MANUFACTURING

PROCESS
FOR THIRD SEMESTER
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
( REGULATION – 2023 )

N. IYANARAPPAN, M.E., M.I.S.T.E.

!
!
!
!
!
!

!
Manufacturing Process
Copy right © : K A L P a th i p pa ga m
No part of this publication may be stored in a retrieval system,
transmitted or reproduced in any way, including but not limited to
photocopy, photograph, magnetic or other record, without prior
agreement and written permission of the publisher.

First Edition : November 2003

Revised Edition : October 2008
Revised Edition : June 2017
Revised Edition : September 2021
Revised Edition : June 2024

Price : 228.00 For Contact :

99446 50380
Publisher : 96266 26747
KAL PATHIPPAGAM
Vellore – 632 011

Type setting :
Students’ Media Computer Graphics
Vellore – 632 011.
 PREFACE
This book on MANUFACTURING PROCESS has been
written to cover the latest revised syllabus for the Polytechnic college
students of III Semester Mechanical Engineering.

All the topics in this book are written in simple and constructive
manner with suitable examples and neat sketches. I assure that the
review questions added at the end of each chapter will be more helpful
to the students while preparing for the examination.

I acknowledge my gratitude with thanks to M/s. KAL

PATHIPPAGAM for their kind encouragement to bring out this book
in time. The author would be very glad and thankful to receive any
comments and constructive suggestions for the improvement of this
book.

N. Iyanarappan
(iyanarvlr1976@gmail.com)

All the best...

 Contents
Unit – I Page Nos.
Chapter – 1.1. FOUNDRY ....................................... 1.1 – 1.25
Chapter – 1.2. CASTING ....................................... 1.26 – 1.37

Unit – II
Chapter – 2.1. ARC WELDING AND GAS WELDING ... 2.1 – 2.11
Chapter – 2.2. RESISTANCE WELDING AND
WELDING RELATED PROCESS ....... 2.12 – 2.25

Unit – III
Chapter – 3.1. FORGING ....................................... 3.1 – 3.11
Chapter – 3.2. PRESS WORKING ........................... 3.12 – 3.32

Unit – IV
Chapter – 4.1. POWDER METALLURGY ................... 4.1 – 4.9
Chapter – 4.2. HEAT TREATMENT ........................... 4.10 – 4.22

Unit – V
Chapter – 5.1. WORK HOLDING DEVICES AND
TOOL HOLDING DEVICES ...... 5.1 – 5.15
Chapter – 5.2. POWER TOOLS ............................... 5.16 – 5.41

 3 Marks Questions and Answers

 Board Examination Question Papers
1020233110 L T P C
MANUFACTURING PROCESS
THEORY 3 0 0 3

DETAILED SYLLABUS
Unit – I: FOUNDRY TECHNOLOGY
Chapter – 1.1. Foundry: Pattern - Pattern Materials - types - single
piece (solid) and split type only - allowances - moulding - moulding
tools and boxes - moulding sands - classifications and properties -
core - CO2 core making. Melting of cast iron - cupola furnace - Melting
of nonferrous metals - crucible furnace melting of steel - Electric arc
furnaces.
9
Chapter – 1.2. Casting: Definition - sand casting using green sand
and dry sand - gravity die casting - pressure die casting - hot and cold
chamber processes - centrifugal casting - continuous casting -
defects in casting - causes and remedies - cleaning of casting and
safety practices in foundry

Unit – II: WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Chapter – 2.1. Arc Welding and Gas welding: Arc welding definition
- arc welding equipment - arc welding methods - carbon arc, metal
arc, metal inert gas (MIG), tungsten inert gas (TIG).
Gas Welding: Definition - Gas Welding Equipment - Oxy and acetylene
welding - Three types of flame.
Chapter – 2.2. Resistance welding and welding related processes:
Resistance welding - definition - classification of resistance welding 9
- butt - spot - seam - projection welding - welding related processes -
oxy and acetylene cutting - arc cutting - hard facing - bronze welding
- soldering and brazing. Destructive and nondestructive types of
tests - magnetic particle test - Dye Penetrant test - radiographic and
ultrasonic test - defects in welding - causes and remedies - safety
practices in welding.

Unit – III: FORGING AND PRESS WORKING

Chapter – 3.1. Forging: Hot working - advantages of hot working -
hot working operations - rolling - forging - hammer or smith forging,
9
drop forging, upset forging, press forging - roll forging.
 Chapter – 3.2. Press Working: Types of presses - mechanical and
hydraulic presses - press tools and accessories - press working
operations - bending operations - angle bending - channel bending -
curling - drawing - shearing operations - blanking - piercing - trimming
- notching - lancing - shaving - parting off.

Unit – IV: POWDER METALLURGY AND HEAT TREATMENT

Chapter – 4.1. Powder Metallurgy: Methods of manufacturing metal
powders - atomization, reduction and electrolysis deposition -
compacting - sintering - sizing - infiltration - mechanical properties of
parts made by powder metallurgy - design rule for the powder
metallurgy process.
9
Chapter – 4.2. Heat Treatment: Purpose - procedures - applications
of various heat treatment process - Iron carbon equilibrium diagram
Annealing - Normalizing - hardening - tempering - quenching medium
- different types of quenching medium .

Unit – V: WORK HOLDING, TOOL HOLDING DEVICES AND POWER TOOLS

Chapter – 5.1. Work Holding Devices: Chucks - Centres - Steady Rest
- Follower rest - Face Plate - Catch Plate - Drive plate - carrier -
Mandrel - Machine Vice - V block - T Bolts and Clamp - Angle plate -
Indexing head - Description and uses.

Tool Holding Devices: Four way tool post - Turret indexing - Arbors -
9
Adapter - Drill chuck - Sleeve - Socket - collet. Description and uses.

Chapter – 5.2. Power Tools: Classification - Hand drill - Hammer

Drills - Angle Grinder - impact wrench - Circular saw - Chain saw -
Jigsaw - Power/impact screwdrivers - Electrical Screwdrivers -
Stabler - Cutters - Blower - Heat Gun - spray gun.
TOTAL HOURS 75
Assessment Test and Revision with Student activity 15

Suggested list of Students Activity

1) Prepare the green sand mould for the solid and split patterns.
2) Practice the basic welding operations.
3) Practice the bending and shearing operations in the press.
4) Prepare a list of work holding devices and tool holding devices used
in the workshop.
 ASSESSMENT METHODOLOGY

Continuous Assessment (40 marks) End Semester

Examination
CA–1 CA–2 CA–3 CA–4 (60 marks)
Written Test Written Test Activity Model Written
Mode
(Unit – 1 & 2) (Unit – 3 & 4) Report Examination Examination
Duration 2 Hours 2 Hours - 3 Hours 3 Hours
Exam Marks 58 58 40 100 100
Converted to 15 15 10 15 60
Marks 15 10 15 60

CA–1 & CA–2 :

Assessment test should be conducted for theory portion. The best of
one will be considered for the internal assessment of 15 Marks.
CA–1 & CA–2 assessment tests should be conducted for two units as
below:
Part A: 3 Marks questions (10 × 3 = 30 Marks). 15 questions will be
asked. Students should answer 10 questions.
Part B: 14 Marks questions (2 × 14 = 28 Marks). Two questions will
be asked (one question from each unit). Each question should have
three questions for 7 Marks each. Students should answer any two
questions.

CA–3:
Students activity should be completed. 10 marks can be awarded for
each activity. The total marks (40) should be converted to 10 marks
for the internal assessment. Test and Assessment 1 period per week
can be utilised for this activity.

CA – 4:
Model Theory examination should be conducted as per the end
semester question pattern after completion of all the portions. The
marks awarded should be converted to 15 Marks for the internal
assessment.
 Unit – I
FOUNDRY TECHNOLOGY
Chapter - 1.1. FOUNDRY
1.1 Introduction
Various manufacturing processes are available for producing a
component with required shape. Casting is one of the processes used for
making component of complicated shapes in large numbers. The parts
obtained by pouring the molten metal into the mould cavity and solidification
are known as castings. The processes of making required shape in moulding
sand with the help of a pattern is known as moulding. The cavity produced
by moulding is known as mould or mould cavity. The place where moulding,
melting and casting are done is known as foundry.

1.2 Pattern
Pattern is the model of casting. It is made of wood, metal or plastics.
Mould is produced in moulding sand by using pattern.

1.2.1 Pattern Materials

The following pattern materials are used for making patterns.
1) Wood 2) Metal 3) Plaster 4) Plastic 5) Wax

1) Wood
Wood is widely used for making pattern. Generally pattern is made from
teak wood, mahogany, pine and rose wood. The surface finish and life can be
increased by applying metal coating on the wood pattern.

Advantages
1) Wood is cheap and easily available.
2) It is easy to cut for making required shape.
3) It can be easily handled as it is light weight.

Disadvantages
1) Wood is affected by moisture. So change in shape may occur.
2) It is easily worn out and hence it cannot be used for mass production.
3) It is not suitable for machine moulding.

Unit – I: Foundry Technology 1.1

2) Metal
Metal pattern is used for producing large number of castings. Metal
pattern is made by using a master pattern made of wood. Cast iron, brass,
aluminium and white metal are commonly used for pattern making. Aluminium
is the best metal for pattern making. Brass is suitable for small size patterns.
White metal can be used for making patterns of complicated shapes.

Advantages
1) Metal pattern is strong. The life and dimensional accuracy of the metal
pattern is more.
2) Change in shape does not occur due to moisture.
3) It can be used in machine moulding.
4) It is suitable for mass production.
5) Metal surface can be finished smoothly and hence very good
impression of the pattern can be obtained in the mould.

Disadvantages
1) Metal patterns are heavier and costlier.
2) Machining of metal pattern is difficult.
3) Master pattern is required.
4) It is difficult to repair.

3) Plaster
The gypsum cement is known as plaster. Plaster pattern is made by
pouring the mixture of plaster and water into the mould prepared by using a
master pattern. It is used for making small patterns and core boxes.

Advantages
1) It is easy to make complicated shapes.
2) It has high compressive strength.
3) It is cheaper.
4) It can be easily worked.

Disadvantages
1) Plaster cannot be used for large size patterns.

Unit – I: Foundry Technology 1.2

4) Plastics
Plastic patterns are produced from a master pattern made of wood.
Both thermo setting plastics and thermo plastics are used. Pattern made of
thermo setting plastic is used for producing large number of castings. Pattern
made of thermo plastic is used for producing less number of castings.
Advantages
1) It has light weight but strong.
2) The cost is less.
3) It is not affected by moisture.
4) It has good wear resistance.
5) The dimensional accuracy is more.

5) Wax
Wax patterns are produced from paraffin wax, shellac wax and bees
wax. The liquefied wax is injected into a split die. Then the die is cooled and
the wax pattern is taken out.

Advantages
1) Patterns with accurate shape can be made.
2) The moulds prepared by wax pattern has smooth surface.
3) It is suitable for investing casting.

1.2.2 Factors for selecting pattern materials

Selection of pattern material depends upon the following factors.
1) Number of castings to be produced.
2) Quality of the casting.
3) Size and shape of the casting.
4) The method of moulding and casting.
5) Required surface finishing of casting.
6) Required accuracy of casting.

1.2.3 Types of patterns

The following types of pattern are generally used in foundry.
!

1) Solid piece pattern 2) Split piece pattern

3) Loose pirce pattern 4) Match plate pattern
5) Sweep pattern 6) Skeleton pattern
7) Segmental pattern 8) Shell pattern
Unit – I: Foundry Technology 1.3
1) Solid piece or Single piece pattern

Fig.1.1 Solid piece pattern

The pattern made of single piece without joints is known as solid

pattern. This pattern is used for making small castings with simple shape. Solid
pattern can be easily removed from the moulding sand.

2) Split piece pattern

Top part

Bottom part
Dowel pin

Fig.1.2 Split piece pattern

Some patterns cannot be removed from the mould, if they are made
in single piece. So split patterns are used in that time. Split pattern is usually
made of two parts. One part will make the lower half of the mould and the other
part will make the upper half of the mould. These two parts are fitted correctly
by dowel pins. Split pattern made in three or four parts is used for producing
symmetrical castings such as cylinders, spindles, pipes, shafts, etc.

1.2.4 Pattern allowances

Patterns are not made to correct size of the required casting. They
are made slightly larger than the required casting. This extra dimension given
to the pattern is called allowance. Pattern allowances are given to
compensate the metal shrinkage, to avoid metal distortion, to withdraw the
pattern easily from the mould.!
!

Unit – I: Foundry Technology 1.4

 The following pattern allowances are given.!
1) Shrinkage allowance 2) Machining allowance
3) Draft allowance 4) Distortion allowance
5) Rapping allowance

1) Shrinkage allowance or contraction allowance!

! The molten metal in the mould will cool and become solid. The metal
will shrink and reduce in size during cooling. The pattern is made larger than
the required size of the casting to compensate this metal shrinkage. This is
called shrinkage allowance. The shrinkage allowances given for various
metals are:
!

Cast iron – 10mm / metre, Steel –15 mm / metre

Brass – 14mm / metre, Aluminium –18 mm / metre

2) Machining or finishing allowance

! Machining is done on the castings to remove excess metal and to
get smooth surface finish. The pattern is made larger than the required size
of the casting for this purpose. This extra size given to the pattern is called
machining allowance. A machining allowance of 3 mm is given for ferrous
metals like iron and steel. A machining allowance of 1.5 mm is given for non-
ferrous metals like aluminium and brass.!
!
3) Draft allowance
!

Draft Draft

Fig.1.3 Draft allowance

! The edges of the mould may be damaged when the pattern is

removed from the mould. This can be avoided by making the vertical
surfaces of the pattern with slight taper. This taper is called draft allowance.
It may be expressed in degrees or in mm. Generally, a draft allowance of
3 mm / metre is given.!

Unit – I: Foundry Technology 1.5

4) Distortion or camber allowance!

Fig.1.4 Distortion allowance

The shape of some castings may be distorted during cooling. It depends

upon the size, shape and thickness of the casting. To avoid this distortions, the
pattern is made with slight bent in the opposite direction. For example, a ‘U’
shaped casting may distort and the ends become diverged. To avoid this, the
ends are slightly bent towards the opposite direction. Due to this, the ends
become correct shape after cooling.!
!
5) Rapping or shake allowance!
! The pattern is shaked from side to side before removing it from the
mould. Due to this, the mould cavity may become larger. So the pattern is
made slightly smaller. This negative allowance given to the pattern is called
rapping allowance.!

1.3 Moulding!
! The process of making mould is called moulding. It includes filling of
moulding sand around the pattern, ramming, removing the pattern, making
runner, riser, gate and vent holes.

1.3.1 Moulding tools

The following moulding tools are used in the foundry.
!

1) Shovel : Shovel has a broad metal blade with long wooden handle. It is used
for mixing and transferring the moulding sand in to moulding box.!

2) Riddle : It has a circular or square wooden frame with a wire mesh at the
bottom. It is used to clean the moulding sand by removing unwanted
materials like nails, metal chips, stones, etc.!

Unit – I: Foundry Technology 1.6

3) Rammer : Rammer is used for packing or ramming the moulding sand
in the moulding box. It is made of wood or cast iron. It has a butt end
and a peen end. The butt end is in cylindrical shape and the peen end
is in wedge shape.!

Butt end

Riddle

Sprue pin

Peen end Swab

Shovel

Draw spike

Vent rod
Fig.1.5 Moulding tools

Unit – I: Foundry Technology 1.7

 Strike off bar Mallet

Finishing trowel Square trowel

Slick Gate cutter Bellows

Lifter

Fig.1.6 Moulding tools

4) Trowel!;! It has a metal blade fitted with a wooden handle. It is used to

smoothen the mould surface and to repair the damaged portions of the
mould. The end of the blade has square or round shape.!
5) Slick : It has two spoon like blades at the ends. It is used for finishing
mould surfaces and for repairing the round corners of the mould.

6) Lifter : It is a long steel plate with a twisted and bent end. It is available
with various lengths and widths. It is used to remove the loose sand from
the mould and to repair the broken surfaces of the mould.!

7) Strike off bar : It is a wood or metal piece with straight edges. It is used
for removing excess sand from the mould after ramming. This gives a
leveled surface .

8) Sprue pin : It is a cone shaped wooden piece. It is used for making

holes for runner and riser in the mould. Sprue pins of different sizes are
used for different sizes of mould.!
9) Bellows! ;! Bellows are used for blowing off loose sand particles from
the mould.!

Unit – I: Foundry Technology 1.8

10) Swab : It is a small brush. It is used for applying small amount of water
around the pattern before removing it from the mould. It is also used to
give coating on the mould surface.!
11) Gate cutter : It is a steel piece with bent end. It is used for cutting gate
in the mould. Gate connects the runner hole and the mould cavity.
12) Draw spike : Draw spike is a long steel rod with a pointed or threaded
end. The other end has a ring shaped head. It is used for removing the
pattern from the mould.!
13) Vent rod : It is a long thin steel wire with handle. It is used for making
small holes on the mould. During casting, the steam and gases escape
through these holes.
14) Mallet : It is a hammer made of wood. It is used to fix the draw spike
into the pattern by hammering.!

1.3.2 Moulding boxes!

! It is also called as moulding flask. Moulding box is used to prepare
sand mould. It is a frame made of wood or metal. It is box with both the bottom
and top surfaces are opened. If the moulding is done with two boxes, the upper
box is called cope and the lower box is called drag. The two boxes are aligned
correctly with the help of dowel pin. If the moulding is done with three boxes,
the middle box is called cheek.

!
The two types of moulding flasks are:
1) Snap flask 2) Tight or box flask

1) Snap Flask
Cope

Drag

Fig.1.7 Snap flask

Unit – I: Foundry Technology 1.9

 It is used for preparing small size moulds in large numbers. It has
made with hinges and locks to open the flask easily after moulding. Number
of moulds can be prepared by using one moulding box.

2) Tight or box flask

Cope

Drag

Fig.1.8 Box flask

! It is used to prepare small and medium size moulds. The box cannot be
separated from the mould after moulding. So it is also called permanent flask.!
!
1.4 Moulding sand!
! Moulding sand is an important material in foundry. It can withstand
the high temperature of molten metal. It does not react with molten metal. It
permits the gases and air to escape from the mould when the molten metal
is poured. Due to these properties of moulding sand, it is used for casting.
!
1.4.1 Moulding sand ingredients
Moulding sand has the following ingredients.!
! !

1) Sand 2) Binder 3) Additive

1) Sand!
Sand contains silica, clay and moisture. Sand has 80 to 90% silica
which gives refractoriness. Sand contains 5 to 20% clay which gives binding
strength. 2 to 3% of water is added with the sand to give moisture.!

2) Binder!
! Binder is added with the moulding sand to obtain cohesiveness.
Binder binds the sand particles together and give strength to the mould. The
following three types of binders are used.
!
Unit – I: Foundry Technology 1.10
a) Clay type binders : Bentonite, kalvanite are clay type binders.!!
b) Organic binders :! Wood, resin, linseed oil, dextrin and molasses are
organic binders.!
c) Inorganic binders : Portland cement and sodium silicate are! inorganic
binders.
!!
3) Additives!
! Additives are added with the moulding sand to improve the
properties like strength, permeability and refractoriness. The following three
types of additives are used.!
a) Reducing agents :! This type of additives prevent the formation of
oxides. They fill up the fine pores in the mould surface. This improves the
surface finish of the casting. Coal dust, fuel oil and sea coal are some
reducing agents.!
!

b) Fibrous material : This type of additives prevent the formation of dry

surface on the mould. It improves the collapsibility of mould. Wood flour,
straw, cow dung, asbestos and saw dust are some fibrous materials.!
c) Special additives : !Some special additives are added to improve the
dry strength and collapsibility of mould. These additives also prevent
quick drying of the mould. Dextrin and molasses are some special
additives.!
!
1.4.2 Classification of moulding sand
Moulding sand are classified as follows:!!
1) Natural sand 2) Synthetic sand 3) Special sand

1) Natural sand or green sand

Natural sand is available at river beds. It contains 80 to 90% silica,
5 to 10% alumina or clay and small amount of lime and magnesia.!
!

Application : Natural sand is used to make castings in ferrous and

non- ferrous metals.!

Advantages !
1) It is easily available.!
2) It is cheap.!
3) It has grains of various shapes and sizes.!

Unit – I: Foundry Technology 1.11

Disadvantages!
1) It may be fused with molten metal.
2) It has high expansion rate.

2) Synthetic sand!
! Synthetic sand is prepared to obtain required properties by adding
some ingredients with the natural sand. Bentonite, water, iron oxide, calcium
and magnesium are mixed with the natural sand.!!
Application : Synthetic sand is used in machine moulding and high
pressure moulding.!
!

Advantages
1) It is easy to mould.
2) It has high refractoriness.
3) The properties can be controlled easily.
4) Less amount of binder is sufficient.

3) Special sand!
! Special sands are prepared to obtain specific properties such as
refractoriness, high heat conductivity and low expansion. Good quality
castings with fine surface finish can be produced by using special sands. The
most widely used special sands are given below.!
!

a) Olivine sand : It is in green colour. It has medium refractoriness. It is used

for producing non-ferrous castings of complicated shapes.!
b) Zircon sand : It is in cream colour. It has high heat conductivity, good
refractoriness and high density. It is used for making cores required for
!
brass and bronze castings.!
c) Chromite sand : It has high heat conductivity and good refractoriness. It is
used in chilled castings. It is also used as facing sand.!

1.4.3 Properties of moulding sand!

!
!
A good moulding sand should have the following properties.!
1) Porosity 2) Plasticity 3) Adhesiveness
4) Cohesiveness 5) Refractoriness 6) Collapsibility

1) Porosity or permeability!
! It is the property of moulding sand by which the sand permits steam
and gases to escape through it. If the steam and gases are not removed,

Unit – I: Foundry Technology 1.12

casting defects such as blow holes may occur. Porosity depends upon the
shape and size of the mould sand grains.!
!

2) Plasticity or flowability
! It is the property by which the moulding sand gets the shape of the
pattern and retains the shape. Due to this property, the correct shape is
obtained in the mould. This property depends upon the clay and moisture
content of the mould sand.!
!

3) Adhesiveness!
! This is the property by which the moulding sand particles stick to
other materials. Due to this property, the moulding sand sticks to the sides
of the moulding boxes. The moulding sand does not fall down when the
moulding box is lifted up.!

4) Cohesiveness!
! This is the property of moulding sand by which the sand particles stick
together. Due to this property, the mould remains strong.!
!
5) Refractoriness!
! This is the property of moulding sand to withstand high temperature
of molten metal. Moulding sand mixed with quartz has high refractoriness.
Sand mixed with iron oxide, calcium and sodium has low refractoriness. The
required refractoriness of sand depends upon the metal used for casting.!
!
6) Collapsibility!
! This is the property of moulding sand by which it collapses easily. The
size of the casting will reduce during cooling. Accordingly, the mould collapses
and prevents the formation of cracks in the casting.!
!
1.5 Types of moulding
The following are the various types of moulding.!
1) Green sand moulding 2) Dry sand moulding 3) Loam moulding
4) Bench moulding 5) Floor moulding. 6) Pit moulding
7) Sweep moulding 8) Plate moulding 9) Machine moulding
!
1.5.1 Green sand moulding
The process of making mould by using green sand is called green
sand moulding. After the mould is prepared, the molten metal is poured into
the mould for producing casting.

Unit – I: Foundry Technology 1.13

 Pattern
Drag

Moulding board Moulding sand

Alignment pin
(a) (b)
Pouring
Riser pin Sprue pin Riser basin
Vents
Cope

Gate

(c) (d) !
Fig.1.9 Green sand moulding
!

The following is the step by step procedure of making green sand

mould using a split pattern.
!

1) One half of the pattern is placed on the moulding board.!

2) Drag box is placed upside down on the board and parting sand is
sprinkled over the pattern. (Refer figure.1.9)!
3) 20 mm layer of facing sand is filed around the pattern. Then green sand
is filled in the box.!
4) Ramming is done uniformly by using rammer.!
5) Excess sand is removed and leveled by strike off bar.!
6) Vent holes are made. The box is tilted upside down.!
7) The cope box and another half of the pattern are placed correctly.
Parting sand is sprayed over the pattern.!
8) The runner pin and riser pin are placed in the cope box at correct
position. Then facing sand and moulding sand are filled.!
9) Ramming is done uniformly. Vent holes are made.!
10) Runner pin and riser pin are removed and pouring cup is made.!
11) Cope and drag boxes are separated so as to remove the pattern.!
Unit – I: Foundry Technology 1.14
12) Draw spike is driven into pattern pieces and shaken lightly in all
direction. Then pattern pieces are withdrawn slowly.!
13) Runner and gate are cut in drag portion.!
14) Core is placed in the mould if necessary.!
15) The cope and drag boxes are assembled in correct position and weight
is placed over the cope. Now molten metal can be poured in this mould
for producing casting.!

Application : Green sand moulds are used for producing small and medium
sized castings. It can be used for all types castings of ferrous and non-ferrous
alloys.!
Advantages
1) Cost is less!
2) More flexibility!
3) Less distortion!
4) Less time consuming!
5) Less danger of hot tears!
Disadvantages
1) Sand control is more critical
2) More intricate castings cannot be made
3) It is not very strong
4) It may be damaged during handling
5) Less dimensional accuracy and surface finish.
6) It cannot be stored for a longer time.

1.5.2 Dry sand moulding!

Dry sand mould is obtained after heating the green sand mould. The
procedure for making dry sand mould is same as that of green sand mould.
The large moulds are heated by oxy-acetylene flame. Small moulds are
heated in ovens.!
Application : Dry sand moulds are used for producing large castings like
engine cylinders, engine blocks and mill rolls.!
Advantages
1) It is stronger than green sand mould.!
2) It is not damaged while handling.!
3) More dimensional accuracy.!

Unit – I: Foundry Technology 1.15

 4) Smooth surface finish can be obtained.!
5) Casting defects like blow holes will not occur.!
Disadvantages
1) It requires heating.
2) More time is needed.
3) Cost is more.

1.6 Cores!
Core : Core is used to make hollow or a hole in a casting. It is made
with core sand. The shape of the core is similar to the required cavity in
the casting. Core is placed in the mould and is removed after casting.!
Core print : A projection made in the pattern is called core print. It is used
to form a core seat in the mould. The core is correctly seated in this seat.!
!

1.6.1 Essential qualities of core!

! When the molten metal is poured into the mould, it fills around the
core. Therefore, the core sand should have the following properties.
!
!

1) It should have high refractoriness to withstand the high temperature of

the molten metal.!
2) It should have good permeability to allow the steam and gases to
escape easily.!
3) The core should have enough strength and hardness to withstand the
high pressure of molten metal.!
4) The core must have good stability so as to keep the cavity in correct
shape. It should not expand or shrink due to the temperature of the
molten metal.!
5) It should have good collapsibility for easy removal of sand from the
casting.!

1.6.2 CO2 process of core making

! In this process, the core is prepared and hardened simultaneously.
The core sand is mixed with sodium silicate binder. Also additives like wood
flour or graphite may be added with the core sand. This mixture is thoroughly
mixed in a sand muller. The core sand is filled up in the core box and
rammed. Then CO2 gas is passed through the core for 30 seconds at a
pressure of 1.5Kg / cm2. This is called gassing.

Unit – I: Foundry Technology 1.16

 CO2 reacts with sodium silicate to form silica gel. As this silica gel is
very hard, the core becomes very hard. Now the core can be used immediately.
!
CO2 gas
Seal

Core
Core box

Seal
Fig.1.10 CO2 process of core making

Advantages
1) Core is very hard.!
2) Baking is not necessary.!
3) It is simple and very quick process.!
4) The core can be stored for long use.!
!

Disadvantages!
1) The core sand cannot be reused.
2) The cost of binder is high.
3) This process requires special additives.

