offers to interrupt handling, which is required for the
asynchronous time-dependent hardware interface
3. Firmware: In electronic systems and computing, firmware is a type of
permanent software embedded in the system's ROM (read-only memory) to
provide low-level control for some particular system device hardware. It is a set
of instructions that are stored permanently on your computer's hardware
device. Common examples of devices utilizing firmware are given below:
• Computer Peripherals - graphics and video cards, contain firmware.
• Consumer Appliances – home router
• UEFI (United Extensible Firmware Interface) - a specification for a
software program that connects a computer's firmware to its
operating system (OS)
• BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) - used to provide runtime services
for operating systems and programs and to perform hardware
initialization during the booting process. BIOS is motherboard
firmware.
Types -
based on the level of hardware integration.
• Low-level firmware.
 • considered an intrinsic part of a device's hardware.
• It is often stored on non-volatile, read-only chips like ROM and
therefore cannot be rewritten or updated.
• Devices containing low-level firmware have one-time
programmable memory.
• High-level firmware.
• allow updates (can be updated)
• generally more complex than low-level firmware.
• high-level firmware resides on flash memory chips.
• Subsystem firmware.
• component/unit that is part of a large system i.e. semi-
independent.
• since its microcode is incorporated in flash chips, CPUs, & LCD
units,
• embeds microcode like high-level firmware
• comparable to high-level firmware - can be updated and is more
complex than low-level firmware.
• One example is a server's power subsystem, which is a piece of
server hardware that functions semi-independently from the
server.

4. Utility: Utility software is developed to provide support in analyzing,

optimizing, along configuring and maintaining a computer. The job of the
utility program is to offer support to the system infrastructure. Though
the system will work even if it doesn't have any utility software, the right
kind of utility software enhances its performance and makes it more
reliable.
Some of the common examples of utility software are as follows:
• Norton and McAfee Antivirus
• WinRAR - algorithm for encryption
• Directory Opus – file explorer
• Disk defragmenter
• WinZip - algorithm for compression
• Windows File Explorer
• Razer Cortex - improve your gaming experience

Application Software
Application programs or software applications are end-user computer programs
developed primarily to provide specific functionality to the user.
Given below are some of the popular examples:
• Word Processors
• Database Software
 • Multimedia software
• Web Browsers
• Freeware : Freeware software is available free of cost for an unlimited
time. Any user can easily download their respective software from the
Internet and start using them instantly without paying any charges or
fees.
• Shareware: Shareware software is readily available on the Internet to
download on a fixed trial basis.
• Open-Source: open source software is available online along with their
source code. It means the user can change, transform, and even can
add additional features to them. Based on their services, they can be
chargeable as well free of cost.

System Software vs Application Software

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