1.7 Melting of cast iron

1.7.1 Cupola furnace
Cupola furnace is used for melting cast iron.!

Construction
It is a hollow cylindrical shell made of steel plate. The inner side of
the furnace is constructed with refractory bricks and lined with fire clay. The
cupola is supported by cast iron columns which are mounted in the concrete.
The bottom of the cupola has a thick plate. A sand bed with slopping is
prepared over the bottom door so that the molten metal flow easily.

Unit – I: Foundry Technology 1.17

 Spark arrester

Refractory
lining
Steel shell
Charging door
Stack
Stage zone

3
2
1
3 Preheating
zone
2
1
Tuyers
3 Melting zone
Wind box
2
Air 1
Tap hole
Slag hole
Sand bed
Bottom plate 1 - Coke
2 - Flux
3 - Metal

!
Fig.1.11 Cupola furnace!
!

A tap hole is provided for taking out the molten metal. The tap hole
is closed by a clay plug. The slag hole is provided at the opposite side just
above the tap hole. Air for combustion of fuel is sent through the openings
called tuyers. A wind box is provided to blow the air into the furnace. A
charging door and platform is provided for charging metal and fuel into the
furnace.

Preparation
The cupola is cleaned by removing the slag and unwanted material.
The broken bricks inside the cupola are repaired. The bottom plate is fitted.
Sand bottom is prepared with sloping towards tap hole. The tap hole and
slag hole are formed. The cupola is dried thoroughly before firing.!

Unit – I: Foundry Technology 1.18

Operation
!

Firing : Wooden pieces are placed on the sand bed and fired. Now air
is supplied into the furnace. When the wood pieces start burning, coke
is charged slowly in step by step. When the coke starts burning, more
coke is added up to the tuyers openings. When the coke bed is burnt
for half an hour, the charging can be done.!
Charging : Pig iron, iron scrap and flux are charged into the furnace
one by one through the charging door. The ratio of iron to coke is 10:1.
The lime stone is added as flux to remove the slag. The ratio of iron to
lime stone is 25:1.!

Melting :! The iron is heated for about 45 minutes by blowing the air
slowly. Then the air is supplied at high speed. Within minutes, the
metal is melted and collected at the sand bed. The slag will be tapped
out through the slag hole. The tap hole is opened and the molten metal
is filled in a ladle. Then the molten metal is poured into the mould for
producing casting.!

Advantages
1) The furnace is in simple construction.
2) The initial cost is low.
3) Less floor space is sufficient.
4) Operation and maintenance of furnace is easy.
5) The furnace can be operated for long time!

1.8 Melting of non-ferrous metals

1.8.1 Crucible furnace
! Crucible furnaces are used for melting non-ferrous metals. In this
furnace, the metal is melted without mixing to the fuel. The capacities varies
from 30 Kg to 150 Kg.

Types of crucible furnaces

The following types of crucible furnaces are available.
!

1) Pit furnace
2) Coke fired stationary furnace
3) Oil fired tilting furnace

Unit – I: Foundry Technology 1.19

1) Pit furnace

Chimney
Fire brick Lid
Steel shell

Coke
Crucible

Pit

Natural or
forced draught

Fig.1.12 Pit furnace

! In this furnace, the crucible is placed in a pit below the floor level.
The air required for burning the fuel is supplied by natural or forced draft.
Grate and ash pit are provided at the bottom of the furnace. The inside of
furnace is built with fire bricks.
The metal to be melted is placed in the crucible. Coke is packed
around the crucible and fired. After the metal is melted, the crucible is lifted
out by using tongs. Then the molten metal is poured into the mould for
producing castings.!
2) Coke fired stationary furnace
!

Cover

Coke
Blower Crucible

!
Fig.1.13 Coke fired stationary furnace
Unit – I: Foundry Technology 1.20
!! This furnace is used for melting non-ferrous metals in small
quantities. This type of furnace is erected above the floor level. The crucible
is placed in a chamber which is built with fire bricks. A blower is provided to
supply required air for burning of fuel.
!
The metal to be melted is placed in the crucible. Coke is packed
around the crucible and fired. After the metal is melted, the crucible is lifted
out by using tongs. Then the molten metal is poured into the mould for
producing castings.!
3) Oil fired tilting furnace
Cover

Fire brick

Hand wheel
Crucible

Pipe line Burner

Stand

Fig.1.14 Oil fired tilting furnace

This furnace is supported by two stands above the floor level. The
crucible is placed in a chamber which is built with fire bricks. The furnace can
be tilted by a geared hand wheel for pouring the molten metal. Kerosene or
waste oil required for burning is kept at a height of 6m. air and oil are supplied
to the burner through a nozzle with sufficient pressure. The crucible is heated
by burning the oil. This furnace is used for melting non-ferrous metals in small
quantities.!

Advantages
1) The rate of melting is high.!
2) The furnace can be easily stopped whenever needed.!
3) The temperature can be controlled easily.!
4) Less floor space is sufficient.!
Unit – I: Foundry Technology 1.21
1.9 Melting of steel
!

1.9.1 Electric furnaces or arc furnaces!

The following types of electric furnaces are available.!
1) Direct arc furnace
2) Indirect arc furnace
3) Induction furnace!
!
1)!Direct arc furnace

Roof Electrodes

Arc

Molten
metal

Spout
Refractory
lining
Ladle

Rollers

!
!
Fig.1.15 Direct arc furnace

! This furnace is made of steel and has a spherical bottom. The inside
is lined with fire bricks. A roof is provided at the top. Three movable graphite
electrodes are provided in the roof. There is a charging door for charging the
raw material and a spout for pouring out the molten metal. The furnace can
be tilted with the help of rollers fitted at the bottom.

Steel scarp and pig iron are charged through the charging door.
When the power supply is given, electric arcs are produced between the
electrodes and metal. The metal is melted by the high temperature of arc.
The furnace is tilted and molten metal is poured into the ladle. The height of
the electrodes are automatically adjusted so as to produce the arc
continuously. The capacity of the furnace is 80 tons.!!
!
Application : This furnace is used for melting steel and alloy steels.!
!

Unit – I: Foundry Technology 1.22

Advantages
1) Very pure metal can be obtained.!
2) Thermal efficiency of the furnace is high.!
3) Steel can be directly obtained form pig iron and steel scrap.!
!
2) Indirect arc furnace

Steel shell
Refractory
lining

Charging door
Arc
Electrodes

Molten metal

Tilting
mechanism
!
Fig.1.16 Indirect arc furnace

! In this furnace, the metal do not contact with the electrodes and arc.
Hence it is called indirect arc furnace. The furnace is a steel shell lined with
refractory material. Two electrodes are provided directly opposite to each
other. Charging door is provided at the middle of the furnace.
Pig iron and steel scrap is charged through the charging door. When
power supply is given, an electric arc is produced between the electrodes.
The metal is melted by the high temperature of arc. The furnace is tilted by
a tilting mechanism and the molten metal is poured into the ladle.

Application : This furnace is used for melting steel, copper and copper alloys.!

Advantages
1) Metal composition is uniform.
2) Metal oxide is not formed.
3) Charging and pouring out of metal is easy.

Unit – I: Foundry Technology 1.23

3) Induction furnace

Molten metal Crucible

Induction coil
(Copper tubing)
Steel shell

Insulation

Water Power
Fig.1.17 Induction furnace!

In this furnace, a refractory crucible is placed inside a steel shell. A

copper tube coil is placed around the crucible. The shell is cooled by
circulating water through these tubes. An insulation is provided between the
copper tube and crucible.

This furnace is working in transformer principle. The copper tube

acts as primary coil and the metal to be melted in the crucible acts as a
secondary coil. An alternate current is passed through the primary coil. This
induces eddy current in the secondary coil (metal to be melted). The metal
is melted by the high heat generated due to the eddy current. The molten
metal is poured into the ladle by tilting the crucible. High frequency current
of 500Hz to 2500Hz is passed in this furnace. The capacity of the furnace is
up to 10 tons.!!
!
Application : This furnace is used for melting steel and alloy steels.!

Advantages
1) No electrodes are needed.!
2) It is a fast process.!
3) Very pure metal can be obtained.!
!
!

Unit – I: Foundry Technology 1.24

Advantages of electric furnaces!
1) High temperature (2000oC) can be generated.
2) The temperature can be controlled easily.
3) Metal is melted at fast rate.
4) Thermal efficiency is high.
5) The metal will not be affected by air and impurities.
6) Chromium and nickel can be added to steel.!

Unit – I: Foundry Technology 1.25

 Unit – I
FOUNDRY TECHNOLOGY
Chapter - 1.2. CASTING
1.10 Casting
Casting is obtained by pouring the molten metal into the mould and
allowing it to solidify. This process includes melting of the metal, pouring the
metal into the mould and solidification. The casting gets the shape of mould
cavity. The following casting processes are available.!
1) Sand cating 4) Centrifugal casting
2) Gravity die casting 5) Continuous casting
3) Pressure die casting 6) Chilled casting
i) Hot chamber die cating 7) Malleable casting
ii) Cold chamber die casting

1.10.1 Sand casting

In sand casting, after the molten metal is solidified, the casting is
removed by destroying the mould.
Green sand casting: When the green sand mould is used, it is called
green sand casting. Green sand is in moist condition. It is a mixture of
silica sand with 18 to 30% clay and 6 to 8% water. It is used to produce
small and medium size castings.
Dry sand casting: When the dry sand mould is used, it is called dry
sand casting. Moulding sand which is dried or heated after making the
mould is called dry sand. Casting defects such as blow holes will not
occur, as dry sand does not contain moisture. Large castings can be
produced by this method.
Only one casting is produced by using a sand mould. The mould
cannot be reused. Production cost and time will be more in this
process.!
!
1.10.2 Gravity die casting
! It is also called as permanent mould casting. Sand moulds are
destroyed to obtain casting. The sand mould cannot be reused. So permanent
moulds are used for producing large number of castings. Permanent mould is
made by using heat resisting cast iron, alloy steel or graphite.

Unit – I: Foundry Technology 1.26

 Core
Runner Riser

Die cavity
Fig.1.18 Gravity die casting
Permanent moulds are made of several parts for easy removal of
castings. Pouring cup, runner and riser are provided in the upper part of mould.
After placing the core, the parts of mould are assembled correctly. The mould
or die cavity is coated with refractory material. When the molten metal is
poured, it fills into the die due to the gravity. The core should be removed
before the metal starts solidifying. After the metal is solidified, the die is split
and the casting is removed.!

Application
This method is used for producing carburetor body, hydraulic brake
cylinder, etc.

Advantages
1) It is a fast process.!
2) Closer dimensional accuracy can be achieved.!
3) Good surface finish can be obtained.!
4) Castings without defects can be obtained.!
5) Less floor space is sufficient.!
6) Production cost is less!

Disadvantages!
1) The cost of die is more.
2) It is not suitable for producing complicated castings.
3) Removal of casting is difficult.
4) It is suitable only for mass production.

Unit – I: Foundry Technology 1.27

1.10.3 Pressure die casting!
! When the molten metal is forced into a die under pressure for
producing casting, it is called pressure die casting. The die is made of two
parts. One part is stationary and the other is movable. The permanent mould
made of metal is called die. This method is suitable for casting lead,
magnesium, tin, zinc, brass, etc.

The two types of pressure die casting are:

1) Hot chamber die casting
2) Cold chamber die casting!
!
1) Hot chamber die casting!
! In this machine, heating chamber is provided for melting the metal.
This chamber is heated by a burner. A goose neck vessel (injector) is
submerged in the molten metal. A plunger is provided at the top of goose
neck vessel. When the plunger moves upward, the molten metal flows into
the vessel through a port.
Movable die
Fixed die
Plunger Goose neck vessel
(injector)
Port
Molten
metal

Burner

Heating chamber

Fig.1.19 Hot chamber die casting

When the plunger moves downward, the molten metal is forced into
the die under pressure (15 MN/m2). As the die is water cooled, the molten
metal will solidify immediately. Then the movable die is moved and the
casting is removed by ejectors. The plunger and movable die are actuated
hydraulically.!

Unit – I: Foundry Technology 1.28

2) Cold chamber die casting
Movable die Fixed die

Molten metal
Ejector pin

Cylinder Piston
Die cavity

Fig.1.20 Cold chamber die casting

!

! In this machine, heating chamber is not provided. The metal is

melted separately in the furnace and brought to the machine by ladles. The
horizontal plunger and movable die are actuated by hydraulic means. The
molten metal is poured into the cylinder. When the plunger moves towards
left, the molten metal is forced into the die under pressure. As the die is water
cooled, the molten metal will solidify immediately. Then the movable die is
moved and the casting is removed by ejectors.!
!
Application of pressure die casting!
! Carburetor body, crank case, fuel pump parts, sound horn and wiper
can be produced by pressure die casting. It can also be used for producing
toys, cameras, clocks and washing machine parts.
Advantages of pressure die casting!
1) Very high rate of production.!
2) It is suitable for mass production.!
3) Good surface finish can be obtained.!
4) Very accurate castings can be produced.!
5) The die has long life.!
6) Less floor space is sufficient.!
7) Thin castings can also be produced.!
8) Casting defects are less.!
9) Metal wastage is low.!
Disadvantages
1) The cost of the die is high.
2) It is not suitable for large castings.
3) It is suitable only for mass production.

Unit – I: Foundry Technology 1.29

1.10.4 Centrifugal casting
! In centrifugal casting, a rotating metal mould is mounted on a trolley.
Rails are provided to move trolley. The molten metal is poured into the mould
through a long spout. The mould is rotated as well as moved axially. Due to
centrifugal force, the molten metal is thrown away from the centre and
deposits uniformly on the walls of the mould. The outside of the mould is
cooled by water. So the molten metal solidifies immediately.
Laddle
Long ingate (Spout) Metal mould (Die)
Water jacket Pipe being cast

!
Fig.1.21 Centrifugal casting

The mould may be rotated about a horizontal axis or vertical axis.

The casting is removed after splitting the mould. Hollow castings can be
produced in this method without using core. This method is used for
producing cylindrical and symmetrical castings.!
Application
The castings like water pipes, gun barrels, fly wheel, bush bearings,
gears, brake drum etc. are produced by centrifugal casting.!!

Advantages!
1) High rate of production.!
2) Closer dimensional accuracy can be obtained.!
3) Thin castings can be produced.!
4) Core is not required.!
5) Casting defects are less.!

Disadvantages!
1) It is suitable only for symmetrical castings.!
2) The cost of equipment is high.!
3) Skilled labour is required.!
4) Risk of accident is more.!
Unit – I: Foundry Technology 1.30
1.10.5 Continuous casting (ASARCO Process)
! In this process, castings are produced by pouring the molten metal
continuously in to a vertical mould. The mould is made of brass or graphite.
This method is suitable for brass, bronze, copper and aluminium.

Furnace
Molten metal
Cooling
water

Metal die

Casting
Rollers

Saw

!
Fig.1.22 Continuous casting
The metal is melted in a furnace which is just above the mould. The
molten metal continuously flows into the vertical mould (die) through a valve.
The mould is water cooled. So the molten metal solidifies immediately. Two
rollers are provided to pull the casting. A saw below the roller cuts the casting
to pieces of required length.
Application!
! Large bars or rods having round, square and hexagonal cross section
can be produced. Also, this method is used for producing pipes, slabs and flats.!
!
Advantages
1) Good surface finish can be achieved.!
2) As this process is automatic, rate of production is high.!
3) Labour cost is less.!

Disadvantages
1) The cost equipment and mould is high.!
2) The cost of operation and maintenance is also high.!

Unit – I: Foundry Technology 1.31

1.11 Defects in castings – causes and remedies
Defect Causes Remedies
1) Blow holes: Holes 1. Excessive moisture in the 1. Moisture content in the sand should
Blow holes
produced in the sand.! be controlled.
castings when the 2. Hard ramming.! 2. Ramming should be done properly.
steam and gases 3. Less number of vent holes! 3. Sufficient vent holes should be
!
are not come out.! ! provided.
2) Slabs: Unwanted Slab 1. Uneven ramming.! 1. Ramming should be done properly.!
projections in the 2. Dropping down of part of mould!2. The molten metal should be poured
casting! slowly.!!
!
3) Honey combing: 1. Improper pouring of molten 1. The molten metal should be poured
Small cavities on metal. properly.!
the surface of 2. Faulty gating. 2. Correct gating should be provided.!
!
casting.!
4) Swells: 1. Slow ramming.! 1. Ramming should be done correctly.!
Enlargement of 2. Pouring the metal very quickly.! 2. The metal should be poured properly.!
casting surface.! 3. Mould no supported properly.! 3. Sufficient support should be provided
for mould.!
Swell !

5) Shifts: 1. Misalignment of pattern pieces. 1. Pattern pieces should be aligned

Misalignment of 2. Misalignment of cope and drag properly.!
casting sections.! boxes. 2. Drag and cope boxes should be
3. Misalignment of core. placed correctly.!
!
3. The core should be seated at the
correct place.!
Unit – I: Foundry Technology 1.32
 Defect Causes Remedies
6) Cold shuts:! 1. Pouring the metal at low 1. The metal should be poured at correct
Incomplete filling temperature.! temperature.!
of mould cavity.! 2. Improper gating.! 2. Proper gating should be provided.!
! 3. Pouring the metal slowly.! 3. The metal should be poured properly.!
7) Internal air 1. Pouring the boiling metal.! 1. The metal should be poured at correct
pockets: Small 2. Pouring the metal very quickly.! temperature.!
holes inside the 2. The metal should be poured properly.!
casting.! Air pocket !
8) Hot tears:! 1. Sudden change in section of 1. The pattern design should be
Internal or casting.! improved.!
Tear
external dis- 2. No fillets in the corners.! 2. Fillets should be provided at the
continuity in the 3. Pouring the metal at low corners.!
casting.! ! temperature.! 3. The metal should be poured at correct
temperature.!
9) Fins:!Thin 1. Misalignment of core in the 1. The core should be correctly placed.!
projection on mould.! 2. The moulding box should be clamped
parting line.! 2. Improper clamping of moulding correctly.!
Fins ! box.!
10) Run out:! 1. Faulty moulding. 1. The moulding should be done
Leakage of metal 2. Faulty moulding box. properly.!
from the mould.! 3. Pattern too large for the box.! 2. The correct size moulding box should
be used.!
Run out 3. The suitable size pattern should be
! used.!
!
!

Unit – I: Foundry Technology 1.33

1.12 Cleaning of castings
After removing the casting from the mould, the sand, runner, riser, gate,
core and unwanted projections must be removed for finishing the castings. The
following methods are used for cleaning the castings.!
!
1.12.1 Trimming
The following trimming operations are used for removing unwanted
portions and projections from the castings.!
1) Filing: The sand on the surfaces of small size castings can be
removed by filing
2) Shearing: Gate and riser from soft metal like brass, aluminium can be
removed by shearing.
3) Chipping: Runner, riser and gate can be removed
4) Sawing: The unwanted portions, gates and risers can be removed by
sawing. Hand saw is used for small size castings and band saw is used
for large size castings.
5) Flame cutting: Oxy acetylene flame is used for removing unwanted
projection, gates and risers from large size castings.
6) Grinding: The unwanted portions from hard castings can be removed
by grinding

1.12.2 Surface cleaning

The following methods are used for cleaning the surface of castings.!
!

1) Tumbling!
Rotation of barrel

Cover
Barrel

Castings

Abrasive
particles
Stars

!
Fig.1.23 Tumbling

Unit – I: Foundry Technology 1.34

! This method is used for removing the sand and oxide scale from the
surface of small castings. Many castings can be cleaned at a time. Sharp
edged small iron pieces (stars) are loaded with the castings into a barrel.
Abrasive particles are also added. The barrel is slowly rotated about a
horizontal axis. During the rotation, castings, iron pieces and abrasives are
tumbled each other. So the sand and oxide scale on the surface of castings
are removed to get a polished surface.!

2) Sand blasting and shot blasting

Sand

Air

Casting

!
Fig.1.24 Sand blasting

! Sand and oxide scale on the surfaces of large size castings are
removed by using these methods. In the sand blasting machine, the sand
particles are thrown on the casting surface with very high velocity by
compressed air through a nozzle. The sand and scale on the casting surface
are removed due to the impact force of the sand.

In shot blasting, small iron particles are thrown on the casting

surface with high velocity by compressed air. The sand and scale on the
casting surface are removed due to the impact force of the iron particles.!
!
1.13 Safety practices in foundry
! Molten metal, sharp edged castings etc. are handled in a foundry.
The furnaces at high temperature are also used. These may cause
accidents. So the following safety practices should be followed.!
!
!
!
!

Unit – I: Foundry Technology 1.35

 1) Hand gloves and shoes should be worn during charging the furnace.!
2) Goggles should be worn during cleaning of casting by grinding and
chipping.!
3) Exhaust fans should be provided for the escape of hot fumes and
gases.!
4) Gloves and heat resistant clothing should be used while handling
molten metal.!
5) The moulding floor should be kept wet to avoid the formation of dust.!
6) Sufficient guards should be provided for the moving parts of machines.!
7) Awareness about safety precautions should be created among the
worker.!
8) The first aid box should be kept ready for use.!

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1) Name the common pattern materials and state their advantages.
2) State the various factors considered for selecting the pattern materials.
3) List out the various types of pattern and explain any two of them.
4) State the different pattern allowances used while making patterns and
explain the needs.
5) Describe any four moulding tools with sketches.
6) Briefly explain various types of moulding boxes.
7) What are the ingredients of moulding sand? State the purpose of using each.
8) Classify the moulding sand. Briefly explain each of them.
9) State the properties of moulding sand and explain any five of them in detail.
10) With suitable sketches, describe the step by step procedure of making a
green sand mould using a split pattern.
11) Explain the complete procedure of dry sand moulding with an example.
12) What is core? State the function of a core print?
13) What are the requirements of a good core?
14) Describe the CO2 process of core making.

Unit – I: Foundry Technology 1.36

15) Draw a simple cross section view of a cupola and explain briefly the
operation of cupola.
16) Explain the construction and working of any one type of crucible furnace.
17) Explain: (i) Direct arc furnace (ii) Indirect arc furnace.
18) Sketch and explain the operation of induction furnace. State its advantages.
19) Write short notes on sand casting.
20) Describe the process of gravity die casting with a neat sketch.
21) What is pressure die casting? Describe the cold chamber die casting
process with a neat sketch.
22) Explain the hot chamber die casting process with a neat sketch. State its
applications and advantages.
23) With a neat diagram explain centrifugal casting process. State the
advantages and applications of centrifugal casting.
24) Describe continuous casting process with a neat sketch.
25) What are the defects that occur in castings? State their causes and
remedies.
26) What are the defects that occur in castings? State their causes and
remedies.
27) With a neat sketch, explain any one method used for cleaning of castings.
28) List out the common safety practices in foundry.

 

Unit – I: Foundry Technology 1.37

 Unit – II
WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Chapter - 2.1. ARC WELDING AND
GAS WELDING
2.1 Welding!
! Welding is the process of joining similar or different metal by heating.
Welding can be done with or without the application of pressure. It can be
done with or without the addition of filler metal. During welding, the edges of
metal pieces are either melted or brought to plastic stage. Welding gives a
permanent joint. Welding is used in the fabrication of automobile bodies, air
craft, machine frames, boilers, ship building, railway wagons, etc.!
!
2.1.1 Types of welding!
! The following are the two types of welding processes.!
1) Plastic welding or!pressure welding,!
2) Fusion welding or non – pressure welding/!
Plastic welding or pressure welding
In this type of welding, the metal pieces are heated to plastic stage
and joined by applying sufficient pressure.!
!

Example : Electric resistance welding.

Fusion welding
In this type of welding, the metal pieces are melted and joined with
the help of filler material without applying pressure.!
!
Example!;!Electric arc welding, gas welding.

2.2 Arc welding or metal arc welding

! Arc welding is the process of joining two work pieces by melting their
edges by an electric arc. An electric arc is produced when there is a small
air gap ( 2 to 4 mm) between two conductors. The work piece acts as one
conductor and the electrode acts as another conductor. When the current is
passed, an electric arc having temperature 4000oC to 7000oC is produced
between the work piece and electrode. The edges of work pieces and the
electrode are melted by this high temperature.

Unit – II: Welding Technology 2.1

 WELDING

Resistance Related Thermit Solid state Modern

Arc welding Gas welding
welding processes welding welding Welding
1.Carbon arc 1.Oxy-acetylene 1.Butt 1.Oxygen 1.Friction 1.Electron beam
2.Metal arc 2.Air- acetylene 2.Spot cutting 2.Ultrasonic 2.Laser beam

Unit – II: Welding Technology

3.Metal inert gas 3.Oxy-hydrogen 3.Seam 2.Flame cutting 3.Diffusion
4.Tungsten 4.Projection 3.Arc cutting 4.Explosive
inert gas 5.Percussion 4.Hard facing
5.Atomic 5.Bronze
hydrogen arc welding
6.Plasma arc 6.Soldering
7.Submerged arc 7.Brazing
8. Electro slag

2.2
 Electrode
holder

Wire electrode
Coating
Slag covering Gaseous
shield
A.C.
Arc stream or
D.C.
Parent supply
metal

Weld metal

Molten crater

Fig.2.1 Arc welding (or) Metal arc welding

The melted metal pieces are joined together and cooled to give
permanent joint (weld). The electrode supplies additional filler material into
the joint. The current is supplied by a transformer or a generator.

2.2.1 Arc welding equipments

The following equipments are needed for arc welding.!
1) Welding generator(D.C) 6) Protective shield
or transformer(A.C) 7) Gloves
2) Electrode holder 8) Apron
3) Electrode 9) Chipping hammer
4) Welding cables 10) Wire brush
5) Earthing clamps

1) Power sources : D.C arc welding machines are D.C. generators

driven by an electric motor. D.C welding is mostly used for heavy work.
A.C. welding machines are transformers for stepping down the main
supply voltage and current suitable for arc welding. A.C. welding sets
are used for all types of fabrication works.
2) Electrode holder : The electrode holder connects to the welding
cable and conducts the welding current to the electrode. The
insulated handle is used to guide the electrode over the weld
joint. Electrode holders are available in different sizes.

Unit – II: Welding Technology 2.3

 Electrode
holder
Electrode
Electrode
cable

Arc
A.C.
Work or
piece D.C.
supply

Work
cable

Fig.2.2 Arc welding equipments

3) Electrodes : In arc welding, an electrode is used to conduct current

through a workpiece to fuse two pieces together. Depending upon the
process, the electrode is either consumable or non-consumable. Bare,
fluxed and heavy coated electrodes are the common types of
electrodes.

4) Welding cables : The cables must be very flexible and have a tough
heat-resistant insulation. Cable connections must be soldered or well
crimped to assure low electrical resistance. The thickness of the cable
must be sufficient to carry the welding current with a minimum of
voltage drop.
5) Earthing clamp : The Earthing clamp is used to connect the earth
cable to the work piece. It may be connected directly to the work or to
the table upon which the work is positioned.
6) Safety equipment : Safety equipments like protective shield, gloves
and apron are used to protect from ultraviolet and infrared radiations.
7) Cleaning equipment : Wire brush is used to clean the surface of
workpiece. Chipping hammer is used to remove the weld beads after
welding.

Unit – II: Welding Technology 2.4

2.2.2 Types of electrodes
!!!!!Generally, welding electrodes are classified as follows :
i) Non-consumable electrodes
ii) Consumable electrodes.
Non-consumable electrodes are made of carbon, graphite or tungsten.
As the electrodes are not consumed during welding, the filler material is
added separately. They are used in TIG and atomic hydrogen welding.
Consumable electrodes provide the filler material also. During welding,
they melt and supply the filler material. The following types of
!
consumable electrodes are available.!!
1) Bare electrodes: They are not coated with flux.!
2) Lightly coated electrodes:! A light layer of flux is coated on the
electrodes.!
3) Heavily coated electrodes: Flux is coated on the electrodes to a
thickness of 1 mm to 3 mm.!!

2.3 Arc welding methods!

! The commonly used arc welding methods are :
1) Carbon arc welding
2) Metal arc welding
3) Metal Inert Gas (MIG) welding
4) Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) Welding
5) Submerged arc welding
6) Electro slag welding

2.3.1 Carbon arc welding

Carbon
electrode Power
supply
D.C.

Electric arc
Work piece

Fig.2.3 Carbon arc welding

Unit – II: Welding Technology 2.5
! In this method, welding is done by using a non-consumable carbon
electrode and D.C. power supply. The electrode is connected to negative (-
ve) terminal and work piece is connected to positive (+ve) terminal. When
the D.C. supply is given, the work piece is heated more than the electrode
by the electric arc. So the edges of work pieces are heated and joined
together. Then it is cooled to form weld.!

Application : Steel sheets, copper alloys, brass, aluminium and bronze can
be welded by this method.!
!
Advantages
1) Both ferrous and non-ferrous metals can be welded.!
2) The temperature can be controlled easily.!
3) Production of electric arc is very easy.!
!
2.3.2 Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Welding
Power
supply
Consumable
electrode
Wire feed rolls

Welding head

Inert gas

Gas shield

Arc

Work piece

!
Fig.2.4 MIG welding !
! In this type of arc welding, the consumable electrode is supplied
continuously. This electrode is used as filler metal and to produce arc. When
D.C. supply is given, an electric arc is produced between the consumable
electrode and the work piece. An inert gas like argon or helium is passed at
Unit – II: Welding Technology 2.6
the welding place through nozzle. The inert gas produces a gas shield around
the electric arc. This prevents the molten metal to react with atmospheric air.
The edges of the work pieces are melted by the electric arc and joined together
to give weld.!

Application : Aluminium, stainless steel, magnesium and nickel alloys can

be welded by this method.
Advantages
1) No flux is needed.!
2) Welding speed is high.!
3) Quality welding joint can be obtained.!
4) Non-ferrous metals can also be welded.!

2.3.3 Tungsten Inert Gas!(TIG) Welding!

Power
supply
Non-consumable
electrode

Welding head

Inert gas

Gas shield

Arc

Work piece

Fig.2.5 TIG welding

This method is similar to MIG welding. Non-consumable tungsten

electrode is used. It produces only electric arc. It cannot be used as filler
metal. The tungsten electrode is fixed in an electrode holder. When power
supply is given, an electric arc is produced between the tungsten electrode
and the work piece.

Unit – II: Welding Technology 2.7

 An inert gas like argon or helium is passed at the welding place
through a nozzle. The inert gas produces a gas shield around the electric
arc. This prevents the molten metal to react with atmospheric air. The edges
of work pieces are melted by the electric arc and joined together to give weld.
The electrode will not be melted during welding.!

Application : Aluminium, cast iron, steel and magnesium can be welded by

this method.!
Advantages!
1) No flux is needed. !
2) Welding speed is high.!
3) Quality welding joint can be obtained.!
4) Both ferrous and non-ferrous metal can be welded.!

2.4 Gas welding ( Oxy-acetylene welding)

Direction
of welding Blow pipe
Gaseous
envelope
Filler rod
Inner core

Molten Weld
weld metal
Base metal

Fig.2.6 Gas welding

Gas welding is a process of joining metals by the heat of the flame

formed when oxygen burns with another gas (acetylene). In gas welding, a
gas flame is used for melting the edges of work pieces to be joined. Welding
is done by using filler rod without applying pressure. One of the gases
(acetylene) used for producing fame is flammable. Another gas (oxygen)
induces the burning of inflammable gas. The temperature of flame produced
by oxy-acetylene gases is 3200oC .
The two gases are mixed at required proportion in the welding torch
and flame is produced in the tip of the torch. The edges of work pieces and
the filler rod are melted by the heat of the flame and weld is formed. The
oxidation is prevented by using flux during welding. Work pieces having
thickness 2 mm to 50 mm can be welded by using this method.
Unit – II: Welding Technology 2.8
 The filler rod supplies the additional metal needed during gas
welding. The filler rod is melted by the gas flame and weld is formed with the
metal. The filler rod material depends upon the metals to be welded. The
diameter of filler rod depends upon the thickness of the work pieces.
Generally the following gases are used to produce flame in gas welding.
!

1) Oxygen - acetylene 2) Oxygen - hydrogen 3) Air - acetylene

Advantages
1) The flame temperature can be controlled easily.
2) The cost of welding equipment is less.
3) The maintenance cost is low,
4) The amount of filler metal deposit can be easily controlled.
5) It can also be used in the places where electricity is not available.
6) Thin metal sheets can also be welded.

Disadvantages
1) It is a slow process.!
2) It is not suitable for welding thick plates.!
3) The strength of welded joint is less.

2.4.1 Gas welding equipments

The following are the equipments used in gas welding.
1) Gas cylinders 2) Pressure regulators 3) Pressure gauges
4) Hoses 5) Welding torch

Flexible hose Control valve Torch

Pressure gauge
Pressure regulator Flame
Oxygen
cylinder

Acetylene
cylinder

Fig.2.7 Gas welding equipments

Unit – II: Welding Technology 2.9

1) Gas cylinders: Oxygen and acetylene gases used in gas welding are
stored in separate cylinders. The cylinder painted with black colour has
oxygen at a pressure of 125 Kg / cm2. The cylinder painted with maroon
colour has acetylene at a pressure of 16 Kg / cm2.!
2) Pressure regulators: There is one pressure regulator fitted on each
cylinder to control the working pressure of oxygen and acetylene. The
working pressure varies according to the thickness of work pieces to be
welded. Generally the working pressure of oxygen is about 1 Kg/cm2 and
the working pressure of acetylene is about 0.14 Kg/cm2!
3) Pressure gauges: There are two pressure gauges are fitted in the
regulators of each cylinder. They indicate the cylinder pressure and the
working pressure.!
4) Hoses: The gas from cylinder regulator passes to the welding torch
through a long hose. The hose for oxygen is in black colour and for
acetylene is in red colour.!
5) Welding torch: The oxygen and acetylene gases from the hose are
mixed at the mixing chamber of welding torch. The amount of oxygen and
acetylene can be controlled by the control valves to obtain suitable gas
flame. The tip of the welding torch can be changed for welding work
pieces of different thickness.!

2.4.2 Types of flames

Torch tip Neutral flame Inner core

Feather

Carburising flame(Excess acetylene)

Oxidising flame(Excess oxygen)

Fig.2.8 Types of flames
Unit – II: Welding Technology 2.10
! The following three types of flames can be obtained by varying the
ratio of oxygen and acetylene.
!

1) Neutral flame 2) Carburising flame 3) Oxidising flame

1) Neutral flame: The neutral flame is produced when equal quantity of
oxygen and acetylene gases are used. The temperature of this flame is
about 3200oC. The neutral flame has two zones. One is a sharp bright
inner cone and another one is a bluish outer cone. This flame is widely
used because the chemical effect on the heated metal is less.!
Application : Neutral flame is used for welding steel, cast iron,
aluminium, copper and!stainless steel.
!
2) Carburising flame! or reducing flame: Carburising flame is produced
when the quantity of acetylene is more than oxygen. This flame has three
zones. They are bright inner cone, white intermediate feather cone and
!
bluish outer cone.!
Application : Carburising flame is used for welding steel, alloy steels,
non-ferrous metals, nickel and monel metal.
3) Oxidising flame: Oxidising flame is produced when the quantity of
oxygen is more than acetylene. This flame has two zones. They are bright
inner cone and sharp bright outer cone.!
Application : Oxidising flame is used for welding brass, bronze,
manganese and steel.

2.4.3 Comparison of arc welding and gas welding

Arc welding Gas welding
1) The heat is obtained form electric The heat is obtained from gas flame
arc (4000oC)! (2300oC)!
2) Electrode is used as filler rod.! Separate filler material is used.!
3) The strength of welding joint is The strength of welding joint is less.!
more.!
4) This is a non-pressure fusion It is also a non-pressure fusion
welding method.! welding method.!
5) The filler metal should be same The filler metal and work piece
as work piece metal.! metal need not be same.!
6) Brazing and soldering cannot be Brazing and soldering can also be
done.! done.!

Unit – II: Welding Technology 2.11

 Unit – II
WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Chapter - 2.2. RESISTANCE WELDING AND
WELDING RELATED PROCESSES
2.5 Resistance welding
Pressure
Frame
Movable arm Transformer

Copper electrode

A.C

Work piece
Stationary arm

Fig.2.9 Resistance welding!

! Resistance welding is a type of weldign process in which the metal
is heated to plastic stage due to the heat generated by the electric resistance
and then weld is formed by applying pressure. Two copper electrodes are
connected to an A.C, transformer. The metal to be welded are held in
between the electrodes. When the current is passed, very high resistance is
developed at the metal joint. The metals are heated to plastic stage due to
the heat generated by this resistance. The mechanical, air or hydraulic
pressure is applied to form weld.
Application
! It is suitable for mass production. Sheet metals, wires, tubes, bars,
boxes, cans and frames can be welded by this method.
Classification of resistance welding
! The following are the types of resistance welding.!
1) Spot welding 2) Butt welding
3) Seam welding 4) Projection welding
Unit – II: Welding Technology 2.12
2.5.1 Spot welding
Upper electrode

Work piece

A.C

Clamp

Lower electrode

Fig.2.10 Spot welding

!

! It is a type of resistance welding. Spot welding is the process of

joining overlapping sheet metals by making weld at regular interval. The work
pieces are held between two copper electrodes. The lower electrode is fixed
and the upper electrode is movable. Low voltage and high ampere current is
passed through the electrodes.
High heat is generated due to the resistance developed at the place
of contact of electrode and work piece. This place becomes plastic stage. Then
pressure is given by the electrode to form strong weld. By this method, welding
is done on the work piece at regular intervals.
!
Application
Boxes, cans, automobile frames and air conditioners can be welded
by spot welding. Spot welding can be done on the metal sheets of thickness
up to 12 mm.!

2.5.2 Butt welding

! It is a type of resistance welding. There are two types of butt welding.
They are upset butt welding and flash butt welding.!
!
1) Upset butt welding
! In this method, the metals to be welded are clamped in copper jaws
so that there is a light contact at the ends of metals. When the current is
passed through the jaws, high resistance is developed at the contact. This
produces high heat and the ends of metal becomes plastic stage. When
pressure is given by moving the jaws, the ends of metals are upset and
strong weld is formed.!
Unit – II: Welding Technology 2.13
Application : Bar, rod, wire, tube and pipe can be welded by this method.
!
Work piece
Joint jaws Flash

Transformer

Fig.2.11 Upset butt welding Fig.2.12 Flash butt welding

2) Flash butt welding!

! In this method, the metals to be welded are clamped in jaws so that
there is a small air gap between the ends of metals. When the current is
passed through the jaws, a flash or arc is produced between the ends. The
ends become plastic state due to the temperature of arc. When pressure is
given by moving the jaws, the ends of metals are joined and strong weld is
formed. There is no welding rod, gas or flux is needed for this welding.!
!

Application : Flash butt welding is used for welding automobile body, axles
and frames.!
Advantages
1) It is a fast process.!
2) The cost is less.!
3) Different metals can be welded.!

2.5.3 Seam welding

Electrodes

Work piece

Fig.2.13 Seam welding

Unit – II: Welding Technology 2.14

! It is a type of resistance welding. Seam welding is a process of making
weld continuously between two overlapping sheet metals. The work pieces are
held between two rotating wheel electrodes. When the current is passed
through the electrodes, high heat is produced on the work piece due to the
resistance developed. At the same time, pressure is applied by the wheels to
form continuous weld in a straight line.
!

Application : Seam welding is used for welding radiators, drums, leak proof
tanks, automobile silencers, etc.
!
2.5.4 Projection welding
It is a type of resistance welding. The work pieces are placed between
two electrodes (arms). Projections are made in one of the work pieces where
weld are to be done. When current is passed through the electrodes, high heat
is produced in the work piece due to the resistance. At the same time the work
pieces are pressed by the arms. Now the projections are melted and made
weld with the flat work piece.
Movable arm

Upper
electrode
Work piece with
projection

A.C.
Welded
workpiece

Lower
electrode
Fixed arm

Fig.2.14 Projection welding

Application : Thin sheet metals can be easily welded by this method

projection welding is used for welding wire and rod to a flat surface.!!
!
2.6 Welding related processes
2.6.1 Oxy acetylene cutting
! In this method, the metal is heated by an oxy-acetylene flame and cut
by passing oxygen jet. The end of welding torch has a big hole at its centre

Unit – II: Welding Technology 2.15

and four small holes around the big hole. Oxygen and acetylene mixture is
passed through the small holes. Oxygen is passed through the big hole. The
metal is preheated to its kindling temperature by the oxy-acetylene flame. In
this high temperature, the metal reacts with oxygen and forms weak metal
oxide. Now oxygen jet is passed through the torch to remove the metal oxide.
Thus the metal is cut.
!

Oxygen
Mixed gas

Preheat
flames
Work piece

Cutting
Oxygen orifice oxygen Solid slag

Preheat orifice

Fig.2.15 Oxy acetylene cutting!

Application : Steel and iron plates having thickness up to 100 mm can be

cut by this method. !

2.6.2 Arc cutting

Arc cutting is the process of cutting the metal with the help of electric
arc. Carbon electrode or metal electrode is used. The melted metal is
removed by air jet. Oxy-arc cutting can also be done to cut the metal by using
oxygen jet. Oxygen converts metal into metal oxide and removes it at faster
rate. The quality and speed of arc cutting is lower than flame cutting. So arc
cutting is used only for rough work. The metal can be cut accurately by using
plasma arc.!
!
Application : Arc cutting is used for cutting cast iron, alloy steel and non-
ferrous metals.!
!

2.6.3 Hard facing!

! Hard facing is a process of coating a hard metal powder on the surface
of soft metals. A specially designed spraying gun is used in this method. First
the metal to be coated is powdered and filled in the gun. The metal powder is

Unit – II: Welding Technology 2.16

melted by oxy-acetylene flame. The molten metal is split into small particles by
an inert gas supplied under pressure. The metal particles are sprayed on the
surface of work piece.
Metal powder
Hard layer
Nozzle

Work piece
Inert gas
Oxy-acetylene
gas

Fig.2.16 Hard facing

Application!
1) It is used for coating tungsten carbide and chromium carbide on the
surface of cutting tool.!
2) It is used in reconditioning of worn out machine parts by coating
required metal on it.!
3) It is used for coating hard metal in the die surface.!

2.6.4 Bronze welding or braze welding

Bronze welding is an intermediate process between brazing and
welding. In brazing, the filler metal alone is melted for joining the work pieces.
In welding, the edges of work pieces to be welded are melted. But in bronze
welding, the edges of work pieces to be welded are heated to the melting
temperature of filler rod. The filler rod contains 60% copper and 40% zinc.

First the edges to be joined are prepared to the required shape and
cleaned thoroughly. The edges are heated to the melting temperature of filler
rod by oxy-acetylene flame. Flux is applied at the edges to remove oxides.
The filler rod is melted by the oxy-acetylene flame and deposited between
edges to form weld.

Application: Bronze welding can be done in cast iron, steel, copper, bronze
and brass.
!!
Advantages
1) Distortion of metal is less.!
2) Different metals can be welded.!
3) It is stronger than brazed joint.!
Unit – II: Welding Technology 2.17
2.6.5 Soldering
Work piece
Soldering iron

Solder point

Filler rod

Fig.2.17 Soldering

Soldering is the process of joining two similar or dissimilar metals by

using a low melting alloy called solder. Solder is an alloy of tin and lead. It melts
at low temperature (150oC to 350oC). The edges are not melted in this method.

First the edges to be joined are prepared and cleaned thoroughly.

The parts are arranged in correct position. A flux like zinc chloride is applied
at the edges to prevent oxidation. A welding torch or electric soldering iron is
used for heating the work piece and melting the solder. The molten solder
fills the edges to be joined. Then joint is formed after solidification.

Application
1) Connections in wireless set, T.V. sets, etc.
2) Wiring joints in electrical connections, battery and other terminals.
3) Radiator brass tubes for motor car.
4) Copper tubing carrying liquid fuel, gas or air used in engines.
5) Drain water pipes.

Advantages
1) Low cost.
2) The equipment is simple and cheap.
3) Effective sealing in fabrication.
4) The properties of base metal are not affected.
5) Dissimilar metals can be joined.

Unit – II: Welding Technology 2.18

Disadvantages
1) The joints are weaker.
2) It is not suitable for joining thick metals.
3) Joints are damaged under high temperature.
!
2.6.6 Brazing

Pipe

Filler rod
Torch

Fig.2.18 Brazing
! Brazing is similar to soldering. It is the process of joining two similar
or dissimilar metals by using a high melting alloy called spelter. Spelter is a
mixture of copper and zinc alloy. The melting temperature of spelter (600oC)
is lower than the melting temperature of work piece. The edges of work
pieces are not melted in this method.

First the edges are prepared by filing or grinding. Flux (borax) is

applied and the work pieces are assembled in correct position. The work
pieces are heated to a temperature below its melting point. The filler rod
(spelter) is placed at the joint and heated by welding torch. The molten filler
metal fills the edges to be joined. Then joint is formed after solidification.

Brazing is classified as follows based on the method of heating.!!

1) Torch brazing 2) Dip brazing
3) Furnace brazing 4) Induction brazing

Application
Brazing can be done in brass, bronze, copper, steel and stainless
steel. Brazing is used in radiator works, joining pipes with drums and tanks,
joining carbide tips on tool shank, etc.

Unit – II: Welding Technology 2.19

Advantages
1) Thin metals can be joined.!
2) It is a fast process.!
3) Different metals can be joined.!
4) Metals of different thickness can be joined easily.!
5) No distortion occurs.!
!
Disadvantages
1) It is not suitable for joining thick metals.!
2) The cost is more.!
3) The strength of joint is less.!
!!
2.6.7 Difference between soldering and brazing
Soldering Brazing
1) Solder is used as filler material. Spelter is used as filler material.
2) The melting temperature of filler The melting temperature of filler
metal is low (150 - 350oC). metal is high (about 600oC)
3) Heating of workpiece is not required. Workpieces are heated below their
melting point.
4) The strength of joint is low. The strength of joint is better than
soldering.
5) The cost is low. The cost is more.
6) Less skill is required. High skill is required.

2.7 Testing of welded joints

The strength and defects in welded joint are found out by conducting
various test. The following are the two types of tests.!!
!
! Testing of welded joints
!!
!
!
1) Non-destructive Tests 2) Destructive Tests

i) Magnetic particle test i) Nick brake test

ii) Dye penetrant test ii) Bend test
iii) X-ray test iii) Tensile test
iv) Ultrasonic test

Unit – II: Welding Technology 2.20

1) Non-destructive test: In this method, test is conducted without
destroying the welded joint.!
2) Destructive test: In this method, test is conducted by destroying the
welded joint. So the tested work piece cannot be used.!!
!
2.7.1 Non-destructive test
1) Magnetic particles test
!
Distorted flux lines
Surface Defect Flux lines

Fig.2.19 Magnetic particles test

! Magnetic particle test is used to find out cracks and slag inclusions. The
work piece is magnetized. Fine iron powder is sprayed over the surface of work
piece. If there is a crack, magnetic poles will be formed at that place. The iron
powder will be attracted more at that place and the crack is identified. This test
is suitable only for ferrous metals.
2) Dye penetrant test!

UV light
Bleed-out
Developer
Penetrant

Crack

!
Fig.2.20 Dye penetrant test
! Dye penetrant test is used to find out cracks on the surface of the work
piece. The surface of the workpiece is properly dried after cleaning. The
penetrant is applied to the surface of the workpiece. The penetrant is allowed
for 5 to 30 minutes to soak into any cracks. The excess penetrant is then
removed from the surface.
Unit – II: Welding Technology 2.21
 A white developer is applied to the surface of the workpiece. The
developer draws out the penetrant from cracks and forms a visible indication
on the surface. It is commonly known as bleed-out. Any areas that bleed out
can indicate the location, orientation and possible types of defects on the
surface. Ultraviolet flash light is used to clearly view the cracks.

3) X – ray test or radiographic test

X - Ray tube

X - Ray
Film

Test specimen

Fig.2.21 X- ray test

! X-ray test is used to find out defects like porosity, blow holes and
cavities. Generally X-rays can pass through the solid metals. In this method,
the test piece is placed in front of X-ray tube. X-ray film is placed behind the
test piece. The X-ray is passed through the test piece. If there is no defect,
the image in the film will be uniform.

If there is any defect like porosity or blow holes, it will be shown in the
film as bright spots. It is a fast method and the cost of test is high. The results
of X-ray test can be stored as permanent records. X-rays affect the human
health. So special precautions to be taken.!

4) Ultrasonic test
! This test is used to find out defects like cracks, blow holes and
porosity by using ultrasonic waves. Ultrasonic waves are high frequency
vibrations. In this method, the ultrasonic waves produced by a transducer
are passed in to the test piece.

Unit – II: Welding Technology 2.22

 Defect echo
Cathode ray tube(CRT)

Transducer

Test piece

Defect

Fig.2.22 Ultrasonic test

If there is no defect, the waves will pass up to the bottom and come
back. If there is a defect, the waves will be returned from that place. The returned
waves are received by a receiver and converted into electric signals. This signal
is projected into a CRT screen. By referring the signals, the size and place of
defect in test piece is found out.!

2.8 Defects in welding – Causes and remedies

Defects Causes Remedies
1) Incomplete Low current, high welding Proper welding condition
fusion! speed.! should be set up.!
2) Slag inclusion! Improper flux coated Electrode with proper flux
electrode, metal oxide in coating should be used. The
the work piece. work piece should be
! cleaned thoroughly.!
3) Porosity and Moisture in the flux, stain Dry electrode should be
blow holes! in the work piece. used. The work piece should
! be cleaned thoroughly.!
4) Cracks!! Non-uniform heating and Heating and cooling should
cooling.! be uniform.!
5) Undercut!! High current, improper Proper current setting
position of electrode.! should be done. The
electrode should be
positioned correctly.!

Unit – II: Welding Technology 2.23

2.9 Safety practices in welding
Several electrical equipments and inflammable gases like oxygen
and acetylene are used in welding. Accidents may occur due to
carelessness. So safety precautions are necessary during welding.!

2.9.1 Safety practices in gas welding

1) The gas cylinder should not be kept near the heat sources.!
2) The cylinders should be stored in a well ventilated safe place.!
3) Valves must be closed when not in use.!
4) Valves should be opened slowly.!
5) Pressure gauges and valves should be maintained properly.!
6) Quality hoses should be used.!
7) Safety goggles, hand gloves, apron and shoe must be used.!
8) Fire extinguishing equipment is necessary.!
!
2.9.2 Safety practices in arc welding
1) All safety precautions should be taken to prevent electrical shock.!
2) A specific voltage and current should be maintained.!
3) Safety goggles, hand gloves, apron and shoe must be used.!
4) The electrode holder should be properly insulated.!
5) Welding should be done in a safer place.!
6) Fire extinguishing equipment is necessary.!
7) First aid boxes must be available readily for use.!

!
REVIEW QUESTIONS

1) Define welding and classify the welding processes.

2) What is meant by arc welding? Mention the types of arc welding.
3) With a neat sketch explain the arc welding process.
4) List out and explain the equipments required for arc welding.
5) Explain the carbon arc welding process with a neat sketch.
6) Briefly explain the Metal Inert Gas arc welding with a neat sketch.
7) Explain TIG welding process.

Unit – II: Welding Technology 2.24

 8) List out the equipments required for oxy-acetylene welding and state
their functions.
9) With a neat sketch describe the gas welding process. List out the
advantages of this process.
10) Explain the three types of welding flames obtained in oxy acetylene
welding process. State the application of each flame.
11) Compare arc welding and gas welding.
12) What is resistance welding? State the classification of resistance
welding. Explain any one method.
13) Describe any two of the following process:
(a) Spot welding (b) Projection welding (c) Flash butt welding.
14) Explain: (a) Seam welding (b) Upset butt welding
15) Explain how oxy-acetylene cutting is done?
16) Write short notes on arc cutting process.
17) Briefly explain hard facing.
18) Explain the bronze welding process and its applications.
19) Explain briefly the soldering process.
20) Briefly explain the brazing process.
21) Compare soldering and brazing with example.
22) Name the various non-destructive testing methods used for welded
joints. Explain any one method.
23) Explain: (i) Magnetic particle test (ii) Radiographic test
24) Explain the ultrasonic testing of the welded joints with a sketch.
25) State the various defects found in welding. State their causes and
remedies.
26) Discuss about the safety practices in welding.

 

Unit – II: Welding Technology 2.25

 Unit – III
FORGING AND PRESS WORKING
Chapter - 3.1. FORGING
3.1 Introduction
Generally metals are formed to the required shape by hot working
and cold working methods. These methods are also known as mechanical
working or metal forming. In these methods, metal undergoes plastic
deformation by means of an external force and gets the required shape.!
!
3.2 Hot working
Hot working is the process of heating the metal above its
recrystallization temperature to undergo plastic deformation and to get the
required shape.

During heating, a change in grain structure of metal occurs to form

new grains at particular temperature. This temperature is called
recrystallization temperature. Generally, the recrystallization temperature of
metal will be about 30 to 40% of it melting point.!
!
Advantages of hot working!
1) The toughness and ductility of metal can be improved.
2) The hardness due to the plastic deformation can be removed.
3) No internal stresses are produced in the metal.
4) Less amount of force is sufficient to deform the metal.
5) Defects like cracks, blow holes, porosity will not occur in the metal.
6) As the grain structure of metal is refined, the strength can be increased.
7) It is a quick and economical process.
8) All methods can be formed to required shape by this method.
!
Limitations of hot working
1) Poor surface finish due to oxidation or scale formation .
2) De-carburization takes place on the metal surface.
3) Less dimensional accuracy
4) High tooling cost
5) Handling of hot worked parts is difficult

Unit – III: Forging & Press Working 3.1

3.3 Hot working operations!
The following are the important hot working processes.!
1) Rolling 2) Forging 3) Swaging
4) Extrusion 5) Drawing 6) Hot spinning

3.4 Hot rolling

Original grains Refined grains

Elongated grains

Fig.3.1 Hot rolling

Rolling is a process of forming metal to the required shape by passing
it between rotating rolls. When the metal to be rolled is heated above its
recrystallization temperature, it is called hot rolling. The periphery of the roll is
made to the required shape. When the metal passes between the rolls, plastic
deformation of metal occurs due to the high compressive stress. The metal
grains elongate in the direction of rolling. So the cross section of metal is reduced
and the length is increased. Hot rolling is done by using two or three sets of roll
mills. Rolling is done progressively until the required shape is obtained.

1 2

3 4 5 6

7 8 9 10

Fig.3.2 Number of passes to produce a bar

Unit – III: Forging & Press Working 3.2

 By hot rolling, the metal can be formed into sheets, plates, rounds,
I-sections, T-sections, channels, angles and many other shapes. The casting
got from foundry shop is called ingot. First the heated ingots are rolled to
obtain semi-finished shapes like bloom, billet and slab. I-section, T-section,
channels and angles are formed by hot rolling the blooms. Rounds, squares
and wires are obtained from billet. Plates and sheets are obtained from slab.

As shown in the figure, the billet is passed between the rolls several
times to form into round rod.!!

3.5 Forging
Forging is a process of forming the metal into the required shape by
compressive or impact force. When the process is carried out above the
recrystallization temperature of metal, it is called hot forging. Connecting rod,
crank shaft, etc. can be produced by this method.!!

Classification of forging!
1) Hammer or Smith forging
2) Drop forging
3) Upset forging
4) Press forging
5) Roll forging

3.5.1 Hammer forging or smith forging

It is also called as flat die forging and open die forging. Smith forging
can be done manually or by power. The accuracy of forgings are depend
upon the skill of the worker. Generally smith forging is used for rough work.!
!
Hand forging
! In this method, the heated metal is held over an anvil with the help
of tongs. The metal is hammered several times by using a hammer to form
into required shape. Hand forging is used for producing less number of small
size forgings.!
!
Power forging
! In this method, power hammer or power press is used for forging.
The heated metal is hammered several times by using a power hammer to
form into required shape. The power hammer may be operated hydraulically
or pneumatically. Power forging is used for producing medium and large size
forgings.!
!
Unit – III: Forging & Press Working 3.3
Smith forging operations
1) Upsetting 2) Drawing down 3) Setting down 4) Swaging
5) Bending 6) Punching 7) Welding
1) Upsetting

Heated portion

Anvil

!
Fig.3.3 Upsetting

! This is the process of increasing the cross section of heated work

piece by reducing the length. The portion where upsetting is to be done is
heated and the end of the work piece is hammered. Now the length is
reduced and the cross section is increased.!

2) Drawing down

Red hot bar

a.

Fuller

b.

c.

Flatter

Fig.3.4 Drawing down

Unit – III: Forging & Press Working 3.4

! This is the process of increasing the length of the heated work piece
by reducing the cross section. The work piece is heated and held between
the fullers. When the work piece is hammered, the length is increased and
the cross section is reduced.!
3) Setting down
!
Hammer

Work piece Flater

Heated
portion
!
Fig.3.5 Setting down

Setting down is a process similar to drawing down. In this method, a

flatter is used instead of fuller for reducing the cross section at particular
portion of work piece.!

4) Swaging
Sledge
hammer

Upper swage
Work piece
Bottom swage

Anvil

!
Fig.3.6 Swaging

! Swaging is the process of increasing the length of heated metal and

to form the cross section to the required shape. The work piece is heated

Unit – III: Forging & Press Working 3.5

and held between the swage blocks. Then the work piece is hammered to
form the required shape. In this method, the work piece can be formed into
round, square and hexagonal shapes.
!
5) Bending

Bending over the Bending over a Bending over the

beak of anvil round bar in a vice edge of anvil
Fig.3.7 Bending

! It is the process of forming the work piece into required angle or

circular. The sharp cornered bend can be made by hammering the metal
over the edge of the anvil. The work piece is held over the beak of the anvil
and hammered to form circular bends.

6) Punching
Hammer blow

Punch
Work piece
Die

Work piece with

Waste punched hole

Fig.3.8 Punching

! Punching is the process of making holes in the heated work piece.

The work piece is held over the hole in the anvil. The punch is correctly
placed on the work piece and hammered to produce hole.!

Unit – III: Forging & Press Working 3.6

7) Forge welding!
Lap joint

Butt joint

'V' joint

Fig.3.9 Forge welding

! It is the process of joining two ends of heated work pieces by
hammering. The part to be welded are cleaned thoroughly and the edges are
prepared for the required joint. Flux can be applied at the ends of work pieces
to avoid oxidation. The ends are heated and held in correct position. Then
the two parts are hammered together to get the required joint. The various
joints made by forge welding are shown in the figure.!

3.5.2 Drop forging

Ram

Upper die
Metal
Lower die

Anvil

Base

Fig.3.10 Drop forging

! Drop forging is the process of making the heated metal into required
shape by placing it between two closed dies and pressing with the help of
power hammer. The lower die is fitted on the anvil and the upper die is fitted
with the ram. The heated metal is placed over the lower die. When the ram
falls down, the heated metal fills the die cavities due to the impact force of
the upper die. Thus the required shape is obtained. Power hammers like
gravity hammer, power drop hammer and air lift hammer are used.
Unit – III: Forging & Press Working 3.7
 !

Components with simple shapes are forged in single operation.

Components with complicated shapes are forged in several steps. Roughing
die, semi finishing die and finishing die are used for such operations.!
!
Application
Crank, crank shaft, connecting rod, levers, camshaft, etc. can be
produced by drop forging.
!!
Advantages
1) It is suitable for mass production.!
2) The strength of the component is high.!
3) Less material wastage.!

Disadvantages
1) Large anvil and strong foundation are needed.!
2) More noise and vibration.!
3) The die may wear our quickly.!

3.5.3 Upset forging or machine forging

Heated bar

Head formed
Knocking pin in punch

Head formed
Die in die
Punch

Head formed
in punch and die
Fig.3.11 Upset forging

Unit – III: Forging & Press Working 3.8

 Upset forging is the process of making rivet head, hexagonal head,
etc. at the end of heated work piece. In this process, the length is reduced
and the cross section at the end is increased. As it is done in a press forging
machine, it is also called as machine forging.

This machine has a fixed die, movable punch and knock out pin. The
end of the work piece is heated and held in the fixed die. When the punch is
pressed, the end of the work piece gets the shape of the punch. The knock
out pin push out the work piece. The shape to be formed at the end of the
work piece will be in the punch or in die or in both.

Some forging machine has a fixed die, movable die, movable punch,
knock out pin and stop. The end of the work piece is heated and placed
between the two dies. The length of the work piece is controlled by the stop.
The movable die is moved to hold the work piece. The stop goes to its idle
position. The punch is moved and pressed against the end of the work piece.
Now the end of the work piece gets the shape of the die or punch or punch
and die. The punch and movable die go back to initial position and the work
piece is removed.
!
Application
Upset forging is used to produce bolt head, rivet head, collars,
cylindrical pin, flanges, etc.!
!
Advantages
1) It is suitable for mass production.!
2) The size of the work piece is accurate.!
3) The strength of the component is improved.!

3.5.4 Press forging!

! In this process, the metal heated to plastic stage is pressed between
two closed dies by using a power press to get required shape. The half of
the required shape is made in the lower die and another half is made in the
upper die. The lower die is fitted on the anvil and the upper die is fitted to a
ram. The heated metal is placed over the lower die. When the ram falls down,
the upper die presses the metal slowly and uniformly. Now the metal flows
and fills up the die cavities to get required shape. Mechanical and hydraulic
press can be used.!!

Unit – III: Forging & Press Working 3.9

 Ram

Upper die

Lower die

Base

Fig.3.12 Press forging

Application
Press forging can be used to produce symmetrical shaped objects
such as coins, bolts, rivets, nuts, etc.!

Advantages
1) The components can be made in single working stroke.
2) The production time is less.
3) Good surface finish can be obtained.
4) Less noise and vibration.
5) The density of work piece will be uniform.
Comparison of drop forging and press forging
Drop forging Press forging
1) The work piece gets the required The work piece gets the
shape by impact force. required shape by uniform
pressure
2) Power hammer is used. Power press is used.
3) Vibration and noise are more. Vibration and noise are less.
4) The density of work piece is not The density of work piece is
uniform. uniform.
5) It is a slow process. It is a fast process.
6) Several die sets are required to One die set is sufficient to
produce a component with produce a component with
complicated shape. complicated shape.
Unit – III: Forging & Press Working 3.10
3.5.5 Roll forging
In plain rolling, components with uniform cross section are produced.
Roll forging is a process of producing components with varying cross
sections by pressing the heated work piece between two rotating rolls.
Upper roll

Work piece
Groove

Forged component
Lower roll
Fig.3.13 Roll forging

The periphery of the rolls used in this method will not be round.
According to the required shape of the component, the rolls have grooves of
different radii. When the heated work piece passes between the rolls, it gets
the shape of the grooves in the roll. Thus the varying cross section is
obtained in the component. In this process, the cross section or work piece
is decreased and the length is increased.

Application
! Automobile axles, levers, leaf springs, tapered tube are produced by
roll forging.

Unit – III: Forging & Press Working 3.11

 Unit – III
FORGING AND PRESS WORKING
Chapter - 3.2. PRESS WORKING
3.6 Press working
In press working, the sheet metal is pressed in a press to get the
required shape. Press is a machine used for pressing or cutting the metal to
get required shape by applying mechanical force or pressure. The press
used during cold working and hot working are called cold working press and
hot working press respectively. The press is used for producing finished
products from sheet metal at fast rate. So it is suitable for mass production.

3.7 Specification of press

1) Capacity of press in tons 2) Maximum stroke length of ram
3) Die space 4) Type of frame
5) Type of drive 6) Number of slides
7) Weight and floor area.

3.8 Types of presses

3.8.1 Hand press or ball press
Arm

Balls
Arrester Handle

Frame Screw
Ram
Guide

Punch
Die

Base

Fig.3.14 Hand press

Unit – III: Forging & Press Working 3.12

! This press has a C shaped frame integral with the base. A nut with long
screw is fitted in the frame. An arm with balls on both side is fitted at the one end
of the screw. Ram is fitted at the another end. It slides in the guides of frame.

The punch is fitted at the end of the ram. The die is fitted on the base.
The work piece is placed between the punch and die. When the arm is
rotated by hand, ram moves downwards. The work piece is pressed and
required shape is formed. Arrester is used to adjust the stroke length.

3.8.2 Types of frames

Presses with various frames are used according to the size and
shape of the work piece.!
!
1) Open Back Inclinable press or!OBI press
! The frame of this press is pivoted in the base. So the frame can be
tilted to any required angle. The components will slide down through a gap
in the frame due to gravity.!

2) Adjustable press or!knee press!

! The bed of the press can be vertically moved by using an elevating
screw. The bed is suitably adjusted according to the height of die and work
piece. This press will not be strong.!

Frame Frame Frame

Ram Table Horn

Screw
Base Base Base
(a) Inclined press (b) Adjustable press (c) Horn press

Fig.3.15 Types of presses!

3) Horn press!
! This press has a cylindrical projection known as horn from the
machine frame. The horn supports cylindrical work pieces. The horns can be
changed according to the size of the work piece.!

Unit – III: Forging & Press Working 3.13

4) Straight side press
!

Frame
Crown

Ram

Fig.3.16 Straight side press!

! This press has two vertical frames mounted on the base. The two
frames are connected by a crown at the top. This press is suitable for heavy
duty works as it is very strong.!

5) Pillar type press or open frame press!

Movable ram

Pillars

Fig.3.17 Pillar type press!

!
! This press has a square base. Four pillars are fitted over the base.
The pillars are connected in a crown at the top. This press is operated by
hydraulic drive.!

!
Unit – III: Forging & Press Working 3.14
3.8.3 Mechanical press!
! The important parts of mechanical press are explained below.!

Crank Fly wheel

Connecting rod

Ram

Die
Punch

Fig.3.18 Mechanical press

1) Base: It supports the press. Bed and frame are fitted over the base.
2) Frame: It houses the driving mechanism. The ram slides over the
guide ways provided in the frame.!
3) Bolster plate: It is a heavy plate fitted over the bed. Die assembly is
fitted on the bolster plate.!
4) Driving mechanism: Crank and connecting rod drive is generally
used in mechanical press. Ram is connected to the crank through
connecting rod. When crank shaft rotates, ram slides up and down.!
5) Fly wheel: It is a large wheel fitted at the end of driving shaft. It stores
the energy during idle stroke and gives the energy to deform the work
piece during working stroke.!
6) Punch: Punch is fitted in the punch holder. The punch holder is fitted at
the bottom of ram. The punch moves up and down along with the ram.!
7) Die : Die is fitted in the stationary die holder on the bolster plate.!

Working principle!
! Suitable punch and die are fitted in the press. Work piece is held
between the punch and die. Crank shaft is rotated by a motor. Crank and

Unit – III: Forging & Press Working 3.15

connecting rod drive converts the rotary motion into reciprocating motion. So
the ram moves up and down. When the ram moves down, it presses the work
piece and required operation is performed. Different die and punch set are
used in the press for various operations.
!
3.8.4 Hydraulic press!
Oil
Cylinder

Piston
Piston rod

Ram

Die
Punch

Fig.3.19 Hydraulic press

! This type of press is operated by hydraulic drive. The piston in the

hydraulic cylinder moves up and down. The piston is connected to the ram
through a piston rod. When the piston moves, the ram slides up and down on
the guide ways. Valves are provided to control the flow of oil into the cylinder.
Punch and die are fitted in the press and aligned correctly. Work
piece is held between the punch and die. The high pressure oil is supplied
into the cylinder at the top of the piston. So the piston moves the ram
downwards. The punch fitted to the ram presses the work piece and required
operation is performed. At the end of the working stroke, oil is supplied at the
bottom of the piston. So the piston moves the ram upwards.

Advantages of hydraulic press

1) High pressure and force can be obtained.!
2) The required pressure to table ram can be controlled easily.!
3) The pressure is uniform.!
4) The movement of ram is uniform.!
5) Noiseless and smooth operation take place.!

Unit – III: Forging & Press Working 3.16

3.8.5 Types of drive!
! Driving mechanism gives the reciprocating motion of ram. The
following drives are used according to required load and stroke length of ram.
!
1) Eccentric drive!
! An eccentric is made integral with the driving shaft. One end of the
connecting rod is connected to the eccentric and the another end is
connected to the ram. When the driving shaft rotates with the eccentric, the
ram moves up and down. This type of drive is used for shorter stroke lengths.
!
Eccentric Driving shaft Housing
Cam
Pinion

Driving shaft
Connecting
rod
Rack

Ram Ram Ram

Fig.3.20 Types of drive

2) Cam drive!
In this drive, the driving shaft has a cam. One end of the connecting rod
is connected to the cam and the another end is connected to the ram. When the
driving shaft rotates with cam, it actuates the ram to move up and down. Cam
drive is used for short stroke length.!
3) Rack and pinion drive!
! In this drive, the ram is connected to a long rack. A pinion is meshed
with the rack. When pinion rotates, the ram moves downwards. After the end
of stroke, the pinion is made to rotate in opposite direction. So the ram moves
upwards. This drive is used for long stroke length.!
!
3.9 Press tools
Die and punch are called press tools. These two are always used
together. Die is the lower part of the press tool. It is clamped stationary on
the bolster plate of the press. The die has a cavity to receive the punch.

Unit – III: Forging & Press Working 3.17

 Punch is the upper part of the press tool. It is fitted to the lower end
of the ram. The punch slides with the ram and is pressed into the die cavity.
Die and punch must be perfectly aligned.
High speed steel (HSS), satellite and cementite carbide are used for
making dies and punches.!

3.9.1 Press or die accessories!

Press accessories are used to perform operation quickly and easily
in a press. They are used to easily remove the finished product and to locate
the blank exactly between the punch and die. The following are the various
press accessories used.
!

1) Stops 2) Pilots 3) Strippers

4) Knock outs 5) Pressure pads.

1) Stops

Punch
Sheet metal
Button stop

Die block
Fig.3.21 Stop
! Stops are used to stop the sheet metal at the correct length. This
prevents the wastage of material and reduces the scrap. The stops are made
in the form of button, lever or pin.!
!
2) Pilots
Pilot is fitted at the lower end of the punch. Pilot is used to exactly
locate the hole which is already pierced in the blank.!

Unit – III: Forging & Press Working 3.18

 Punch

Pilot

Fig.3.22 Pilot

3) Strippers

Punch
Spring

Stripper

Sheet metal

Die

Fig.3.23 Stripper

Stripper is used to remove the work piece from the punch or die after
the end of blanking or piercing operation. It may be of fixed type and spring
operated type. Fixed strippers are attached to the die block. The spring
operated stripper travel up and down along with the punch.!

4) Knock outs
! Knock out is used to kick out the products which cannot fall through
the die opening after the end of drawing operation. It works with the help of
spring action or air pressure.!

Unit – III: Forging & Press Working 3.19

 Punch

Pressure pad

Die

Knock out pad

Spring

Fig.3.24 Knock out

5) Pressure pads

Punch
Spring

Pressure pad
Sheet metal
Die

Pressure pad

Fig.3.25 Pressure pad

It is used to hold the sheet metal at correct position by applying

sufficient pressure. The pressure may be applied by spring, pneumatic or
hydraulic means. When the punch moves downward, the springs are
pressed and hence holds the sheet metal with pressure. So the metal
between the punch and die is drawn uniformly to required shape. One more
pressure pad is used to maintain the flat surface at the bottom of the cup.!

Unit – III: Forging & Press Working 3.20

3.10 Types of dies
!
! Dies
!
!
!
Based on operation Based on construction
1) Shearing dies 1) Simple dies
2) Drawing dies 2) Progressive dies
3) Squeezing dies 3) Compound dies
4) Bending dies 4) Combination dies
5) Inverted dies
3.10.1 Simple die or plain die
Only one operation can be performed in a simple die at each stroke
of the ram. Cutting dies, bending dies and punching dies are some simple
dies. The cost of simple die is less. It has simple construction.!

3.10.2 Progressive die!

Sheet metal Punch holder

Blanking punch
Piercing punch
Stripper pad
pilot
Sheet metal

Die

Scrap

Fig.3.26 Progressive die

In this die, two or more operations can be performed one after
another every time the ram moves down. The work piece is moved through
a series of work stations to perform various operations. The distance
between the work stations will be same. One finished product can be
obtained in each stroke of the ram. In the production of washer, piercing and
blanking operations are done progressively.
Unit – III: Forging & Press Working 3.21
 Piercing punch and blanking punch are fitted in the punch holder.
Piercing die and blanking die are fitted in the die holder. The sheet metal is
fed into the die where a hole is pierced in the first stroke of the ram. When
ram moves upward, the sheet metal is moved to the next work station. Stop
pins are used to stop the sheet metal at correct length. In the next stroke of
the ram, the pilot enters the pierced hole and locate the job correctly. Now
blanking operation is performed. At the same time, piercing operation for the
next washer is performed in the first work station. Thus in each stroke of the
ram, piercing and blanking operation are performed at different work stations.
!
Advantages!
1) The production time is less.
2) Production rate is high. So it is suitable for mass production.
3) Various operations can be performed in a sheet metal.
Disadvantages
1) The design of die is complicated.!
2) Thin sheet metals may be bent during cutting.!

3.10.3 Compound die

Knockout collar
Knockout rod
Punch holder

Blanking die Piercing punch

Knockout plate
Sheet metal

Blanking punch Stripper

Spring

Scrap
Piercing die

Wahser

Fig.3.27 Compound die

! In this die, two or more operations can be performed in one stroke
of the ram at a single work station. Generally cutting operations are
performed in this die. Piercing and blanking operations are performed in a
single stroke for the production of washer using compound die.
Unit – III: Forging & Press Working 3.22
 In this die, piercing and blanking punch are fitted opposite to each
other. The blanking punch acts as a piercing die. Angular clearance should
be provided in the piercing die for the scrap to fall down. Piercing and
blanking operations are performed when the ram moves downward. When
the ram moves upward, the knock out rod ejects the washer.!
Advantages
1) Two or more operations can be performed in single die.!
2) The products can be made accurately.!
3) Production time is less.!
!
Disadvantages
1) The cost of die is more.!
2) The design of die is complicated.!
!
3.10.4 Combination die!
Knock out

Spring

Blanking punch
Stripper

Drawing die
Sheet metal

Die ring Pad

Drawing punch

Component

Fig.3.28 Combination die

!

! In this die, a cutting and a non-cutting operation can be performed

simultaneously in a single work station when the ram moves downward. Any
one cutting operation like blanking, piercing, trimming or cut-off and any one
non-cutting operation like bending or drawing can be performed in a single
work station. The combination die used for marking up is shown in the figure.

The blanking punch in the punch holder acts as a drawing die also.
When ram moves downward, blanking punch cuts the sheet metal. When the
Unit – III: Forging & Press Working 3.23
ram moves downward further, the blank is pressed between the drawing
punch and die to form the required shape.

Advantages
1) Two operations can be performed in a single work station.!
2) Production time less.!
3) Components can be produced accurately.!

Disadvantages
1) The design of die is complicated.!
2) The cost of the die is more.!

3.10.5 Inverted die!

Ram
Punch holder
Guide post
Die
Sheet metal

Stripper Guide

Punch Die holder

Fig.3.29 Inverted die
!

! Generally die is fitted in the die holder and punch is fitted in the punch
holder. In some times, this arrangement may be changed. In an inverted die,
punch is fitted in the die holder and die is fitted in the punch holder.

When ram moves downward, the blank is cut from the sheet metal.
This blank is forced into the die opening by the punch to get required shape.
The knock out and stripper springs are compressed. When the ram moves
upward, the stripper spring releases and ejects the blank form the punch.
Then the knock out spring releases and pushes out the blank or product.

In this die, the punch is fitted in the die holder remains stationary.
The die fitted to the punch holder moves up and down along with the ram.!
!
Unit – III: Forging & Press Working 3.24
Advantages
1) Thin sheet metal does not bend during operation.!
2) Heavy blanks can be produced.!
!
Disadvantages
1) The cost of die is more.!
2) The design of die is complicated.!
!
3.11 Press working operations
3.11.1 Bending operations
Bending is the process of making the metal sheet into a shape or
required angle by plastically deforming the metal. Bending can be done in
ductile material by using die and punch or rolls. The surface area of the metal
will not be changed after bending.!
1) Angle bending
! Angle bending is the process of bending a sheet metal to small
angle. The die and punch are shaped to required angle. The sheet metal is
placed between the die and punch.
Punch
Pressure pad Punch
Sheet metal
Die

!
Fig.3.30 Angle bending
When the punch moves downward and presses the sheet metal, the
sheet metal is bent according to the shape of die and punch. A small amount
of spring back will occur after bending. To overcome this, required allowance
should be given in the die.!

2) Channel bending
Channel bending is the operation of bending a sheet metal in to a
channel. The die and punch are formed to required shape and size of
channel. The sheet metal is placed between the die and punch. When the
punch moves downward and presses the sheet metal, the sheet metal is
bent according to the shape of die and punch. Thus channels of required
size and shape are formed. !
Unit – III: Forging & Press Working 3.25
 Punch

Sheet metal
Die

Fig.3.31 Channel bending

3) Curling
Curling is the operation of bending the edges of the sheet metal into circular
form. The sharp edges are avoided by curling. It also strengthens the edges.
Upper die

Sheet metal

Lower die

Fig.3.32 Curling
The sheet metal is placed between the copper die (punch) and lower
die. The lower die is held stationary. The upper die is shaped to required form at
its end. When the upper die moves down, the edge of the work piece is curled
and strengthened. Thus curling operation is done in the edges of sheet metal.!

4) Drawing
Punch Pressure pad
Sheet metal

Die

Final product

Fig.3.33 Drawing

Unit – III: Forging & Press Working 3.26

 Drawing is the operation of forming a sheet metal into hollow shape
like a cup. If the depth of cup is upto half its diameter, the process is called
shallow drawing. If the depth of cup is more than its diamter, it is called as
deep drawing.

The die has a cavity in the external shape of the part. The sheet
metal blank is held on the die. A blank holder or pressure pad is provided on
the blank to avoid buckling or wrinkling of sheet metal. When the punch
moves downward, it draws or streches the sheet metal into the die cavity.
Due to the tensile forces applied to the sheet, it plastically deforms into a
cup-shaped part. The portion of the sheet metal clamped under the blank
holder may form a flange around the part that can be trimmed off.

Examples of parts made by drawing include automotive bodies, fuel

tanks, cans, cups, bottle caps, kitchen sinks, pots, pans, etc.

3.11.2 Shearing operations

Clearance to die

Punch
Sheet metal
Shear fracture

Slug
Die land

Die block
Die relief
Fig.3.34 Shearing
Shearing is an operation of cutting the sheet metal in punch and die.
The sheet metal is placed between the punch and die. When the punch moves
down, it is pressed in the die opening. Sufficient clearance should be provided
between the punch and die. By this high pressure, high stress is developed in a
small area between the cutting edges of punch and die. This causes the plastic
deformation of metal. When the stress exceeds the ultimate strength of the
metal, fracture takes place. When the punch continues to move down, the metal
under the punch is completely cut off and drops down though the die opening.!
Unit – III: Forging & Press Working 3.27
1) Blanking
Products
Scrap
(Blanks)

Fig.3.35 Blanking
Blanking is the operation of cutting the sheet metal into required
shape by using die and punch. The metal drops down through the die
opening is the required product (blank). The sheet metal left on the die is the
scrap. The die has the shape and size of required blank. Clearance is given
to the punch. So the size of the punch will be smaller than the die.!
2) Punching or piercing!

Punch

Sheet metal

Die Scrap

Work Feed

Fig.3.36 Punching
! Punching is an operation of cutting circular holes in a sheet metal by
using a punch and die. The punch has the shape and size of required hole.
Clearance is given to the die. The sheet metal is placed between the punch
and die. When the punch moves down, hole is pierced. The metal drops
down through the die opening is the scrap. The stripper is fitted to prevent
the sheet metal from sticking and lifting of sheet metal along the punch. Stop
is used to stop the sheet metal at required length.
Unit – III: Forging & Press Working 3.28
3) Parting off

Upper blade

Sheet metal

Lower blade

Fig.3.37 Parting off

Cutting off is an operation of cutting a sheet metal into pieces of required

length. The lower blade is fitted in the machine frame and the upper blade is
fitted in the ram. Clearance is given between the cutting edges of blades. It varies
according to the thickness of work piece. The work piece is held between the
blades. When upper blade moves down, the sheet metal is cut off. There is no
scrap in cutting operation.
!
4) Trimming

Punch

Work piece
Flash
Die (Extra metal)

Fig.3.38 Trimming
It is an operation of finishing the work piece by removing the
unwanted projections. The work piece is placed on the die. When the punch
moves down, it cuts and removes the unwanted portions from the work piece.
Unit – III: Forging & Press Working 3.29
During drawing operations, impressions are formed on the area gripped by
the pressure pad. This portion is removed by trimming.!

5) Notching

Notches

Fig.3.39 Notching

Notching is the operation of cutting small notches at the edge of the

sheet metal. Suitable die and punch are used according to the shape of notch
to be cut.!

6) Slitting
Cut length wise

Fig.3.40 Slitting

Slitting is the operation of cutting a sheet metal in straight line to

required length. It is done along the length of the sheet metal. The sheet
metal is placed between the slitting die and punch and cut to required length.!
!
7) Lancing
Lancing is the operation of cutting a sheet metal through a small
length and bending it. The sheet metal is placed between the punch and die.
When the punch moves down, the blade cuts the sheet metal to required
length. When the punch moves further, the cut portion is bent to required
angle.!

Unit – III: Forging & Press Working 3.30

 Punch
Sheet metal

Fig.3.41 Lancing

8) Shaving

Punch

Die

Component

Fig.3.42 Shaving

Shaving is the operation of finishing the components made in sheet

metal operations by removing the burrs and irregularities. The component is
placed between the die and punch. When the punch moves downward, the
burrs and irregular edges in the component are cut and finished.

Unit – III: Forging & Press Working 3.31

 REVIEW QUESTIONS
1) Define hot working and name the hot working operations.
2) State the advantages of hot working.!
3) What is rolling? Briefly explain hot rolling.
4) State the different forging operations.
5) Explain the following forging operations:
(a) Upset forging (b) Roll forging
6) Explain: (i) Drop forging (ii) Press forging.
7) Write short notes on the following smith forging operations:
(a) Upsetting (b) Punching
8) Explain the following smith forging operations with a sketch:
(a) Bending (b) Setting down.
9) Explain: (i) Drawing down (ii) Swaging
10) Compare drop forging and press forging.
11) How is a power press specified?
12) How are presses classified? Sketch and explain the working of ball press.
13) What are the types of frames used in presses? Explain any two of them
with sketches.
14) Explain the working of a mechanical press with any one driving mechanism.
15) Explain the hydraulic press with sketch.
16) What are the advantages of hydraulic press over mechanical press?
17) List out the driving mechanisms used in presses? Explain any one in detail.
18) Briefly explain the following accessories in a die set.
a) Stripper b) Pressure pad c) Knock out d) Pilot e) Stop
19) What is compound die? Explain its working with a neat sketch
20) Explain a combination die set with a sketch.
21) Sketch and explain a simple progressive die set.
22) Explain an inverted die with neat sketch.
23) Explain the following bending operations:
a) Angle bending b) Channel bending c) Curling.
24) Explain the following operations with sketches.
a) Blanking b) Trimming c) Parting off
25) Explain the following operations with sketches.
a) Piercing b) Lancing c) Drawing
26) Distinguish between blanking and piercing operation.

 
Unit – III: Forging & Press Working 3.32
 Unit – IV
POWDER METALLURGY
AND HEAT TREATMENT
Chapter - 4.1. POWDER METALLURGY
4.1 Powder metallurgy
Generally components are manufactured to required size and shape
by machining, casting, hot working and cold working processes. Some times,
metals and non-metals cannot be combined and is not possible to produce
components with required properties by these methods. Some metals cannot
be machined to required shape. Some metals cannot be alloyed together.
As some metal has high melting point, it cannot be easily melted and cast.

The above disadvantages are overcome by a special process called

powder metallurgy. First the metal and non-metal powders are prepared and
mixed together to required proportions. The mixed powder is pressed into a
die to get required shape. Then it is hardened by sintering (heating). Thus
metal and non-metal powders are mixed at required proportions and
components are made with required properties and shape.!

4.2 Manufacturing procedure

Powder metallurgy is the process of making components with
required properties and shape by mixing metal and non-metal powders.
Powder metal products are manufactured by the following procedure.!
1) Manufacturing of metal powder
2) Blending or mixing!
3) Pressing or compacting!
4) Sintering
5) Finishing and sizing

4.2.1 Methods of manufacturing metal powder

Powder of various metals are prepared by the following methods.!
1) Atomization 2) Electrolytic deposition
3) Chemical reduction 4) Machining
5) Shotting 6) Milling
7) Grinding
!

Unit – IV: Powder Metallurgy & Heat Treatment 4.1

1) Atomization
Ladle

Molten metal

Heating coil

Atomizing
chamber
Orifice
Air
Metal powder

Fig. 4.1 Atomization

!

! In this process, the molten metal is poured into the atomizing

chamber. The molten metal comes out through an orifice provided at the
bottom of the chamber. Heating coils are provided around the chamber to
maintain the temperature of molten metal.

A steam of high pressure water or air or inert gas is passed through

a nozzle against the molten metal coming out of orifice. This makes the metal
into finely divided particles (powder) and solidify. The metal powder is
collected when falls down. This method is used for producing powder of
metals having low melting point such as aluminium, lead and zinc.

The size of the particle depends upon the following factors.

1) The temperature of molten metal.!
2) Pressure and temperature of atomizing water or air or gas.!
3) Design or orifice and nozzle.!

Advantages
1) Particles with any required size can be obtained.!
2) The size of all particles are uniform.!
3) The production rate is high.!

Unit – IV: Powder Metallurgy & Heat Treatment 4.2

2) Electrolytic deposition!
+ ve - ve
Anode Cathode

Metal plate

Metal deposit
Electrolyte

Fig.4.2 Electrolytic deposition

! It is similar to electroplating process. In this method, the metal to be
powdered acts as anode (+ve) and the metal on which the powder is to be
deposited acts as cathode (-ve). The two metals are dipped into an
electrolyte. When D.C. supply is given, the metal from the anode gets
deposited on the cathode like sponge. Then the metal powder is separated.!
!
! Suitable electrolyte should be used in this method. Electrolyte is a
salt solution of metal to be powdered. Copper sulphate solution is used as
electrolyte to produce copper powder. Here, copper plate acts and anode
and aluminium plate acts as cathode.
Metals powders of copper, iron, silver and zinc can be produced by
this method.
Advantages
1) Pure powder can be obtained.!
2) The powder will have good moulding properties.!
Disadvantages
1) It is a slow process.!
2) The operating cost is high.!

3) Chemical reduction or!reduction of oxides!

! In this method, metal powders can be produced by reducing the
metal oxides. For example, tungsten oxide powder is prepared first to
produce tungsten powder. This powder is heated to a temperature below its
melting point in hydrogen atmosphere. Tungsten oxide is reduced to
tungsten by hydrogen in the form of spongy mass.
Unit – IV: Powder Metallurgy & Heat Treatment 4.3
 Waste
outlet
H 2inlet

Metal
oxide Heating coil
Metal powder

Fig.4.3 Chemical reduction

This method is suitable for producing powders of metals having high
melting point such as tungsten and molybdenum. Hydrogen or carbon
monoxide is used as reducing agent.!!
!
Advantages
1) The metal powder is soft.!
2) Compacting can be done easily.!
3) Production rate is high.!
Disadvantages!
1) It is suitable only for metals which can be reduced easily.!
2) The metal oxides should be pure.!

4.2.2 Blending or mixing!

! Blending or mixing is the process of combining metal and non-metal
powders with correct proportions to get required properties. The particles are
uniformly distributed during mixing by using machine. Mixing should be done
only for correct duration. The friction between die and component during
pressing can be reduced by adding lubricants like graphite powder.!

4.2.3 Compacting or pressing

Pressing or compacting is the process of pressing the mixed metal
powder into a die to get required size and shape. It is also called as
briquetting. The following can be achieve by pressing.!
The component remains strong without breaking when handling.
Required density of component can be obtained.
Bonding between the particles is improved.
The following are the two types of pressing.!
1) Cold pressing 2) Hot pressing

Unit – IV: Powder Metallurgy & Heat Treatment 4.4

1) Cold pressing
Upper punch

Metal powder
Compact

Die

Lower punch

Fig.4.4 Cold pressing

Mechanical or hydraulic press is used for cold pressing. In this
method, the mixed powder is filled in the die cavity and pressed between
upper and lower punch. Thus required shape is obtained. The finished metal
compact is ejected from the die by the lower punch. The component obtained
by cold pressing is called green compact.!

2) Hot pressing

To vaccuum pump Upper punch

Heating coil Compact

Die
Lower punch

Fig.4.5 Hot pressing

Unit – IV: Powder Metallurgy & Heat Treatment 4.5

 The metal powders of hard materials like diamond and tungsten
carbide cannot be pressed by cold pressing. These metal powders can be
pressed by using hot pressing to make the component. The mixed metal
powder is filled in the die cavity. The die is made of steel or graphite. Steel dies
are used when temperature is below 1000oC and graphite dies are used when
the temperature is above 1000oC.
The metal powder is heated to above its recrystalization temperature
by the heating coils provided around the die. At the same time, the metal
powder is pressed by the upper and lower punch. Hot pressing is done in
vacuum or in an inert gas atmosphere. This is to avoid oxidation of metal at
high temperature. In hot pressing, heating (sintering) and pressing take place
at the same time.
!

Advantages
1) Components having high strength and hardness can be obtained.!
2) Low compacting pressure is sufficient.!
3) No lubricant is required.!
4) Components with high density can be obtained.!
5) Production rate is high as heating and pressing take place at the same
time.!
Disadvantages
1) The cost of the die is high.!
2) The life of die is less as it wears out quickly.!

4.2.4 Sintering!
Sintering is the process of heating the green compact just below the
melting point of its base metal in an controlled atmosphere. Sintering process
is affected by the temperature, time and atmosphere. During sintering, the
particles of green compact are fused together. This gives required strength,
hardness and properties to the component. Sintering is done in vacuum or
inert gas atmosphere.

The sintering temperature and time varies according to the type of

metal powder and required properties. When the compact is heated to
sufficient time, the metal particle bind together to give high tensile strength.
The size of the components change during sintering. Generally green
compact made of iron and brass is reduced in size by sintering. The green
compact made of bronze is increased in size.!

Unit – IV: Powder Metallurgy & Heat Treatment 4.6

Sintering furnace
!

Thermo couple

Green Gas pipe

Heating zone Soaking zone Cooling zone
compact

Loading Unoading

Heating elements Wire mesh belt

Fig.4.6 Sintering furnace

The sintering furnace is divided into three zones viz. heating zone,
soaking zone and cooling zone. Thermo couples are provided in each zone
to control the temperature. The furnace is heated by heating coils. Controlled
atmosphere is created by passing hydrogen gas into the furnace. Trays are
placed over a wire mesh belt conveyor. Green compacts are placed in trays
and passed into the furnace.

The green compacts are warmed in the heating zone. In soaking

zone, the compacts are heated to sintering temperature. Then the compacts
are cooled in cooling zone. The sintering time can be controlled by varying
the speed of the conveyor.!
!
4.2.5 Secondary operations or finishing operations
The powder metal products can be used directly after sintering. The
following finishing operations are done if more surface finish and accuracy
are required. !

1) Sizing or coining 2) Infiltration 3) Impregnation

4) Machining 5) Heat treatment 6) Metal coating

1) Sizing or coining
! In this method, the sintered component is held in a die and pressed
under high pressure. Due to this, a small amount of plastic flow occurs. The
component gets the correct size and shape. The strength and density of
component is improved by reducing the gap between the particles.

Unit – IV: Powder Metallurgy & Heat Treatment 4.7

2) Infiltration
Infiltration is the process of filling the pores in the sintered
component by using an another molten metal having low melting point. The
work piece is covered with the infiltrant metal as thin sheet or powder and
kept in a furnace. The infiltrant metal is heated to its melting point. The molten
metal fills the pores in the work piece by capillary action.

The strength, hardness and density of the component can be

increased by infiltration. Infiltration in iron products are done by using copper.
Copper and silver are used as infiltrants in tungsten products.!

4.3 Advantages of powder metallurgy

1) High dimensional accuracy, shape and surface finish can be obtained.!
2) No material wastage.!
3) The product with required density and porosity can be obtained.!
4) Components with required properties can be produced by combining
metal and non-metal.!
5) The rate of production is high.!
6) It is suitable for mass production.!
7) No skilled labour is required.!
8) Components with complicated shapes can be produced easily.!
9) The life of the product is high.!
10) Components with high hardness can be made easily.!
!
4.4 Disadvantages / Limitations of powder metallurgy
1) It is not economical for small scale production.
2) The cost of equipments and die are high.
3) Large components cannot be produced.
4) The density is not uniform throughout the component.
5) When powder is stored, it may be wasted by oxidation.
6) The broken parts cannot be rejoined.
7) Explosion may occurs while handling some metal powders.
8) The health of operator may be affected.
9) Good physical properties of components cannot be obtained.
10) The time for producing metal powder is more.

Unit – IV: Powder Metallurgy & Heat Treatment 4.8

4.5 Applications of powder metallurgy
Powder metallurgy is used for producing the following products.!
1) Self lubricating bearing, filters and oil pump gears.
2) Hardened carbide tips and wire drawing dies.
3) Tungsten filament wire used in electric bulbs, radio valves and X-ray
tubes.
4) Cathode, anode and control grids.
5) Heavy duty electrical contacts.
6) Automobile clutch plate, brake lining and motor brushes.
7) Small gears, cam, lever, piston ring and magnets.
8) Nozzles used in rockets and missiles.
9) Welding electrodes.
10) Refractories.

4.6 Mechanical properties of parts made by powder metallurgy

1) Strength : The structure is not fibrous as the powder grains are only
bonded together. So the products have low tensile strength.!
2) Hardness : The hardness of the powder metal component is less due to
the pores present in it. The hardness will not be uniform as the density
varies at different locations.
3) Ductility : The powder metal component has low ductility as the
structure is porous. The ductility can be increased by the hot pressing
and sintering.!
4) Dampness : Powder metal components have good damping properties.
So they can absorb vibrations.!

4.7 Design rules for powder metallurgy process

1) Small holes (less than 2mm diameter) should be avoided.!
2) Sudden changes in thickness should be avoided.!
3) Narrow and deep sections should be avoided.!
4) Holes should not be provided in the direction of pressing.!
5) Shape of the component should allow easy ejection from the die.
Sharp corners should be avoided in the work piece.!
6) Threads, knurling and under cuts should not be formed by compacting.

Unit – IV: Powder Metallurgy & Heat Treatment 4.9

 Unit – IV
POWDER METALLURGY
AND HEAT TREATMENT
Chapter - 4.2. HEAT TREATMENT
4.8 Heat treatment
Heat treatment is the process of modifying the required properties of
metal and metal alloys. The required properties can be improved by the
metal and metal alloys to different temperature and cooling at specific rate.
For example, the crystal structure of steel gets changed when
heating. The micro structure of steel depends upon carbon content,
temperature and rate of cooling. The properties of steel will be modified
according to the micro structure.!

4.9 Microstructure of steel

Steel is an alloy of carbon and iron. The different micro structure of
steel are:!
!

1) Austenite 2) Ferrite 3) Cementite

4) Pearlite 5) Leduburite 6) Martensite
1) Austenite!
It is called a solid solution of carbon dissolved up to 2% in γ - iron.
It is non-magnetic and unstable at room temperature. The austenite structure
is formed first in all heat treatment processes. Then different types of
structures are obtained by different rate of cooling.!
!

2) Ferrite
It is a solid solution of carbon in α - iron. It is non-magnetic above 768oC
and magnetic below 768oC. The maximum carbon that can be dissolved into
this structure is 0.025%. It can be hardened by heat treatment process.!
!

3) Cementite!
! It is simply iron carbide (Fe3C) which is a compound of iron and
carbon. It contains carbon up to 6.67% by weight. It is mostly found in cast
iron. It is very hard and brittle.!
!

4) Pearlite
! It is a mixture of ferrite and cementite. It has carbon content up to
0.8%. It contains 87.5% ferrite and 12.55% cementite.!
Unit – IV: Powder Metallurgy & Heat Treatment 4.10
5) Leduburite
! It is an eutectic mixture of austenite and cementite with equal
proportions. It contains carbon up to 4.3%.!
!
6) Martensite
Martensite is a structure obtained by the decomposition of austenite
when it is cooled rapidly. It has needle like structure arranged in angular
position. It contains carbon up to 2%. It is very hard, magnetic and brittle.!
!
4.10 Iron - Carbon equilibrium diagram
D

1600 δ+Liq
1539
A
B L iq
uid
δ iron S
E ol us
1400 l i Liquid
id

δ+Aus ne
us

Liq + Aus
l in
Temperature (° C)

1200 Liq + Cem

e

1130°C
Aus ( γ)
G C H
e
in

1000
L

910 Iα+Aus
T

Aus + Cem + Lede

UC

Aus +
800
K Cem 723°C M
L
α iron
Eutectoid point Lower critical
600
temperature line

400
Pear Pear + Pear + Cem + Lede
+ Fer Cem

200
Hypo Hyper
eutectoid eutectoid
0.8 1 2 3 4 4.3 5 6 6.67

Steel Cast iron

% Carbon
Fig.4.7 Iron-Carbon equilibrium diagram

Unit – IV: Powder Metallurgy & Heat Treatment 4.11

! Iron – carbon equilibrium diagram is the graphical representation of
the phase changes undergone by iron with respect to the carbon content and
temperature on cooling or heating. This diagram is very much used to identify
the suitable metal alloys for different heat treatment processes, carbon
content and required temperature for the process. This diagram is drawn by
taking the carbon content in X-axis and temperature in Y-axis.!

Description of the diagram

The line ABCD is known as liquidus line. Iron exists in liquid state at
temperature above this line. The pure iron starts to solidify at the point A
(1530oC). As the line goes gradually downwards from A to C, it is
understood that the solidification temperature decreases when the carbon
content increases.
The point C represents the solidifies temperature of iron (1130oC) with 4.3%
carbon. The line CD shows that the solidification temperature increases when
the carbon content increases above 4.3%.
The line AGCH is known as solidus line. Iron exists in solid state at
temperature below this line.
The diagram is divided into two parts based on the carbon content. The
part up to 2% carbon is called steel range and the part with more than 2%
carbon is known as cast iron range.
Steel containing carbon less than 0.8% is called hypo eutectoid steel.
Steel containing carbon exactly 0.8% is called eutectoid steel. Steel
containing carbon from 0.8% to 2% is called hyper eutectoid steel.
Steel containing less than 0.2% is called low carbon steel. Steel with 0.2%
to 0.8% carbon is called medium carbon steel and with 0.8% to 2% carbon
is called high carbon steel.!

Critical temperatures!
 The temperature at which the micro structure of metal starts changing is
called critical temperature.
 When the molten metal is cooled, the temperature at which the micro
structure of metal starts changing is known as Upper Critical
Temperature (UCT).
 The temperature at which the micro structure is completely changed is
known as Lower Critical Temperature (LCT).

Unit – IV: Powder Metallurgy & Heat Treatment 4.12

 The line LKM (723oC) is known as Lower Critical Temperature line. The
lower and upper critical temperature of eutectoid steel which contains
0.8% carbon are same (point K).!
Structure transformation in steel

Upper critical
temp.line
1000

910

t2 t4
800 Fer + Aus + Cem
Aus
Temperature (° C)

t1 t3
600 Lower critical temperature line

400
Pear + Fer Pear + Cem

200

0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2

Hypoeutectoid Hyper eutectoid
steel steel

% Carbon
Fig.4.8 Structure transformation in steel

Let us consider two types of steel having 0.4% carbon and 1.2%
carbon. In the figure, the points t1 and t2 are the LCT and UCT of steel with
0.4% carbon respectively. Steel is in austenite structure above the temperature
t2. Austenite is converted into ferrite at the temperature t2. Ferrite is converted
into pearlite at the temperature t1. Steel exists as a mixture of pearlite and
ferrite below the temperature t1.
t3 and t4 are the LCT and UCT of steel with 1.2% carbon respectively.
This type of steel is in austenite structure above the temperature t4. It is
converted into cementite at the temperature t4. Cementite is converted into
Unit – IV: Powder Metallurgy & Heat Treatment 4.13
pearlite at the temperature t3. Steel exists as a mixture of austenite and
cementite in between these two temperature. Steel exists as a mixture of pearlite
and ferrite below the temperature t3.
!
4.11 Purpose of heat treatment!
! Heat treatment processes are done on metal and metal alloys for the
following purpose.
!

1) To improve the engineering properties such as hardness, ductility,

tensile strength, etc.!
2) To improve the wear resistance, corrosion resistance and thermal
resistance!
3) To improve the machinability of the metal!
4) To harden the surface of the metals!
5) To refine the grain size!
6) To make the metal homogeneous!
7) To relieve internal stresses!
8) To improve the magnetic and electrical properties!
9) To remove the trapped gases!

4.12 Heat treatment processes!

The following heat treatment processes are carried out in steel and its alloys.
1)!Annealing 2) Normalising 3) Hardening
4) Tempering 5) Case hardening

4.13 Annealing
Annealing is the process of heating the steel just above the critical
temperature and slowly cooling it. The following are the different annealing
processes.!
1) Full annealing 2) Process annealing
3) Stress relief annealing 4) Spheroidise annealing
5) Isothermal annealing
Purpose of annealing!
1) To improve the properties like ductility and plasticity
2) To soften the metal by reducing the hardness
3) To improve the machinability of metals
4) To make the metal homogeneous
5) To relieve the internal stresses
6) To form a specific micro structure
!
Unit – IV: Powder Metallurgy & Heat Treatment 4.14
4.13.1 Full annealing!
!
!
Full annealing is carried out as follows.
Steel is heated in a furnace to a temperature 30oC to 50oC above
the critical temperature.!
Steel is kept in the same temperature for some time.!
Then it is slowly cooled inside the furnace itself.!

Hypo-eutectoid steels are heated above its upper critical

temperature and hyper eutectoid steels are heated above its lower critical
temperature. Now steel is converted into austenite structure. The whole steel
is converted into austenite structure when it is kept at the same temperature
for some time. Then austenite is converted into soft pearlite and ferrite
structure in hypo eutectoid steels when it is cooled. Austenite is converted
into soft pearlite and cementite structure in hyper eutectoid steels.

Full annealing should be done in sheets, forgings and castings made

from medium and high carbon steel by hot working methods.!!
!

1000

Normalising range

910 Full annealing range

Temperature (° C)

723

Spheroidising annealing
600
Isothermal annealing

Process annealing

0.4 0.8 1.2

% Carbon

Fig.4.9 Annealing and normalising

Unit – IV: Powder Metallurgy & Heat Treatment 4.15

4.13.2 Process annealing
The hardness of the steel is increased in cold working. As the
ductility is decreased, it will not be suitable for further cold working. So
process annealing is done to get back the ductility. In this method, steel is
heated to a temperature just below the lower critical temperature (about
550oC to 700oC). It is kept in the same temperature for some time (about 30
to 60 minutes) and cooled slowly.!
!
4.13.3 Stress relief annealing!
! Stress is removed in all annealing processes commonly. But this
process is specially used to remove internal stresses. In this process, steel is
heated to a temperature just above the lower critical temperature (about 650oC).
It is kept under the same temperature for 8 hours. Then it is cooled slowly.!
!
4.13.4 Spheroidise annealing
! Spheroidise annealing is used for improving the machinability of
hard steel and alloy steels. In this process, steel is heated to about 700oC
and kept in the same temperature for long time (about 3 hours to 8
hours). Then it is cooled at a rate of 25oC to 35oC per hour. In this method,
steel is converted from cementite structure to pearlite structure of spherical
shape. The spheroidal structure has good machinability.

The machinability of high carbon tool steel and alloy steels are
improved by this process.!
!
4.13.5 Isothermal annealing!
! In this process, steel is heated to a temperature above the upper
critical temperature. Now steel is converted into austenite. Then the steel is
cooled rapidly to a temperature just below the lower critical temperature
(600oC to 700oC) by supplying air blast into the furnace. The steel is kept at
the same temperature until the structure is converted into pearlite. Then it is
cooled rapidly in air. Homogeneous structure is obtained in a short time by this
process. This process is used for annealing low carbon steels and alloy steels.!
!
4.14 Normalising
The crystal structure of components made by cold working, casting
and forging are distorted and non-uniform. So normalizing is done to obtain
uniform structure and fine grains.!
!
!

Unit – IV: Powder Metallurgy & Heat Treatment 4.16

Normalising consists of the following :
!

Steel is heated to a temperature 50oC above the upper critical

temperature.!
It is kept at the same temperature for a short time (about 15 minutes).!
Then it is cooled in still air.!
!

During cooling, austenite structure is converted into soft pearlite and

ferrite structure in hypo eutectoid steels. In hyper eutectoid steels, it is
converted into soft pearlite and cementite structure.!
!

Purpose of normalizing!
1) To refine the grain size!
2) To relieve internal stresses!
3) To form homogeneous structure!
4) To improve machinability!
5) To improve the strength of components!
!
4.15 Hardening
Hardening is the process of increasing hardness of steel and alloy
steels. Hardening is done in steel for the following purpose.!
1) To increase the hardness of steel
2) To increase the wear resistance
3) To enable the steel to cut other metals
!
The process of hardening consists of the following.!
Steel is heated to a temperature just above the critical temperature.!
It is kept under the same temperature for long time. It is suddenly
cooled by dipping in quenching medium.!
Hypo eutectoid steels are heated above its upper critical temperature
and hyper eutectoid steels are heated above its lower critical temperature.
Now hypo eutectoid steels are converted into austenite and hyper eutectoid
steels are converted into austenite and cementite. When the steel is kept at
the high temperature for long time, carbon in steel is completely dissolved.
When the hot steel is cooled suddenly by quenching, the austenite structure
is converted into hard martensite structure. This gives hardness to steel.
The hardness obtained by hardening process depends upon the
following.!
1) Carbon content 2) Rate of cooling 3) Work size
Unit – IV: Powder Metallurgy & Heat Treatment 4.17
1) Carbon content!
! Steel containing sufficient amount of carbon can only be hardened
by hardening. Low carbon steels with 0% to 0.3% carbon cannot be so
hardened. The hardness of steel contains 0.3% to 0.7% carbon increases
gradually when carbon content increases rapidly. The hardness of steel
containing carbon content more than 0.7% slightly increases with increased
carbon content.!
!
2) Rate of cooling!
! Steel has to be cooled rapidly to obtain hard martensite structure.
The rate of cooling depends upon the following.
!

Carbon content of steel.!

The shape and size of work piece.!
The liquid used for cooling (quenching medium).!
The initial temperature of quenching medium.!

3) Work size!
! When cooling the components, the outer surface is in contact with the
quenching medium. So the outer surface cools at a rapid rate. The inner surface
cools slowly. But in thicker sections, the cooling will not be uniform throughout
the depth. The rate of cooling is increased to avoid the uneven cooling.!

4.16 Tempering
The hardened steel will be very brittle. More internal stresses are also
developed during hardening. So the hardened steel may not be suitable for
more uses. The hardness and internal stresses can be reduced by tempering.

In this process, the hardened steel is heated to a temperature below its

lower critical temperature. It is kept in the same temperature for some time (2 to
3 minutes per 1 mm thickness of steel). Finally steel is cooled in air at slow rate.!
!
Purpose of tempering!
1) To reduce the brittleness of hardened steel!
2) To remove the internal stresses developed on rapid cooling!
3) To reduce the hardness of steel!
4) To improve the strength of steel!
5) To improve the ductility and toughness!

Unit – IV: Powder Metallurgy & Heat Treatment 4.18

 1000

910

800
723
Temperature (° C)

600 High temperature

tempering

400
Medium temperature
tempering

200 Low temperature

tempering

0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2

% Carbon
Fig.4.10 Tempering
The different tempering processes are explained below.
1) Low temperature tempering!
! In this process, the hardened steel is heated about 120oC to 220oC and
then cooled slowly. The main purpose of this process is to remove the internal
stress and to increase the ductility. The hardness is not reduced by this process.
Tempering is done on cutting tools made of carbon steel and alloy steels.!

2) Medium temperature tempering

! In this process, the hardened steel is heated about 250oC to 375oC
and then cooled slowly. During this process, the martensite structure of steel
is converted into troosite structure. (Troosite is a mixture of ferrite and
carbide particles). The ductility and toughness of steel are increased due to
this structure. The hardness is reduced. This process is suitable for
tempering parts like chisels, hammers, laminated springs and coils which are
subjected to impact loads.!
!
3) High temperature tempering!
! In this process, the hardened steel is heated about 500oC to 650oC
and then cooled. During this process, the martensite structure of steel is
converted into sorbite structure. (Sorbite is a mixture of ferrite and cementite
Unit – IV: Powder Metallurgy & Heat Treatment 4.19
particles). The toughness and ductility of steel are very much increased due
to this structure. Internal stresses are completely removed. This method is
used for tempering machine parts which are subjected to high stresses and
shock loads such as gear wheels, connecting rods and shafts.!
!
4) Austempering!
! In this process, the steel is heated to a temperature above the upper
critical temperature. Steel is kept at this temperature until the structure is
completely converted into austenite. Then it is cooled rapidly by quenching in a
salt bath which is kept at a temperature of 250oC to 450oC. Steel is kept in the
salt bath for some time. During this process, the austenite structure is converted
into bainite structure. (Bainite is a hard mixture of cementite and ferrite). Then
steel is cooled in air.
In this process, the steel gets required hardness and toughness. As
quenching is done in a hot salt bath, crack or distortion will not occurs. This
process is suitable for tempering air craft parts.!
!
5) Martempering!
! In this process, the steel is heated to a temperature above its critical
temperature. Then it is rapidly cooled by quenching in a salt bath which is
kept at a temperature of about 250oC. The steel is kept at this temperature
for sufficient time until both the outer surface and inner surface reach the
same temperature. Then it is cooled in air slowly. During this cooling,
austenite structure is converted into hard martensite structure. As all the
parts of steel is uniformly converted into martensite, brittleness is reduced.
Required hardness and toughness are obtained.

Internal stresses are completely removed in this process. No crack

occurs. This method is suitable for tempering work pieces having
complicated shapes and various thickness.!
!
4.17 Quenching medium
! Quenching is the process of rapidly cooling hot metal by
dipping it in a liquid. The liquid used for cooling is called quenching medium.
Quenching is done in hardening process. The micro structure and hardness
of metal are affected by the rate of cooling. So suitable quenching media is
used to get required hardness.

Unit – IV: Powder Metallurgy & Heat Treatment 4.20

4.17.1 Different types of quenching medium
!
The generally used quenching media are given below.!
1) Water solution with 10% brine (NaCl)!
2) Cold water!
3) Salt solution!
4) Mineral oil, vegetable oil and animal oil!
5) Air!

A solution of water and brine is used for very rapid cooling. So this
solution can be used to get high hardness.
Generally water is used as a quenching media for cooling low carbon
and medium carbon steel.
Oil is used as quenching media for cooling high carbon and alloy
steels.
The metal cooled by air has low hardness as the rate of cooling is very
slow.
The rate of cooling is affected by the temperature of quenching media.
When a solution of water and brine is used, the rate of cooling will
decrease if the temperature of solution increases. !
When oil is used, the increase in temperature of oil decreases its
viscosity. So the rate of cooling is increased. The rate of cooling can be
increase by agitating the quenching medium or the work piece.!
!

Unit – IV: Powder Metallurgy & Heat Treatment 4.21

 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1) What is powder metallurgy? Give a few industrial applications

2) Explain the step by step procedure to manufacture parts by powder
metallurgy process.
3) State the various methods of manufacturing metal powders and
explain any one method in detail.
4) Describe the atomization process in the manufacture of metal powders.
5) Explain the method of manufacturing metal powder by reduction of oxides.
6) Explain electrolytic deposition
7) Explain cold and hot compaction of powders.
8) Explain the sintering process.
9) Explain briefly the working of sintering furnace with neat sketch.
10) What is meant by infiltration?
11) Explain the uses and advantages of powder metallurgy.
12) Name the few components manufactured by powder metallurgy process.
13) Explain mechanical properties of parts made by powder metallurgy process.
14) Explain the design rules for the powder metallurgy process.
15) Describe the iron – carbon equilibrium diagram with simple sketch.
16) What are the purposes of heat treatment?
17) State the different heat treatment processes. Explain any one in detail.
18) Explain the purpose of annealing.
19) Explain any three annealing processes in detail.
20) Explain the normalising and its purpose.
21) What is hardening ? State its purposes.
22) Explain the various factors that influence the hardening of steel.
23) State the purposes of tempering.
24) Explain the various tempering processes in detail.
25) Mention any five quenching media and their effects.

 

Unit – IV: Powder Metallurgy & Heat Treatment 4.22

 Unit – V
WORK HOLDING, TOOL HOLDING
DEVICES AND POWER TOOLS
Chapter - 5.1. WORK HOLDING DEVICES AND
TOOL HOLDING DEVICES
5.1 Work holding devices
The devices used for holding the work pieces with grip are called work
holding devices. The commonly used work holding devices are described
below.

5.2 Chucks!
! !Work pieces of short lengths, large diameter and irregular shapes
can be held in chucks. The following three type of chucks are available.
!

1) Three jaw self centering chuck

2) Four jaw independent chuck
3) Magnetic chuck

1) Three jaw self centering chuck

!
!

Bevel teeth

Scroll disc

Jaw

Chuck body Jaws

Fig.5.1 Three jaw chuck

! This chuck has three jaws. All the jaws can be moved equal distance
the same time through a bevel pinion and scroll disc by operating a chuck
key. So the work piece held between these jaws can be centered
automatically and quickly.!
Unit – V: Work Holding, Tool Holding Devices & Power Tools 5.1
2) Four jaw independent chuck
Chuck body Jaw screw
Concentric circles

Jaws

Jaw

Chuck body

Fig.5.2 Four jaw chuck

This chuck has four jaws. Each jaw can be independently moved by
using a chuck key. So it is called as independent chuck. Irregular work piece
can be held in this chuck by moving each jaw to required distance. The work
piece can be quickly centered by referring the concentric circles inscribed on
the face of the chuck.

3) Magnetic chuck

Magnet

Chuck body

Fig.5.3 Magnetic chuck

This chuck is used for holding thin work pieces having magnetic
properties. The pressure of jaws on the work piece is avoided by using this
chuck. The chuck gets magnetic power from an electro magnet.!

Unit – V: Work Holding, Tool Holding Devices & Power Tools 5.2
5.3 Centres!
Head stock Driving plate
Dog Dead centre
Work piece Tail stock

Lathe bed
Live centre

Fig.5.4 Work held between centres

! Generally long work pieces are held between two centres. Live centre
is fitted in the head stock and dead centre is fitted in the tail stock. The live
centre rotates with the work piece. The dead centre supports the right end of
the work piece. Dog or carrier is fitted around the work piece and the tail portion
is attached with the catch plate. When the spindle rotates, the work piece is
rotated through catch plate and dog.!

Types of lathe centres

!

Ordinary centre Pipe centre

Insert Shank

Ball centre

Inserted type centre

Tip

Roller bearing
Nut
Ball bearing
Insert centre
Tipped centre

Half centre Rotating centre

Fig.5.5 Lathe centres

!
Unit – V: Work Holding, Tool Holding Devices & Power Tools 5.3
! Lathe centre is a hardened steel piece. It has More taper shank at the
end and a conical taper of 60o at the another end. The centre in the main
spindle is called live centre and the centre in the tail stock is called dead
centre. It is used to support the work piece and withstand the force developed
during machining.
Generally the following centres are used in lathe.
1) Ordinary centre 2) Ball centre
3) Tipped centre 4) Half centre
5) Pipe centre 6) Inserted centre
7) Rotating centre
!

1) Ordinary centre:!Ordinary centre is used for general works.!

2) Ball centre: Ball centre is used for taper turning by set over method.
3) Tipped! centre:! In this centre, a hard alloy tip is brazed at the conical
end. This tip has high wear resistance.!
4) Half centre:! In this centre, half of the conical end is cut off. Facing
operation can be easily done by fitting the half centre in the tail stock.!
5) Pipe centre;!This centre is used for supporting the end of a pipe.!
6) Inserted centre:!This centre is made of high speed steel. When the insert
is worn out, the insert alone can be replaced instead of the whole centre.!
7) Rotating centre;! This centre is used for supporting heavy work which
rotates at high speed. This centre is fitted in the tail stock and revolves
on bearings to reduce friction. So it is also called as frictionless centre.!
!

5.4 Steady rest

Hinge
Workpiece

Bed

Fig.5.6 Steady rest !

Unit – V: Work Holding, Tool Holding Devices & Power Tools 5.4
 While turning long workpiece on lathe, the cutting tool tends to
vibrate and bend the workpiece due to large cutting force. The workpiece
also provides a springing action and large bending moment due to its own
weight. This results in failure of cutting tool and improper machining. To avoid
such problems, the workpiece should be supported in the middle. This extra
support can be provided by a steady rest or centre rest.

The steady rest is mounted on the lathe bed. It consists of a frame

and three adjustable jaws which support the workpiece. The jaws have
supports called quills on which the workpiece rotates. A bearing surface must
be provided for the steady rest jaws. The bearing surface is usually machined
directly on the workpiece. The over arm containing the top jaw can be
unfastened so that identical pieces can be removed and replaced without
adjusting the jaws.
The functions of steady rest include :
to prevent springing or deflection of long and flexible work piece
to provide support for the workpiece to give heavy cuts
to support workpiece for drilling, boring, or internal threading

5.5 Follower rest

Workpiece

Tool

Cross slide
Fig.5.7 Follower rest
!

While machining a long flexible shaft of small diameter on lathe, the

shaft tends to bend and vibrate. To avoid this, the shaft should be supported
very close to the cutting edge of the tool. A follower rest is used for this
purpose. It is attached to the saddle of the lathe carriage. It travels along with
(follows) the tool throughout the operation.
The upper jaw prevents the work piece from climbing the cutting tool.
The lower jaw prevents the workpiece from springing away from the cutting
Unit – V: Work Holding, Tool Holding Devices & Power Tools 5.5
tool. The jaws have supports called quills on which the workpiece rotates.
The jaws are adjusted to accommodate the shaft exactly at centre. The
follower rest is often used for making threads on long flexible shafts.
!
5.6 Face plate
Balance
weight Face plate
Slots Threaded Balance weight
to spindle
Work piece
Tail stock

Clamping
plate
Angle plate
Work piece clamping nut Work piece
clamping nut
Angle plate

Fig.5.8 Face plate Fig.5.9 Angle plate and face plate

! It is a circular plate having threaded bore. It is screwed to the lather
spindle. Slots and holes are provided on the face of the face plate. The work
piece is clamped in the face plate by using T-bolts and nuts. Face plate is
used for holding irregular work pieces which cannot be easily held in chuck.
5.7 Angle plate
Angle plate has two accurately machined faces at right angles. Slots
and holes are provided on each face. The work piece is clamped on one face
of the angle plate by using bolts and nuts. The other face is clamped to the
face plate. Balancing weight is attached with the face plate for uniform
rotation of work piece.!

5.8 Catch plate or driving plate

Threaded
to spindle

Pin

Fig.5.10 Catch plate

Unit – V: Work Holding, Tool Holding Devices & Power Tools 5.6
 Catch plate is a circular cast iron plate having threaded bore. It can be
screwed to the lathe spindle. Catch plate has a projecting pin. Work piece gets
the drive from this pin through dog. Thus catch plate rotates the work piece
held between two centres through the dog.!

5.9 Carrier or dog

Clamping screw
Clamping screw
Eye

Slot

Straight leg
Hole for job
Bent leg

(a) Straight leg carrier (b) Bent leg carrier (c) Double slotted carrier
Fig.5.11 Lathe carrier
Carrier or dog is used to transmit the rotation of catch plate to the
work piece held between two centres. One end of the work piece is clamped
at the eye portion of the dog. The leg portion of the dog is fitted with the
projecting pin in the catch plate.!

5.10 Mandrel!
! Mandrel is a device used for holding hollow work pieces between the
centres. The hole on both sides of the mandrel fits in to the live centre and
dead centre. The work piece rotates with the mandrel. The following
mandrels are used in lathe.
!

1) Plain mandrel 2) Step mandrel 3) Collar mandrel

4) Screwed mandrel 5) Cone mandrel 6) Gang mandrel
7) Expansion mandrel

Plain mandrel !

! It is a commonly used mandrel. It is also known as solid mandrel. The

body of the mandrel has a slight taper for gripping the work piece. The length
of mandrel varies from 55 mm to 430 mm. Different mandrels are used for
work pieces with different bore diameters.!
Unit – V: Work Holding, Tool Holding Devices & Power Tools 5.7
 Work piece

Mandrel

Fig.5.12 Plain mandrel

5.11 Machine vise

Soft round rod Work piece

Movable jaw Fixed jaw

Swivel base
Parallels !
Fig.5.13 Machine vise

Machine vise is used to hold regular shaped work pieces quickly and
easily.The vise is fitted on the table by means of T-bolts and nuts. The vise
has a fixed jaw and a movable jaw. The work piece is held between the jaws.
The screw is rotated by a handle to move the movable jaw for gripping the
work piece. A graduated swivel base is provided in the bottom. The body of
the vise can be swiveled to required angle. !

5.12 V - block
! ‘V’ block is suitable for holding small cylindrical work pieces. The work
piece is held on the ‘V’ block and ‘V’ clamp is placed over it. The clamp is
tightened by T-bolts and nuts for clamping the work piece firmly.

Unit – V: Work Holding, Tool Holding Devices & Power Tools 5.8
 Work piece Clamp

V - block

T - bolt

Table

!
Fig.5.14 V- block!
5.13 T- bolts and clamp
Strap clamp T - bolt
Step block
work piece

Table

Fig.5.15 T- bolts and clamp

!

! T-bolts are inserted in to the T-slots on the table. A strap clamp with a
hole at its centre is inserted in to the bolt. One end of the clamp is made to
rest on the work piece and the another end is on the step block. The work
piece is clamped by tightening a nut on the bolt. Two or more T-bolts and
clamps are used for clamping large work pieces.
5.14 Angle plate
Angle plate

Work piece

Packing

Table

Fig.5.16 Angle plate!

Unit – V: Work Holding, Tool Holding Devices & Power Tools 5.9
 Angle plate is used for holding irregular shaped work pieces having
holes. The angle plate is bolted to the table by using T-bolts. The work piece
is clamped to the vertical face of the angle plate by using bolts and nuts.
Packing strips may be used for supporting the work piece at the bottom.

5.15 Indexing head

Indexing head
Index plate Tail stock

Crank Workpiece

Table

Fig.5.17 Indexing head!

!! Indexing head is a device used to divide the periphery of the work

piece in to any number of equal divisions. It is also called as dividing head.
Indexing is used for cutting gears, splines on shafts and helical grooves on
drill and reamers.

Indexing head is fitted on the table by using T-bolts. The work piece is
held between the head stock and tail stock centres. A chuck may be used
for holding work pieces. The work piece is indexed by rotating a crank in the
head stock. The crank movement is transmitted to the work piece through a
worm and worm wheel. An indexing plate with number of radial holes is
provided in the head stock. The required movement of the crank is obtained
with the help of this indexing plate.!

5.16 Tool holding devices

Tool holding devices are essential components in various machining
and manufacturing processes. They securely hold cutting tools, ensuring
precision, stability, and efficiency.

5.17 Four way tool post

! Four way tool post is generally used in centre lathes. This tool post has
a square block. Four tools can be fitted on four sides of the block by using set
screws. By loosening the clamp, each tool can be tilted by any required angle
and set. The height of tool is adjusted by placing parallel strips.

Unit – V: Work Holding, Tool Holding Devices & Power Tools 5.10
 Clamping handle

Set screw

Tool
Tool

Strip

Fig.5.18 Four way tool post

5.18 Turret head (Turret indexing)

Spring

Plunger
Turret
Cam
Index plate

Ratchet wheel

Turret spindle

Pawl pin
Pawl

Fig.5.19 Turret indexing mechanism

Turret head is an hexagonal block in which six tools can be fitted at
a time. It can be indexed about a vertical axis. Tool holders are fitted in
threaded holes on each face of the turret. After the end of each operation,
turret head is moved back to the starting position. By the time, the turret head
is automatically indexed through 60O to bring the next tool to the working
position. This is done by using turret indexing mechanism.

A small vertical spindle is fixed on the turret saddle. The turret head is
mounted at the top of the spindle. A circular index plate having 6 slots, a bevel
gear and a ratchet wheel are mounted on the same spindle. A spring actuated
plunger in the saddle locks the index plate. A projecting pin is fitted in the plunger.
A spring actuated cam and an indexing pawl are fitted to the lathe bed.

Unit – V: Work Holding, Tool Holding Devices & Power Tools 5.11
 When the turret is moved backward after the end of an operation, the
projecting pin in the plunger slides over the sloping surface of the cam. So the
plunger is released from the slot of the index plate. Now the indexing pawl
engage with the ratchet teeth and turns the index plate and turret through 60O
(1/6 turn). The projecting pin drops out of the cam and hence the plunger locks
the index plate at the next slot. !

5.19 Arbor
Arbors are tool holding devices generally used in milling machines. The
two types of arbors are : (a) Standard arbor and (b) Stub arbor.!
(a) Standard arbor!
! ! This arbor has a long shaft with a taper shank at its one end. This shank
fits correctly in to the taper hole in the spindle nose. The shank has a hole with
internal thread. A draw bolt introduced from the back of the column is screwed
in to this threaded hole. This holds the arbor in position.
Slot to engage Spacing collars
driving dog
Shank Key Nut

Cutter Bearing sleeve

Threaded hole
Fig.5.20 Standard arbor
The front end of the shank has a flange with slots. A driving dog engages
with these slots and the arbor gets positive drive. A key is provided through the
whole length of the arbor. The key way in the milling cutter fits on this key and
the cutter gets positive drive. Spacing collars are inserted on both sides of the
cutter for adjusting the position of cutter.
!
(b) Stub arbor
Slot to engage
driving dog
Shank Spacing collars
Nut

Cutter
Threaded hole !
!

Fig.5.21 Stub arbor!

Unit – V: Work Holding, Tool Holding Devices & Power Tools 5.12
! ! It is a short arbor. Its construction is similar to standard arbor. This
arbor is generally used for holding end mill cutter, T-slot cutter and key way
cutters. The cutter can be clamped to the arbor by a clamping screw.!
!
5.20 Adapter
Adapter is used for holding taper shank cutters in milling machies. It is
used when the taper shank of the cutter is smaller than the spindle taper.
The outer taper of the adapter fits correctly in to the spindle taper. The inside
taper of the adapter can hold the taper shank of the cutter.
Slot
Body

Threaded hole Tapered bore

Fig.5.22 Adapter

A flange with slots is provided at the front end of adapter to engage

the driving dog. The rear end of the adapter has a threaded hole to screw
the draw bolt.

5.21 Spring collet

Spring collet is used for holding straight shank milling cutter. The
tapered front portion of the collet is split by three equally spaced slots.
External threads are provided after the tapered portion. A special nut fits over
the tapered and threaded portion. When the nut is tightened, the split jaws
come closer and the shank of the cutter is gripped firmly.

Slot

Fig.5.23 Spring collet

Unit – V: Work Holding, Tool Holding Devices & Power Tools 5.13
 The taper shank at the rear end of the collet fits in to the spindle taper.
A flange with slots is provided at this end to engage the driving dog. The
back of the collet has a threaded hole to screw the draw bolt.!

5.22 Drill Chuck

! ! Drill chuck is used for holding drills having straight shank. Drill chuck
has a taper shank that fits correctly in to the tapered hole of the spindle. A
commonly used self centering chuck is shown in the figure.

Body

Sleeve

Ring nut
Key

Bevel teeth
Jaw !
!
Fig.5.24 Drill chuck

The chuck has three jaws. A ring nut is meshed with the threads at the
back of the jaws. The ring nut is connected to a sleeve. This sleeve has bevel
teeth on its peripheral surface. When the sleeve rotates, the ring nut also rotates.
This makes the jaws to move towards or away from the centre. Thus the jaws
grip the drill which is held between them. The sleeve can be rotated by using a
key having bevel teeth.!

5.23 Sleeve
If the taper shank of the drill is smaller than the spindle taper, a sleeve
can be used. The outside taper of the sleeve fits in to the tapered hole on the
spindle. A drill can be held in the inside taper of the sleeve. Sleeves of
different sizes are used to hold the drills having different taper shanks.

Unit – V: Work Holding, Tool Holding Devices & Power Tools 5.14
 Tang

Slot for Tapered

drift pin shank

Inside
taper hole

Body

!
!
!!!!!!!!!!!Fig.5.25 Drill sleeve Fig.5.26 Drill Socket

5.24 Socket
If the taper shank of the drill is larger than the spindle taper, a socket
can be used. The outside taper of the socket fits in to the tapered hole of the
spindle. The inside taper of the socket is larger than spindle taper. So a drill
of bigger size can be fitted in to the socket.
!
!

Unit – V: Work Holding, Tool Holding Devices & Power Tools 5.15
 Unit – V
WORK HOLDING, TOOL HOLDING
DEVICES AND POWER TOOLS
Chapter - 5.2. POWER TOOLS
5.25 Power tools
Power tools are tools that are operated using an external power source
instead of human power. They are designed to make tasks such as cutting,
drilling, sanding, grinding, and shaping materials faster, easier, and more
efficient. They can be powered by electricity, batteries or compressed air.
Classification of power tools
Power tools can be classified based on their primary function as follows:
1) Cutting tools
Saws: Circular saws, jigsaws, reciprocating saws, table saws, miter
saws, chain saws.
Cut-off tools: Used for cutting metal, such as angle grinders and cut-
off saws.
2) Drilling and fastening tools
Drills: Corded drills, cordless drills, hammer drills.
Impact wrench and drivers: High-torque tools for driving screws and bolts.
Screwdrivers: Electric screwdrivers, cordless screwdrivers.
Nailers and staplers: Pneumatic or electric nail guns and staple guns.
3) Grinding and sanding tools
Grinders: Angle grinders, bench grinders, die grinders.
Sanders: Orbital sanders, belt sanders, disc sanders.
4) Shaping and finishing Tools
Routers: Used for hollowing out areas in wood, plastic, or metal.
Planers: Tools for smoothing and leveling wood surfaces.
Rotary tools: Versatile tools with various attachments for cutting,
grinding, polishing, and engraving.
5) Heat and adhesive tools
Heat guns: Tools that emit a stream of hot air for stripping paint,
warming pipes, and other heating tasks.
Glue guns: Electric tools for dispensing hot melt adhesive.
Unit – V: Work Holding, Tool Holding Devices & Power Tools 5.16
5.26 Hand drill

Rotating
handle Bevel gears

Shaft

Drill chuck

Drill bit

Fig.5.27 Hand drill

A hand drill is a simple tool used for drilling holes in various materials
such as wood, metal, plastic, and ceramics. It is a manual tool that converts
and amplifies circular motion of the crank into circular motion of a drill chuck.
Components
1) Chuck: The part of the drill that holds the drill bit in place. It may be
keyless or require a key for tightening.
2) Handle: The grip that the user holds while operating the drill.
3) Crank handle: The rotating handle used to manually turn the drill bit.
4) Frame or Body: The main structure of the drill that houses the chuck,
crank handle, and other components.
5) Jaws: Located inside the chuck, they grip the shank of the drill bit to
hold it securely.
6) Spindle: Connects the chuck to the crank handle, transmitting
rotational motion to the drill bit.
7) Bit: The cutting tool that is inserted into the chuck to drill holes in
materials.
Unit – V: Work Holding, Tool Holding Devices & Power Tools 5.17
Working principle
The desired drill bit is inserted into the chuck and tightened securely
using the chuck key. The material to be drilled is clamped or secured in place
to prevent movement during drilling. The user grips and rotates the crank
handle manually in a clockwise direction. The rotation is transmitted to the
drill bit through bevel gear arrangement.

As the drill bit rotates, its cutting edges engage with the material,
removing material and creating a hole. The user applies downward pressure
on the drill while rotating the crank handle. Periodically, the drill bit is
withdrawn from the hole to clear away debris and allow for smoother drilling.

Applications of hand drill

1) Drilling holes for joinery, doweling, and fastening in woodworking
projects.
2) Various tasks around the home, such as hanging shelves, installing
hardware, and assembling furniture.
3) Creating holes in materials for crafting projects such as jewelry
making, model building, and leatherworking.
4) Used in historical reproductions of traditional crafts and techniques.

5.27 Hammer drill

Hammer
Depth stop action
Drill chuck control

Drill bit

ON/OFF
Front switch
handle
Switch lock

Handle

Electric wire

Fig.5.28 Hammer drill

Unit – V: Work Holding, Tool Holding Devices & Power Tools 5.18
 A hammer drill is a power tool designed for drilling into hard materials
such as concrete, brick, stone, and masonry. It combines rotary drilling
motion with a hammering action to break through tough surfaces efficiently.

Components
1) Motor: Powers the drill and provides the rotational and hammering
action.
2) Chuck: The part of the drill that holds the drill bit securely in place.
3) Drill bit: The cutting tool used for drilling holes into various materials.
4) Handle: Provides a grip for the user to hold and control the drill.
5) Trigger: Controls the operation of the drill, including speed and
direction.
6) Mode selector: Allows the user to switch between drilling-only mode
and hammer drilling mode.
7) Depth stop: Sets the drilling depth to ensure consistent hole depths.
8) Auxiliary handle: Provides additional stability and control, especially
when drilling vertically or overhead.
9) Hammer mechanism: The mechanism that generates the
hammering action, typically achieved using a cam or piston.

Types
1) Corded hammer drills: it is powered by electricity from an outlet. It
provides consistent power for extended use and heavy-duty tasks.
2) Cordless hammer drills: It is battery-powered, offering greater
portability and convenience. It is suitable for use in locations without
easy access to electrical outlets.

Working principle
The motor receives power from an electrical outlet or a battery. When
the trigger is squeezed, the motor drives the drill bit in a rotating motion,
similar to a standard drill. In hammer drilling mode, the hammer mechanism
causes the drill bit to move forward and backward rapidly in addition to the
rotational motion. The hammering action delivers rapid impacts to the drill
bit. As the drill bit rotates and hammers, it chips away the material and
creates a hole.

Unit – V: Work Holding, Tool Holding Devices & Power Tools 5.19
Applications of hammer drills
1) Creating holes for anchors, fasteners, and dowels in concrete walls,
floors, and ceilings.
2) Installing hardware, shelves, and fixtures in brick and stone surfaces.
3) Drilling into walls and floors for electrical, plumbing, and other
installations.
4) Preparing surfaces for framing, attaching hardware, and other
construction tasks.
5) Home improvement tasks such as installing shelves, hanging pictures,
and building furniture.

5.28 Angle grinder

Side handle

Adjustable gaurd
Handle

Abrasive disc

Fig.5.29 Angle grinder

An angle grinder is a power tool used for grinding, cutting, polishing,

and finishing various materials. It consists of a motor-driven spinning disc or
wheel mounted at a right angle to the tool body.
Components
1) Motor: Powers the rotation of the grinding wheel and provides the
cutting action.
2) Spindle: The shaft that connects the motor to the grinding wheel.
3) Grinding wheel: The abrasive disc or wheel used for grinding, cutting,
or polishing materials. Different kinds of discs can be used for various
materials and tasks, such as cut-off discs, abrasive grinding discs,
grinding stones, sanding discs, wire brush wheels and polishing pads.

Unit – V: Work Holding, Tool Holding Devices & Power Tools 5.20
 4) Guard: A protective cover that surrounds the grinding wheel to shield
the user from debris and sparks.
5) Handle: Provides a grip for the user to hold and control the angle
grinder during operation.
6) Trigger switch: Controls the power to the motor; pressing the trigger
activates the angle grinder.
7) Lock-on button: Allows continuous operation without continuously
pressing the trigger.
8) Adjustment mechanism: Enables adjustments to the guard position,
handle position, and wheel depth.

Working principle
The motor receives power from an electrical outlet or a battery. When
the trigger is pressed, the motor drives the rotation of the grinding wheel. The
spinning abrasive wheel makes contact with the workpiece and removes
material through abrasion or cutting.

The user holds the handle and guides the angle grinder along the
workpiece, applying pressure and controlling the depth of cut as needed. The
guard and handle positions can be adjusted to suit the task and user
preferences.

Applications of angle grinders

1) Cutting, grinding, and polishing metal surfaces, including steel,
aluminum, and stainless steel.
2) Removing weld splatter, smoothing weld seams, and preparing metal
surfaces for welding.
3) Cutting, grinding, and shaping concrete, brick, stone, and other masonry
materials.
4) Cutting and shaping tiles, removing grout, and smoothing edges.
5) Removing material, shaping, and sanding wood surfaces.
6) Stripping old paint, rust, and corrosion from metal surfaces.
7) Sharpening blades, chisels, and other cutting tools.

Unit – V: Work Holding, Tool Holding Devices & Power Tools 5.21
5.29 Impact wrench

Square
anvil

Trigger
switch Speed
control
switch

Handle

Air inlet

Fig.5.30 Impact wrench

An impact wrench is a power tool designed to deliver high torque

output with minimal effort from the user. It is commonly used for tightening
or loosening nuts, bolts and other fastneres in automotive repair,
construction, and other industries.The removal of lug nuts while changing
tyres is the most common application.

Components
1) Motor: Powers the rotation of the wrench and provides the torque
output.
2) Anvil: The square drive or socket where the socket or bit is attached
for fastening or loosening nuts and bolts.
3) Hammer mechanism: Generates the impact force that delivers rapid,
high-torque impulses to the anvil.
4) Trigger: Controls the operation of the impact wrench; pressing the
trigger activates the tool.
5) Direction control switch: Allows the user to switch between forward
(tightening) and reverse (loosening) rotation.

Unit – V: Work Holding, Tool Holding Devices & Power Tools 5.22
Types
1) Pneumatic impact wrench: It is powered by compressed air from an
air compressor. Commonly used in automotive repair shops and
industrial settings.
2) Electric impact wrench: It is powered by electricity from a cord or
battery. Suitable for use in residential areas and locations without easy
access to compressed air.
3) Hydraulic impact wrench: It is powered by hydraulic pressure from
a hydraulic power unit. Used in heavy-duty applications such as
construction, mining, and oil drilling.

Working principle
When the trigger is pressed, the motor rotates the wrench. A hammer
mechanism generates rapid, high-torque impacts on the anvil. The impact
force is transmitted from the anvil to the fastener. It enables loosening or
tightening of fastener quickly and efficiently. The user holds the wrench and
positions it over the fastener. The direction of rotation is controlled using the
direction control switch.
Applications of impact wrenches
1) Removing and installing lug nuts, bolts, and other fasteners.
2) Assembling and disassembling scaffolding and structural components.
3) Servicing machinery, equipment, and industrial vehicles.
4) Performing maintenance tasks on mechanical equipment, machinery,
and infrastructure in various industries.

5.30 Circular saw

A circular saw is a versatile power tool used for making straight cuts
in various materials such as wood, metal, plastic, and more. It consists of a
toothed circular blade that spins rapidly to cut through the material.
Components
1) Blade: The circular saw blade with sharp teeth designed for cutting
specific materials.
2) Motor: Powers the blade, providing the cutting action.
3) Handle: The part of the saw that the user grips to control the tool.
4) Trigger: Controls the power to the motor; pressing the trigger
activates the blade.
Unit – V: Work Holding, Tool Holding Devices & Power Tools 5.23
 5) Depth adjustment: Allows the depth of the blade to be adjusted for
different cutting depths.
6) Bevel adjustment: Enables the base plate to tilt for making beveled
cuts.
7) Base plate: Also known as the shoe or shoe plate, it rests on the
material being cut, providing stability and support.
8) Blade guard: Covers the blade when not in use and retracts to expose
the blade during cutting.
9) Guard retracting lever: Releases the blade guard to expose the
blade for cutting.
Hand hold

ON/OFF switch
Upper gaurd
Handle

Guard lever

Cutting
Base plate
blade
Lower blade gaurd

Fig.5.31 Circular saw

Types
1) Direct drive circular saw: The motor is positioned on the side of the
saw and directly drives the blade. Compact and lightweight design,
suitable for general-purpose cutting.
2) Worm drive circular saw: The motor is positioned behind the blade
and drives it through a worm gear. It offers more torque and better
balance, making it suitable for heavy-duty cutting and framing work.
3) Mini circular saw: A smaller and lighter version of the traditional
circular saw. It is ideal for precision cutting in tight spaces.
4) Cordless circular saw: Battery-powered, offering greater portability
and convenience. It is suitable for use in locations without easy access
to electrical outlets.
Unit – V: Work Holding, Tool Holding Devices & Power Tools 5.24
Working principle
When the trigger is pressed, the motor powers the blade. It causes the
blade to rotate rapidly. The base plate is placed on the material to be cut.
The blade is positioned along the cutting line. As the blade spins, its teeth
cut the material along the desired path.
The depth and bevel adjustments are set according to the desired
cutting depth and angle. The user guides the saw along the cutting line,
maintaining steady pressure and control to achieve a clean and precise cut.

Applications of circular saw

1) Crosscuts: Cutting wood or other materials across the grain.
2) Rip cuts: Cutting along the length of the material, typically with the
grain.
3) Bevel cuts: Making angled cuts for joinery, framing, and molding.
4) Plunge cuts: Starting a cut in the middle of a material without an edge
or pre-drilled hole.
5) Trimming and framing: Cutting trim boards, studs, rafters, and other
framing materials.
6) Decking and flooring: Cutting decking boards, plywood, and
laminate flooring.
7) Home renovation: Building shelves, cabinets, and furniture.

5.31 Chain saw

Front handle

Chain brake/
Hand gaurd
Safety throttle

Cutting chain Rear

handle

Guide bar
Throttle
Fig.5.32 Chain saw
A chainsaw is a portable saw. It uses a set of teeth mounted on a
rotating chain to cut through materials. It is commonly used for tree felling,
pruning, logging, and other tasks related to forestry, landscaping, and
woodcutting.
Unit – V: Work Holding, Tool Holding Devices & Power Tools 5.25
Components
1) Engine: Powers the chain rotation and provides the cutting action.
2) Chain: Consists of a series of sharp teeth attached to links. It rotates
around a guide bar to cut through materials.
3) Guide bar: A long, flat metal bar around which the chain rotates. It
provides stability and control during cutting.
4) Chain tensioner: Adjusts the tension of the chain to ensure proper
operation and prevent slippage.
5) Chain brake: A safety feature that stops the chain from rotating in
case of kickback or other emergencies.
6) Throttle trigger: Controls the speed of the engine and thus the
rotation of the chain.
7) Safety throttle: Enables simultaneous pressing of two triggers to start
the chainsaw.
8) Handle: The part of the chainsaw that the user grips to control the tool.
9) Start mechanism: Pull-start or electric-start mechanism to start the
engine.

Types
1) Gas-powered chainsaws: Powered by a petrol engine, offering high
power and mobility. Suitable for heavy-duty tasks and use in remote
areas without electricity.

2) Electric chainsaws: Powered by electricity from a cord or battery.

Quieter, lighter, and require less maintenance than gas-powered
chainsaws. Ideal for light to medium-duty tasks and use in residential
areas with access to power outlets.

Working principle
The engine is started using the pull-start or electric-start mechanism.
When the engine is running, it powers the rotation of the chain around the
guide bar. The sharp teeth of the rotating chain engage and cut the material.
The user grips the handle and guides the chainsaw along the cutting line,
controlling the speed and direction of the cut.

Unit – V: Work Holding, Tool Holding Devices & Power Tools 5.26
Applications of chain saw
1) Cutting down trees and logging
2) Trimming branches and pruning
3) Clearing bushes and cutting firewood
4) Removing fallen trees and clearing debris from a roadway
5) Cutting and shaping building materials.
6) Cutting and carving sculptures

5.32 Jigsaw
Trigger Switch lock

Speed
adjustment
Wire

Blade
locking
screw
Guard Dust
extraction
Blade Base plate

Fig.5.33 Jig saw

A jigsaw is a versatile power tool used for cutting curves, shapes, and
intricate patterns in various materials such as wood, metal, plastic, and
ceramics. It consists of a reciprocating blade that moves up and down rapidly
to make precise cuts.

Components
1) Motor: Powers the blade's reciprocating motion.

2) Blade: The cutting element, available in various types and sizes for
different materials and cuts.

3) Shoe/Base plate: The flat base that rests on the material being cut,
providing stability and control.
4) Handle: The part of the jigsaw that the user grips to guide and control
the tool.

Unit – V: Work Holding, Tool Holding Devices & Power Tools 5.27
 5) Trigger: Controls the power to the motor; pressing the trigger
activates the blade.

6) Speed control dial: Adjusts the speed of the blade movement for
different materials and cutting requirements.

7) Bevel adjustment: Allows the shoe to tilt, enabling angled (beveled) cuts.
8) Blade guide/Roller: Supports the blade and keeps it aligned during
cutting.

9) Dust extraction port: Clears sawdust from the cutting line or allows
attachment of a vacuum for dust extraction.

Working principle
The motor receives power from either an electrical outlet (corded) or
a battery (cordless). When the trigger is pressed, the motor drives the blade
in a rapid up-and-down motion. The blade’s teeth cut through the material as
the user guides the jigsaw along the desired cutting line. The speed control
dial adjusts the blade speed for different materials.

Applications of jigsaw
1) Creating detailed shapes and patterns in wood, metal, plastic, and other
materials.
2) Making angular cuts for joinery, moulding, and trim work.
3) Starting a cut in the middle of a material without an edge or pre-drilled hole.
4) Trimming and resizing boards, panels, and other materials.
5) Home improvement tasks such as building furniture, shelves, and
custom woodwork.

5.33 Power / Impact screw drivers

An impact driver is a tool that delivers a strong, sudden rotational force
and forward thrust. The force can be delivered either by striking with a
hammer in the case of manual impact drivers, or mechanically in the case of
powered impact drivers.

It is widely used by mechanics to loosen larger screws, smaller bolts

and nuts that are corrosively frozen or over-torqued. The direction can also
be reversed for tightening screws with greater torque.

Unit – V: Work Holding, Tool Holding Devices & Power Tools 5.28
 Hexagonal
Socket

Trigger
switch

Handle

Rechargeable
battery

Fig.5.34 Impact screw drivers

Manual impact screw drivers

They consist of a heavy outer sleeve that surrounds an inner core with
curved splines. When the user strikes the outer sleeve with a hammer, its
downward force works on the spline to produce large amounts of torque on
the inner core. The same torque is translated to the socket or work bit attached
to the inner core. This torque is utilised to loosen or tighten the screws.

Powered impact screw drivers

Battery-powered impact drivers consist of a hammer and anvil system
that generates high rotational torque and hammer blows. When the trigger is
pressed, the motor rotates the bit. Simultaneously, the impact mechanism
delivers impact blows rapidly to the bit. It enables loosening or tightening of
fastener quickly and efficiently.

Applications of impact screwdrivers

1) Driving long screws into wood for framing, decking, and other
structural applications.
2) Removing and installing bolts and screws in vehicle repair and
maintenance.
3) Driving screws and bolts into metal structures and components.
4) Fastening components during the assembly of furniture.
5) Home improvement tasks such as building shelves, installing fixtures, etc.

Unit – V: Work Holding, Tool Holding Devices & Power Tools 5.29
Comparison between impact screw driver and impact wrench

Impact screw driver Impact wrench

1) Manual or battery power can be Pneumatic, electric or
used. hydraulic power can be used.
2) It produces less torque It produces more torque
3) It accepts only smaller tool bits. It accepts larger tool bits.
4) It is suitable for driving larger screws, It is suitable for driving larger
smaller bolts and nuts. bolts and nuts.
5) It uses an hexagonal socket or bit for It uses a square shaft or anvil
driving screws, bolts and nuts. for driving bolts and nuts.

5.34 Electric screw drivers

Trigger switch
Chuck
4
2

Bit
Torque Changeover
adjusting ring switch

Fig.5.35 Cordless electric screw driver

Electric screwdrivers are versatile tools designed to drive screws
quickly and with less effort compared to manual screwdrivers. They are
powered by electricity, either through a power cord or rechargeable batteries.

Components
1) Motor: The component that powers the tool, converting electrical
energy into mechanical rotation.
2) Chuck/Bit holder: The part that holds the screwdriver bits. It is
typically a magnetic or quick-release hexagonal chuck for easy bit
changes.
3) Trigger: The switch that controls the power to the motor. Pressing the
trigger activates the tool.
4) Changeover switch: Allows the user to change the direction of
rotation to install or remove screws.
5) Torque adjustment: An adjustable mechanism that controls the
torque to prevent overdriving screws and damaging materials.
Unit – V: Work Holding, Tool Holding Devices & Power Tools 5.30
 6) Handle and grip: Ergonomically designed for comfort and control. It
is a rubberized grip for better handling.
7) LED light: Integrated lights that illuminate the work area, making it
easier to work in dimly lit spaces.
Types
1) Corded electric screwdrivers: Powered directly from an electrical outlet.
2) Cordless electric screwdrivers: Powered by rechargeable batteries.
3) Inline screwdrivers: Designed with a straight, inline handle for better
control in tight spaces.
4) Pistol-grip screwdrivers: Handle is shaped like a pistol, providing a
comfortable grip and more control.

Working principle
The motor receives power from an electrical outlet or a battery. When the
trigger is pressed, the motor rotates the bit holder or chuck. It drives the screw
into or out of the material. The torque is adjusted using torque adjustment ring.
It prevents overdriving and damaging screws or materials. The changeover
switch enables the user to drive screws in or remove them as needed.

Applications of electric screwdrivers

1) Assembling furniture, hanging pictures and installing shelves.
2) Driving screws for framing, drywall installation, and other construction tasks.
3) Installing switches, outlets, and light fixtures.
4) Removing and installing screws and bolts in vehicle maintenance and
repair.

5.35 Stapler
A stapler is a device used to fasten sheets of paper or other materials
together with staples. A heavy-duty stapler is capable of stapling through
thick stacks of paper, cardboard, and lightweight plastics.
Components
1) Base: The sturdy foundation that supports the stapler and ensures
stability during use.
2) Handle/Lever: The part that is pressed down to drive the staple
through the paper. Heavy-duty models often have long handles to
provide better leverage and reduce the effort required.
Unit – V: Work Holding, Tool Holding Devices & Power Tools 5.31
 3) Staple magazine: The compartment that holds a large quantity of
staples.
4) Spring mechanism: Provides the necessary tension to push the
staples forward and ensure smooth operation.
5) Anvil: The metal plate where the legs of the staple are bent or sealed.
6) Driver blade: The component that pushes the staple through the
stack of paper when the handle is pressed.
7) Depth adjuster: Allows the user to control the depth at which the
staple is driven into the material.

Strength Handle
adjusting
knob

Handle
lock

Release
latch
Staple
exit area
Fig.5.36 Heavy duty stapler gun
Types of staplers
1) Desktop staplers: Standard staplers used for everyday office tasks.
2) Heavy-duty staplers: Designed for stapling large stacks of paper,
usually ranging from 20 to more than 100 sheets. They are more
robust and can handle thicker materials.
3) Electric staplers: Powered by electricity or batteries. These staplers
offer automatic stapling, making them ideal for high-volume tasks.
4) Staple guns: Heavy-duty staplers used in construction and furniture
for driving staples into wood, fabric, and other materials. They can be
manual, electric, or pneumatic.
5) Hand-held staplers: Portable staplers that are easy to carry and use.

Unit – V: Work Holding, Tool Holding Devices & Power Tools 5.32
 6) Saddle staplers: Specifically designed for binding booklets,
brochures, and other multi-page documents by stapling along the
centre.

Working Principle
Open the staple magazine and load the appropriate staples. Place the
stack of paper or material between the base and the handle. Set the desired
stapling depth using the depth adjuster. Press down on the handle or activate
the stapler. This action causes the driver blade to push a staple out of the
magazine, through the material, and into the anvil. The legs of the staple are
bent by the anvil, securing the sheets or materials together.

Applications of staplers
1) Office use: Binding large reports, manuals, and extensive documents.
2) Educational use: Preparing large handouts, compiling thesis papers,
and creating booklets.
3) Printing and publishing: Binding books, magazines, and thick brochures.
4) Construction and carpentry: Attaching thick materials like
insulation, furniture covers, and wood.
5) Industrial use: Packaging, bundling, and securing large volumes of
materials.

5.36 Cutters
Cutters are tools designed for cutting various materials, including
paper, fabric, metal, and plastic. They come in various forms to suit specific
applications.

Handle
Jaws
Pivot point

Pipe grip
Cutters

Fig.5.37 Cable cutter

Unit – V: Work Holding, Tool Holding Devices & Power Tools 5.33
Types of cutters
1) Utility knives: Versatile cutting tools with retractable blades used for
cutting cardboard, plastic, and other materials.
2) Scissors: Hand-operated cutting tools with two blades used for
cutting paper, fabric, and other thin materials.
3) Tin snips: Shears designed for cutting sheet metal.
4) Bolt cutters: Heavy-duty cutters with long handles and strong jaws
used for cutting bolts, chains, and wire mesh.
5) Wire cutters: Pliers designed for cutting electrical wires and cables.
6) Glass cutters: Tools with a sharp wheel used for scoring and cutting
glass.
7) Rotary cutters: Hand-held tools with a circular blade used for cutting
fabric and other materials in a rolling motion.
8) Pipe cutters: Tools designed to cut through pipes made of materials
like copper, PVC, and steel.
9) Tile cutters: Tools used for cutting ceramic tiles to size.

Components of a cutter
1) Blade: The cutting edge of the tool. It can be fixed or replaceable and
made from materials such as steel, carbide, or diamond.
2) Handle: The part of the tool held by the user. Handles can be
ergonomic, rubberized, or designed for specific grip types.
3) Pivot/Joint: Found in scissors and snips. It allows the two blades to
pivot and cut.
4) Adjustment mechanism: Allows for changing the blade, adjusting
the cutting depth, or setting the angle of cut.
5) Safety features: Include blade guards, locking mechanisms, and
retractable blades to prevent accidental injuries.

Working principle
Mechanical action: The user applies force to the handle, which is
transferred to the blade or cutting edge to slice through the material.
Lever principle: Tools like scissors and bolt cutters use the lever
principle to amplify the cutting force, allowing the user to cut through
thicker or tougher materials with less effort.

Unit – V: Work Holding, Tool Holding Devices & Power Tools 5.34
Applications of cutters
1) Office use: Cutting paper, opening packages, and trimming documents.
2) Construction and carpentry: Cutting wood, metal, tiles, and pipes
for various building projects.
3) Electrical work: Cutting wires and cables during installations and repairs.
4) Crafting and sewing: Cutting fabric, patterns, and crafting materials.
5) Automotive work: Cutting hoses, wires, bolts, and components
during vehicle maintenance and repair.

5.37 Blower
A blower is a versatile tool used to move air at high speeds for various
applications, such as cleaning, drying, cooling, and ventilating. Blowers are
commonly found in both household and industrial settings.

Volute Air outler

casing

Impeller

Impeller
Air inlet blades

Fig.5.38 Blower
Components
1) Motor: The power source that drives the blower, which can be electric,
gasoline-powered, or battery-operated.
2) Fan/Impeller: The rotating component that moves air. The design can
vary between centrifugal fans (radial flow) and axial fans (axial flow).
3) Housing: The outer casing that encloses the fan and motor, directing
the airflow and protecting the internal components.
4) Nozzle: An attachment that focuses the airflow for specific
applications, such as cleaning debris from tight spaces.

Unit – V: Work Holding, Tool Holding Devices & Power Tools 5.35
 5) Intake and exhaust vents: Openings that allow air to enter and exit
the blower.
6) Speed control: A mechanism to adjust the speed of the blower,
controlling the airflow rate.
7) Handle and trigger: For portable blowers, the handle provides a grip,
and the trigger activates the blower.

Types of blowers
1) Leaf blowers: Used for clearing leaves and debris from lawns,
driveways, and gardens. They come in handheld, backpack, and walk-
behind models.
2) Vacuum blowers: Combine the functions of a blower and a vacuum,
allowing for both blowing and suction capabilities.
3) Heat blowers/Heat guns: Emit hot air and are used for tasks such as
paint stripping, drying, and shrink-wrapping.
4) Industrial blowers: Used in factories and large facilities for
ventilation, cooling machinery, and dust control.

Working principle
Air enters the blower through the intake vent. The motor powers the
fan or impeller, which moves the air. The air is directed out of the blower
through the exhaust vent or nozzle, creating a focused stream of air.

Applications of blowers
1) Household use: Clearing leaves, cleaning garages and driveways,
drying surfaces, etc.
2) Industrial use: Ventilating factories and cooling machinery, removing
dust and fumes.
3) Automotive use: Drying vehicles after washing, clearing debris from
engines, and cleaning interiors.
4) Construction: Clearing dust and debris from construction sites,
drying wet surfaces, and aiding in ventilation.
5) Electronic maintenance: Cooling and cleaning electronic
components, such as computers and servers.

Unit – V: Work Holding, Tool Holding Devices & Power Tools 5.36
5.38 Heat gun
Temp. control knob
Cold air inlet

Hot air
nozzle Trigger

Handle

Power cord

Fig.5.39 Heat gun

A heat gun is a versatile tool that emits a stream of hot air. It is used
for tasks involving heating, drying, stripping, and softening materials.

Components
1) Heating element: The component that heats up to produce hot air. It
can be made of metal or ceramic.
2) Fan/Blower: A fan that forces air over the heating element and out of
the nozzle.
3) Nozzle: The outlet through which hot air is expelled. Nozzles can
come in different shapes and sizes for specific tasks.
4) Housing/Body: The outer casing that holds all the components
together and provides insulation to protect the user from heat.
5) Handle: Designed for a comfortable grip, often with an ergonomic
design and thermal insulation.
6) Trigger/Switch: Used to turn the heat gun on and off. Some models
may have variable speed triggers for better control.
7) Temperature control: A dial or switch that allows the user to adjust
the temperature of the hot air.
8) Airflow control: A feature that adjusts the rate of airflow, providing
more control over the heat application.

Unit – V: Work Holding, Tool Holding Devices & Power Tools 5.37
Working principle
The heat gun is powered by electricity or gas. When turned on, the
heating element heats up to the desired temperature. The fan draws in air
from the surroundings. The drawn-in air passes over the heating element,
where it is heated to the set temperature.The heated air is expelled through
the nozzle, directed at the target area.

Applications of heat guns

1) Paint stripping: Softening old paint for easy removal.
2) Shrink wrapping: Shrinking plastic wrap around items for packaging.
3) Plastic welding: Fusing plastic components together.
4) Warming frozen pipes: Melting ice in frozen pipes to restore water flow.
5) Bending and shaping plastics: Heating plastic materials to make
them pliable for molding and shaping.
6) Drying and curing: Speeding up the drying process for paints,
adhesives, and other materials.
7) Removing adhesives: Softening adhesive materials to make them
easier to remove.

5.39 Spray gun

A spray gun is a tool used to apply liquid materials such as paint,
varnish, or primer onto surfaces by atomizing the liquid into a fine mist. Spray
guns are widely used in automotive, furniture, and industrial applications to
achieve a smooth and uniform coating.

Components
1) Nozzle/Tip: The part through which the liquid material is sprayed.
Nozzle sizes vary depending on the material being sprayed and the
desired finish.
2) Air cap: Surrounds the nozzle and directs the airflow to atomize the
liquid material.

3) Fluid needle: Controls the flow of the liquid material through the
nozzle. It moves back and forth to start and stop the flow.

4) Fluid cup: The container that holds the liquid material to be sprayed.

Unit – V: Work Holding, Tool Holding Devices & Power Tools 5.38
 5) Trigger: The mechanism that the user squeezes to control the flow of
air and liquid through the gun.

6) Air valve: Regulates the airflow to the spray gun, often controlled by
the trigger.

7) Body: The main structure of the spray gun that houses all the
components and provides a grip for the user.
8) Pressure regulator: Allows adjustment of the air pressure to control
the spray pattern and atomization.
9) Hoses: Deliver air and sometimes liquid from external sources to the
spray gun.

Fluid cup

Fluid needle

Nozzle

Trigger

Hose
Air valve
Air inlet
Fig.5.40 Spray gun
Working principle
Air and liquid material are supplied to the spray gun, from a connected
compressor and fluid cup. The user presses the trigger, which opens the air
valve and moves the fluid needle back. It allows air and liquid to flow through
the gun. The liquid is atomized by the airflow as it exits the nozzle. It breaks
the liquid into fine particles and creating a mist. The shape and size of the
spray pattern can be adjusted by manipulating the air cap and fluid flow
settings.

Unit – V: Work Holding, Tool Holding Devices & Power Tools 5.39
Applications of spray guns
1) Automotive painting: Applying paint, primer, and clear coats to
vehicles for a smooth, professional finish.
2) Furniture and woodworking: Coating furniture, cabinets, and
wood products with paint, varnish, or lacquer.
3) Industrial coating: Applying protective coatings to machinery,
equipment, and structures.
4) Home improvement: Painting walls, ceilings, fences, and other
large surfaces quickly and evenly.
5) Art and craft: Creating fine details and gradients in artwork,
models, and decorative pieces.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1) What are work holding devices? Give examples.

2) Briefly explain any three types of chucks with simple sketches.
3) Describe different types of lathe centres with sketches.
4) Explain steady rest and follower rest with sketches.
5) Explain the uses of (i) Face plate and (ii) angle plate.
6) Describe the following work holding devices: (a) Catch plate (b) Carrier
7) What is mandrel? Explain any one mandrel with sketch.
8) Describe the uses of machine vise and V-block as work holding devices.
9) How work piece is held using the following work holding devices:
10) (i) T-bolts and clamps (i) Angle plate.
11) Desribe the uses of indexing head.
12) What are tool holding devices? Give examples.
13) Briefly explain the use of four way tool post.
14) What is turret head? Explain turret indexing mechanism with a sketch.
15) What is arbor? Expalin any two types of arbos with simple sketch.
16) Explain: (a) Adapter (b) Spring collet
17) Describe the working of drill chuck with a sketch.
18) Explain the uses of the following tool holding devices:(i) Sleeve (ii) Socket

Unit – V: Work Holding, Tool Holding Devices & Power Tools 5.40
19) What are power tools? Give examples.
20) Classify power tools.
21) Describe the working principle of hand drill? Give its applications.
22) What is hammer drill? Explain its working principle with a sketch.
23) Describe the angle grinder with a sketch. State its applications.
24) What is impact wrench? Describe its working principle with sketch.
25) What are the types of circular saw. Describe its working and state its uses.
26) Explain the working of chain saw with a sketch. Give its applications.
27) What is jig saw? Describe its working principle.
28) Explain the working impact screwdriver with a sketch.
29) State the difference between impact screwdriver and impact wrench.
30) Explain the electric screwdriver with its applications.
31) What are the types of staplers? State their uses.
32) Write short notes on different types of cutters.
33) What is blower? Give its types and applications.
34) Desribe heat gun with a sketch. State its applications.
35) Explain the working of spray gun. List out its applications.

 

Unit – V: Work Holding, Tool Holding Devices & Power Tools 5.41
 Unit – I
FOUNDRY TECHNOLOGY
1. What is pattern?
Pattern is the model of casting. It is made of wood, metal or plastics.
Mould is produced in moulding sand by using pattern.
2. List out the various pattern materials.
1) Wood 2) Metal 3) Plaster 4) Plastic 5) Wax
3. What are the advantages of using wood as pattern material?
1) Wood is cheap and easily available.
2) It is easy to cut for making required shape.
3) It can be easily handled as it is light weight.
4. What are the advantages of using aluminium as pattern material?
1) Metal pattern is strong. The life and dimensional accuracy of the
metal pattern is more.
2) Change in shape does not occur due to moisture.
3) It can be used in machine moulding.
4) It is suitable for mass production.
5. List out the factors for selecting pattern material.
1) Number of castings to be produced.
2) Quality of the casting.
3) Size and shape of the casting.
4) The method of moulding and casting.
5) Required surface finishing of casting.
6) Required accuracy of casting.
6. What are the types of pattern?
1) Solid piece pattern 5) Sweep pattern
2) Split piece pattern 6) Skeleton pattern
3) Loose piece pattern 7) Segmental pattern
4) Match plate pattern 8) Shell pattern
7. What is the use of dowel pin?
Split pattern is usually made of two parts. One part will make the lower
half of the mould and the other part will make the upper half of the
mould. These two parts are fitted correctly by dowel pins.
3 Marks – Questions & Answers Q&A.1
8. Why allowances are given in pattern making?
Pattern allowances are given
to compensate the metal shrinkage
to avoid metal distortion
to withdraw the pattern easily from the mould!
9. What are the pattern making allowances?
1) Shrinkage allowance 2) Machining allowance
3) Draft allowance 4) Distortion allowance
5) Rapping allowance
10. What is shrinkage allowance?
The molten metal in the mould will cool and become solid. The metal will
shrink and reduce in size during cooling. The pattern is made larger than
the required size of the casting to compensate this metal shrinkage. This
is called shrinkage allowance.
11. What is machining allowance?
Machining is done on the castings to remove excess metal and to get
smooth surface finish. The pattern is made larger than the required
size of the casting for this purpose. This extra size given to the pattern
is called machining allowance.
12. What is draft allowance?
The edges of the mould may be damaged when the pattern is removed
from the mould. This can be avoided by making the vertical surfaces
of the pattern with slight taper. This taper is called draft allowance.
13. Why distortion allowance is given?
The shape of some castings may be distorted during cooling. It depends
upon the size, shape and thickness of the casting. To avoid this
distortions, the pattern is made with slight bent in the opposite direction.
14. What is rapping allowance?
The pattern is shaked from side to side before removing it from the
mould. Due to this, the mould cavity may become larger. So the pattern
is made slightly smaller. This negative allowance given to the pattern
is called rapping allowance.!
15. List out the various moulding tools?
1) Shovel 2) Riddle 3) Rammer 4) Trowel
5) Slick 6) Lifter 7) Sprue pin 8) Strike off bar
9) Bellows 10) Swab 11) Gate cutter 12) Draw spike
13) Vent rod 14) Mallet
3 Marks – Questions & Answers Q&A.2
16. List out the uses of rammer, trowel and slick.
1) Rammer is used for packing or ramming the moulding sand in the
moulding box.
2) Trowel is used to smoothen the mould surface and to repair the
damaged portions of the mould.
3) Slick is used for finishing mould surfaces and for repairing the round
corners of the mould.
17. Give the uses of lifter, sprue pin and strike off bar.
1) Lifter is used to remove the loose sand from the mould and to repair
the broken surfaces of the mould.
2) Sprue pin is used for making holes for runner and riser in the mould.
3) Strike of bar is used for removing excess sand from the mould after
ramming.
18. What are the uses of swab, gate cutter and draw spike?
1) It is used for applying small amount of water around the pattern
before removing it from the mould.
2) It is used for cutting gate in the mould.
3) It is used for removing the pattern from the mould.!
19. What are the two types of moulding boxes?
1) Snap flask 2) Tight or box flask
20. What are cope and drag?
If the moulding is done with two boxes, the upper box is called cope
and the lower box is called drag. The two boxes are aligned correctly
with the help of dowel pin
21. List out the various binders used in moulding sand? Give
examples.
a) Clay type binders : Bentonite and kalvanite
b) Organic binders : Wood, resin, linseed oil and dextrin.
c) Inorganic binders : Portland cement and sodium silicate
22. What is purpose of adding additives in moulding sand?
Additives are added with the moulding sand to improve the properties
like strength, permeability and refractoriness.
23. List out the various types of additives added in moulding sand.
a) Reducing agents :! Coal dust, fuel oil and sea coal.!
b) Fibrous material : Wood flour, straw, cow dung, asbestos and saw
dust.!
c) Special additives : Dextrin and molasses.!

3 Marks – Questions & Answers Q&A.3

24. List out the special sand used in moulding.
a) Olivine sand b) Zircon sand c) Chromite sand
25. List out the properties of moulding sand.
1) Porosity 2) Plasticity 3) Adhesiveness
4) Cohesiveness 5) Refractoriness 6) Collapsibility
26. What are the types of moulding?
1) Green sand moulding 2) Dry sand moulding 3) Loam moulding
4) Bench moulding 5) Floor moulding. 6) Pit moulding
7) Sweep moulding 8) Plate moulding 9) Machine moulding
27. What are the advantages of dry sand moulding?
1) It is stronger than green sand mould.
2) It is not damaged while handling.
3) More dimensional accuracy.
4) Smooth surface finish can be obtained.
5) Casting defects like blow holes will not occur.
28. State the functions of core and core print?
Core is used to make hollow or a hole in a casting.
A projection made in the pattern is called core print. It is used to form
a core seat in the mould. The core is correctly seated in this seat.
29. What are the essential qualities of core sand?
1) High refractoriness 2) Good permeability
3) Good stability 4) Good collapsibility
5) Sufficient strength and hardness
30. What is the purpose of adding flux during melting of metal?
At high temperature, the flux reacts with acidic impurities (silica,
alumina, magnesia, calcia, etc) and forms slag. The slag floats to the
surface of the molten metal and removed at regular intervals.
31. What are uses of tap hole and tuyers in cupola furnace?
Tap hole is provided for taking out the molten metal.
Air for combustion of fuel is sent through the openings called tuyers.
32. What are crucible furnaces?
Crucible furnaces are used for melting non-ferrous metals. In this
furnace, the metal is melted without mixing to the fuel.
33. List out the furnaces used for melting non-ferrous metals.
1) Pit furnace
2) Coke fired stationary furnace
3) Oil fired tilting furnace
3 Marks – Questions & Answers Q&A.4
34. Mention the furnaces used for melting steel.
1) Direct arc furnace 2) Indirect arc furnace 3) Induction furnace
35. List out the various casting processes.
1) Sand casting 4) Centrifugal casting
2) Gravity die casting 5) Continuous casting
3) Pressure die casting 6) Chilled casting
i) Hot chamber die casting 7) Malleable casting
ii) Cold chamber die casting
36. What are the applications of pressure die casting?
Carburetor body, crank case, fuel pump parts, sound horn and wiper
can be produced by pressure die casting. It can also be used for
producing toys, cameras, clocks and washing machine parts.
37. What is the difference between hot chamber die casting and cold
chamber die casting?
In hot chamber die casting, heating chamber is provided for melting
the metal. This chamber is heated by a burner.
In cold chamber die casting, heating chamber is not provided. The
metal is melted separately in the furnace and brought to the
machine by ladles.
38. Mention the applications of centrifugal casting.
The castings like water pipes, gun barrels, fly wheel, bush bearings,
gears, brake drum etc. are produced by centrifugal casting.
39. What is continuous casting? Give its applications.
In this process, castings are produced by pouring the molten metal
continuously in to a vertical mould.
Large bars or rods having round, square and hexagonal cross
section can be produced.
40. List out the cleaning methods in castings.
1) Trimming 2) Tumbling 3) Sand and shot blasting
41. What is tumbling?
Tumbling is used for removing the sand and oxide scale from the
surface of small castings.
42. State the use of sand blasting and shot blasting.
Sand and oxide scale on the surfaces of large size castings are
removed by using sand blasting and shot blasting.

3 Marks – Questions & Answers Q&A.5

43. List out the various defects in casting?
1) Blow holes 2) Slabs 3) Honey combing 4)Swells
5) Shifts 6) Cold shuts 7) Hot tears 8)Fins
9) Internal air pockets 10) Runout
44. What are the causes for blow holes?
1) Excessive moisture in the sand.
2) Hard ramming.
3) Less number of vent holes
45. What is swells and shift?
Swells : Enlargement of casting surface.
Shifts : Misalignment of casting sections.
46. What is cold shuts and hot tears?
Cold shuts : Incomplete filling of mould cavity.
Hot tears : Internal or external dis-continuity in the casting.
47. What is fins and run out?
Fins : Thin projection on parting line.
Run out : Leakage of metal from the mould.

Unit – II
WELDING TECHNOLOGY
1. Define welding. State its uses.
Welding is the process of joining similar or different metal by heating.
Welding is used in the fabrication of automobile bodies, air craft,
machine frames, boilers, ship building, railway wagons, etc.!
2. What are the types of welding? Give example.
1) Plastic welding or pressure welding
Example : Electric resistance welding.
2) Fusion welding or!non – pressure welding/
Example!;!Electric arc welding, gas welding.
3. List out the equipment needed for arc welding.
1) Welding generator(D.C) 6) Protective shield
or transformer(A.C) 7) Gloves
2) Electrode holder 8) Apron
3) Electrode 9) Chipping hammer
4) Welding cables 10) Wire brush
5) Earthing clamps
3 Marks – Questions & Answers Q&A.6
4. What are the uses of electrode holder and earth clamp.
The electrode holder connects to the welding cable and conducts
the welding current to the electrode. !
The Earthing clamp is used to connect the earth cable to the work
piece. !
5. What is the use of electrode?
In arc welding, an electrode is used to conduct current through a
workpiece to fuse two pieces together.!
6. Name the two basic types of electrode.
1) Consumable electrode 2) Non-consumable electrode!
7. What are the types of consumable electrodes?
1) Bare electrodes: They are not coated with flux.!
2) Lightly coated electrodes:! A light layer of flux is coated on the
electrodes.!
3) Heavily coated electrodes: Flux is coated on the electrodes to a
thickness of 1 mm to 3 mm.!!
8. List out the various methods of arc welding.
1) Metal arc welding
2) Metal Inert Gas (MIG) welding
3) Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) Welding
4) Submerged arc welding
5) Electro slag welding
9. Give the expansion of MIG and TIG
MIG - Metal Inert Gas welding
TIG - Tungsten Inert Gas welding
10. State the difference between MIG and TIG welding.
MIG welding TIG welding
Consumable electrode is used Non-consumable electrode is used.
Electrode is used as filler metal. Filler metal is supplied separately.
!
Efficiency is more. Efficiency is less.
11. What is gas welding? Name the gases used in gas welding.
Gas welding is a process of joining metals by the heat of the flame
formed when oxygen burns with another gas
The following gases are used to produce flame in gas welding.!
1) Oxygen – acetylene!
2) Oxygen - hydrogen
3) Air- acetylene
3 Marks – Questions & Answers Q&A.7
12. List out the equipment needed for gas welding.
1) Gas cylinders 2) Pressure regulators 3) Pressure gauges
4) Hoses 5) Welding torch
13. How do you differentiate oxygen and acetylene cylinders in gas
welding?
The cylinder painted with black colour has oxygen. The cylinder
painted with maroon colour has acetylene.
14. What is the function of a pressure regulator fixed on a gas cylinder?
The pressure regulator is used to control the working pressure of
oxygen and acetylene.
15. What are the three types of flames in gas welding?
1) Neutral flame 2) Carburising flame 3) Oxidising flame
16. What is neutral flame? Give its application.
The neutral flame is produced when equal quantity of oxygen and
acetylene gases are used.
Neutral flame is used for welding steel, cast iron, aluminium,
copper and stainless steel.
17. When carburising flame is produced? State its applications.
Carburising flame is produced when the quantity of acetylene is
more than oxygen.
Carburising flame is used for welding steel, alloy steels, non-
ferrous metals, nickel and monel metal.
18. How oxidising flame is produced? List out its applications.
Oxidising flame is produced when the quantity of oxygen is more than
acetylene.
Oxidising flame is used for welding brass, bronze, manganese and steel.
19. What is resistance welding? List out the types of resistance welding.
In resistance welding, the metal is heated to plastic stage due to
the heat generated by the electric resistance.
The types of resistance welding are :
1) Butt welding 3) Seam welding
2) Spot welding 4) Projection welding
20. What is spot welding? Give its applications.
Spot welding is a type of resistance welding which is used for joining
overlapping sheet metals by making weld at regular interval.
Boxes, cans, automobile frames and air conditioners can be welded
by spot welding.

3 Marks – Questions & Answers Q&A.8

21. Give the difference between upset butt welding and flash butt
welding.
In upset butt welding, the metals to be welded are clamped in
copper jaws so that there is a light contact at the ends of metals.
In flash but welding, the metals to be welded are clamped in jaws
so that there is a small air gap between the ends of metals.
22. What is seam welding? List out its applications.
Seam welding is a process of making weld continuously between
two overlapping sheet metals.
Seam welding is used for welding radiators, drums, leak proof
tanks, automobile silencers, etc.
23. Give the applications of oxy-acelylene cutting.
Steel and iron plates having thickness up to 100 mm can be cut by this
method.
24. What is arc cutting? Give its applications.
Arc cutting is the process of cutting the metal with the help of
electric arc. Carbon electrode or metal electrode is used!
Arc cutting is used for cutting cast iron, alloy steel and non-ferrous
metals.!
25. What is hard facing?
Hard facing is a process of coating a hard metal powder on the surface
of soft metals.
26. What is bronze welding? Give its applications.
It is a welding technique, in which the edges of work pieces to be
welded are heated to the melting temperature of filler rod.
It is used for welding cast iron, steel, copper, bronze and brass.
27. Differentiate between soldering and brazing.
Soldering is the process of joining two similar or dissimilar metals
by using a low melting alloy called solder.
Brazing is the process of joining two similar or dissimilar metals by
using a high melting alloy called spelter.
28. What is solder and spelter?
Solder is an alloy of tin and lead.
Spelter is a mixture of copper and zinc alloy.
29. List out the types of brazing.
1) Torch brazing 2) Dip brazing
3) Furnace brazing 4) Induction brazing

3 Marks – Questions & Answers Q&A.9

30. List out the non-destructive and destructive methods for welded
joints.
Non destructive testing methods :
i) Magnetic particle test ii) Dye penetrant test
ii) X-ray test iii) Ultrasonic test
Destructive testing methods :
i) Nick brake test ii) Bend test iii) Tensile test
31. What are the applications of magnetic particle test, X-ray test and
ultrasonic test.
Magnetic particle test is used to find out cracks and slag inclusions.
X-ray test is used to fine out defects like porosity, blow holes and
cavities.
Ultrasonic test is used to find out defects like cracks, blow holes and
porosity by using ultrasonic waves.
32. List out the various defects in welding.
1) Incomplete fusion 2) Slag inclusion 3) Crack
4) Undercut 5) Porosity and blow holes

Unit – III
FORGING AND PRESS WORKING
1. Define hot working.
Hot working is the process of heating the metal above its
recrystallization temperature to undergo plastic deformation and
to get the required shape.
2. List out the advantages of hot working.
1) The toughness and ductility of metal can be improved.
2) No internal stresses are produced in the metal.
3) Less amount of force is sufficient to deform the metal.
4) Cracks, blow holes, porosity will not occur in the metal.
5) The strength can be increased.
6) It is a quick and economical process.
3. List out the limitations of hot working.
1) Poor surface finish due to oxidation or scale formation .
2) De-carburization takes place on the metal surface.
3) Less dimensional accuracy.
4) High tooling cost.
5) Handling of hot worked parts is difficult.
3 Marks – Questions & Answers Q&A.10
4. List out the various hot working operations.
1) Rolling 2) Forging 3) Swaging
4) Extrusion 5) Drawing 6) Hot spinning
5. What is rolling? Give its applications.
Rolling is a process of forming metal to the required shape by
passing it between rotating rolls.
By hot rolling, the metal can be formed into sheets, plates, rounds,
I-sections, channels, angles and many other shapes.
6. What is forging? Mention its applications.
Forging is a process of forming the metal into the required shape
by compressive or impact force.
Connecting rod, crank shaft, etc. can be produced by this method.
7. Write down the classification of forging.
1) Hammer or Smith forging
2) Drop forging
3) Upset forging
4) Press forging
5) Roll forging
8. List out the smith forging operations.
1) Upsetting 2) Drawing down 3) Setting down 4) Swaging
5) Bending 6) Punching 7) Welding
9. What is the difference between upsetting and drawing down.
Upsetting is the process of increasing the cross section of heated
work piece by reducing the length.
Drawing down is the process of increasing the length of the heated
work piece by reducing the cross section.
10. Define : Swaging and Bending
Swaging is the process of increasing the length of heated metal
and to form the cross section to the required shape.
Bending is the process of forming the work piece into required
angle or circular.
11. What is drop forging? Give its applications.
Drop forging is the process of making the heated metal into
required shape by placing it between two closed dies and pressing
with the help of power hammer.
Crank, crank shaft, connecting rod, levers, camshaft, etc. can be
produced by drop forging.

3 Marks – Questions & Answers Q&A.11

12. What is upset forging? Give its applications.
Upset forging is the process of making rivet head, hexagonal
head, etc. at the end of heated work piece. In this process, the
length is reduced and the cross section at the end is increased.!
Upset forging is used to produce bolt head, rivet head, collars,
cylindrical pin, flanges, etc.!
13. What are the applications and advantages of press forging.
Application :
Press forging can be used to produce symmetrical shaped objects
such as coins, bolts, rivets, nuts, etc.!
Advantages :
1) The components can be made in single working stroke.
2) The production time is less.
3) Good surface finish can be obtained.
4) Less noise and vibration.
5) The density of work piece will be uniform.
14. What is the difference between forging and roll forging?
In plain rolling, components with uniform cross section are
produced by compressive force.
In roll forging, components with varying cross sections are
produced by pressing the heated work piece between two rotating
rolls.
15. Which are called press tools?
Die and punch are called press tools.
16. Write the specifications of a press.
1) Capacity of press in tons 2) Maximum stroke length of ram
3) Die space 4) Type of frame
5) Type of drive 6) Number of slides
17. Classify the presses based on the frames.
1) Open back inclinable press 2) Adjustable press
3) Horn press 4) Straight side press 5) Pillar type press
18. Mention the advantages of hydraulic press.
1) High pressure and force can be obtained.!
2) The required pressure to table ram can be controlled easily.!
3) The pressure is uniform.!
4) The movement of ram is uniform.!
5) Noiseless and smooth operation take place.!

3 Marks – Questions & Answers Q&A.12

19. Mention the types of drives used in press.
1) Eccentric drive 2) Cam drive 3) Rack and pinion drive
20. Name the various press accessories.
1) Stops 2) Pilots 3) Strippers
4) Knock outs 5) Pressure pads.
21. What is the use of stops and pilots?
Stops are used to stop the sheet metal at the correct length.
Pilot is used to exactly locate the hole which is already pierced in
the blank.
22. What is the application of strippers and knock out?
Stripper is used to remove the work piece from the punch or die
after the end of blanking or piercing operation.
Knock out is used to kick out the products which cannot fall
through the die opening after the end of drawing operation.
23. What is the purpose of providing pressure pads?
Pressure pad is used to hold the sheet metal at correct position by
applying sufficient pressure.
24. Classify the dies based on construction.
1) Simple dies 2) Progressive dies 3) Compound dies
4) Combination dies 5) Inverted dies
25. What is progressive die?
In progressive die, two or more operations can be performed one after
another every time the ram moves down.
26. State the difference between compound and combination dies.
In compound die, two or more operations can be performed in one
stroke of the ram at a single work station.
In combination die, a cutting and a non-cutting operation can be
performed simultaneously in a single work station when the ram
moves downward.
27. What is inverted die?
In an inverted die, punch is fitted in the die holder and die is fitted in
the punch holder.
28. List out the various bending operations performed in press.
1) Angle bending 2) Channel bending 3) Curling
4) Drawing 5) Seaming

3 Marks – Questions & Answers Q&A.13

29. Differentiate between channel bending and drawing.
Channel bending is the operation of bending a sheet metal in to a
channel.
Drawing is the operation of forming a sheet metal into hollow
shape like a cup.
30. Define : Curling and seaming?
Curling is the operation of bending the edges of the sheet metal
into circular form.
Seaming is the process of inter locking sheet metals.
31. List out the various shearing operations.
1) Blanking 2) Piercing 3) Cutting off 4) Trimming
5) Notching 6) Slitting 7) Lancing 8) Shaving
32. Define : i) Blanking ii) Piercing.
Blanking is the operation of cutting the sheet metal into required
shape by using die and punch.
Piercing is an operation of cutting circular holes in a sheet metal
by using a punch and die.
33. Differentiate : i) Notching ii) Slitting
Notching is the operation of cutting small notches at the edge of
the sheet metal.
Slitting is the operation of cutting a sheet metal in straight line to
required length.
34. Define : a) Lancing b) Shaving
Lancing is the operation of cutting a sheet metal through a small
length and bending it.
Shaving is the operation of finishing the components made in
sheet metal operations by removing the burrs and irregularities.

3 Marks – Questions & Answers Q&A.14

 Unit – IV
POWDER METALLURGY AND HEAT TREATMENT
1. What is powder metallurgy?
Powder metallurgy is the process of making components with required
properties and shape by mixing metal and non-metal powders.!
2. List out the step by step procedure of making products in powder
metallurgy.
1) Manufacturing of metal powder 2) Blending or!mixing!
3) Pressing or compacting 4) Sintering
5) Finishing and sizing
3. What are the methods used for manufacturing metal powders?
1) Atomization 2) Electrolytic deposition
3) Chemical reduction 4) Machining
5) Shotting 6) Milling 7) Grinding
4. What are the applications of atomization and electrolytic
deposition?
Atomization is used for producing powder of metals having low
melting point such as aluminium, lead and zinc.
Metals powders of copper, iron, silver and zinc can be produced
electrolytic deposition method.
5. Define : i) Blending ii) Sintering
Blending or mixing is the process of combining metal and non-metal
powders with correct proportions to get required properties.
Sintering is the process of heating the green compact just below
the melting point of its base metal in an controlled atmosphere.
6. What is compacting? List out the types of pressing.
Pressing or compacting is the process of pressing the mixed metal
powder into a die to get required size and shape. It is also called as
briquetting.
The types of pressing are :
1) Cold pressing 2) Hot pressing
7. List out the finishing operations in powder metallurgy.
1) Sizing or coining 2) Infiltration 3) Impregnation
4) Machining 5) Heat treatment 6) Metal coating.

3 Marks – Questions & Answers Q&A.15

8. What is infiltration? Give its advantages.
Infiltration is the process of filling the pores in the sintered component
by using an another molten metal having low melting point.
The strength, hardness and density of the component can be
increased by infiltration.
9. List out the advantages of powder metallurgy.
1) High dimensional accuracy and surface finish can be obtained.!
2) No material wastage.!
3) The product with required density and porosity can be obtained.!
4) Components with required properties can be produced by combining
metal and non-metal.!
5) Components with complicated shapes can be produced easily.!
6) Components with high hardness can be made easily.!
10. List out the applications of powder metallurgy.
Powder metallurgy is used for producing the following products.!
1) Self lubricating bearing, filters and oil pump gears.
2) Hardened carbide tips and wire drawing dies.
3) Tungsten filament wire used in electric bulbs, radio valves and
X-ray tubes.
4) Cathode, anode and control grids.
5) Automobile clutch plate, brake lining and motor brushes.
6) Small gears, cam, lever, piston ring and magnets.
11. What are the design rules in powder metallurgy?
1) Small holes (less than 2mm diameter) should be avoided.
2) Sudden changes in thickness should be avoided.
3) Narrow and deep sections should be avoided.
4) Holes should not be provided in the direction of pressing.
5) Threads, knurling and under cuts should not be formed by
compacting.
12. What is iron-carbon equilibrium diagram?
Iron – carbon equilibrium diagram is the graphical representation
of the phase changes undergone by iron with respect to the carbon
content and temperature on cooling or heating.
This diagram is drawn by taking the carbon content in X-axis and
temperature in Y-axis.

3 Marks – Questions & Answers Q&A.16

13. Define critical temperatures.
When the molten metal is cooled, the temperature at which the
micro structure of metal starts changing is known as Upper Critical
Temperature (UCT).
The temperature at which the micro structure is completely
changed is known as Lower Critical Temperature (LCT).
14. What is the purpose of heat treatment?
1) To improve the engineering properties such as hardness, ductility,
tensile strength, etc.!
2) To improve the wear resistance, corrosion resistance and thermal
resistance!
3) To improve the machinability of the metal!
4) To harden the surface of the metals!
5) To refine the grain size!
6) To relieve internal stresses!
15. Specify various heat treatment processes
1)!Annealing 2) Normalising 3) Hardening
4) Tempering 5) Case hardening
16. What is annealing? Give its types.
Annealing is the process of heating the steel just above the critical
temperature and slowly cooling it.
Types :!
1) Full annealing 2) Process annealing
3) Stress relief annealing 4) Spheroidise annealing
5) Isothermal annealing
17. What is the purpose of normalising?
1) To refine the grain size!
2) To relieve internal stresses!
3) To form homogeneous structure!
4) To improve machinability!
5) To improve the strength of components!
18. What is hardening? List the factors affecting hardness.
Hardening is the process of increasing hardness of steel and alloy
steels. The factors affecting harness includes :
1) Carbon content 2) Rate of cooling 3) Work size
19. What is the purpose of tempering?
1) To remove the internal stresses !
2) To reduce the hardness of steel!
3 Marks – Questions & Answers Q&A.17
 3) To improve the strength of steel!
4) To improve the ductility and toughness!
20. What is quenching? List out various quenching media.
Quenching is the process of rapidly cooling hot metal by dipping it in
a liquid. Quenching is done in hardening process.
The generally used quenching media :!
1) Water solution with 10% brine (NaCl)
2) Mineral oil, vegetable oil and animal oil!
3) Cold water
4) Salt solution
5) Air!

Unit – V
WORK HOLDING, TOOL HOLDING DEVICES
AND POWER TOOLS
1. Give examples of work holding devices.
1) Chucks 2) Centres 3) Steady rest
4) Follower rest 5) Face plate 6) Catch plate
7) Drive plate 8) Carrier 9) Mandrel
10) Machine Vice 11) V block 12) Angle plate
2. What are the types of chucks?
1) Three jaw self centering chuck
2) Four jaw independent chuck
3) Magnetic chuck
3. What is live centre and dead centre. Give its uses.
The centre in the main spindle is called live centre and the centre
in the tail stock is called dead centre.
It is used to support the work piece and withstand the force
developed during machining.
4. List out the various lathe centres.
1) Ordinary centre 2) Ball centre 3) Tipped centre
4) Half centre 5) Pipe centre 6) Inserted centre
7) Rotating centre

3 Marks – Questions & Answers Q&A.18

5. Compare steady rest and follower rest.
Steady rest Follower rest
1) The steady rest is mounted on The follower rest is attached to
the lathe bed. the saddle of the lathe carriage.
2) It is stationary. It travels along with the tool.
3) It has three adjustable jaws to It has two adjustable jaws to
support the workpiece. support the workpiece.
4) A bearing surface must be No such bearing surface is
provided on the workpiece for needed.
the jaws.
6. What is face plate? Give its uses.
Face plate is a circular plate having threaded bore.
It is used for holding irregular work pieces which cannot be easily
held in chuck.
7. Mention the uses of carrier and catch plate.
Carrier or dog is used to transmit the rotation of catch plate to the
work piece held between two centres.
Catch plate rotates the work piece held between two centres
through the dog.
8. What is mandrel? List out its types.
Mandrel is a device used for holding hollow work pieces between
the centres.
The following mandrels are used in lathe:!
1) Plain mandrel 2) Step mandrel 3) Collar mandrel
4) Screwed mandrel 5) Cone mandrel 6) Gang mandrel
7) Expansion mandrel
9. What is the use of machine vise?
Machine vise is used to hold regular shaped work pieces quickly and
easily.
10. Mention the use of V-block.
‘V’ block is suitable for holding small cylindrical work pieces.
11. What is the use of angle plate?
Angle plate is used for holding irregular shaped work pieces having holes.
12. What is indexing head? State its uses.
Indexing head is a device used to divide the periphery of the work
piece in to any number of equal divisions.
Indexing is used for cutting gears, splines on shafts and helical
grooves on drill and reamers.
3 Marks – Questions & Answers Q&A.19
13. List out the common tool holding devices.
1) Four way tool post 2) Turret head 3) Arbors 4) Adapter
5) Drill chuck 6) Sleeve 7) Socket 8) Collet
14. Mention the uses of four way tool post.
Four way tool post is generally used in centre lathes. This tool post has
a square block. Four tools can be fitted on four sides of the block by
using set screws.
15. What is turret head?
Turret head is an hexagonal block in which six tools can be fitted at a
time. It can be indexed about a vertical axis.
16. What is turret indexing mechanism?
It is used to automatically index turret head through 60° to bring the
next tool to the working position.
17. What is arbor? State its types.
Arbors are tool holding devices generally used in milling machines.
Types of arbors: (1) Standard arbor (2) Stub arbor.!
18. What is the difference between standard arbor and stub arbor?
The length of the stub arbor is smaller than the standard arbor.!
19. What is the use of adapter in milling machine?
Adapter is used for holding taper shank cutter. It is used when the taper
shank of the cutter is smaller than the spindle taper.
20. Mention the use of spring collet in milling machine.
Spring collet is used for holding straight shank milling cutter.
21. What is the use of drill chuck?
Drill chuck is used for holding drills having straight shank.
22. What is the use of sleeve in drilling?
If the taper shank of the drill is smaller than the spindle taper, a sleeve
can be used.
23. What is the use of socket in drilling?
If the taper shank of the drill is larger than the spindle taper, a socket
can be used.
24. List out the common power tools.
1) Hand drill 2) Hammer drills 3) Angle grinder
4) Iimpact wrench 5) Circular saw 6) Chain saw
7) Jigsaw 8) Impact screwdrivers 9) Cutters
10) Blower 11) Heat gun 12) Spray gun.

3 Marks – Questions & Answers Q&A.20

25. What is hand drill? State its uses.
A hand drill is a simple tool used for drilling holes in various materials
such as wood, metal, plastic, and ceramics.!
26. What is hammer drill?
A hammer drill is a power tool designed for drilling into hard materials
such as concrete, brick, stone, and masonry. It combines rotary drilling
motion with a hammering action to break through tough surfaces
efficiently.
27. List out the applications of hammer drill.
1) Creating holes for anchors, fasteners, and dowels in concrete
walls, floors, and ceilings.
2) Installing hardware, shelves, and fixtures in brick and stone
surfaces.
3) Drilling into walls and floors for electrical, plumbing, and other
installations.
4) Preparing surfaces for framing, attaching hardware, and other
construction tasks.
5) Home improvement tasks such as installing shelves, hanging
pictures, and building furniture.
28. What is angle grinder?
An angle grinder is a power tool used for grinding, cutting, polishing,
and finishing various materials. It consists of a motor-driven spinning
disc or wheel mounted at a right angle to the tool body.
29. Name the different types of discs used in angle grinders.
Cut-off discs, abrasive grinding discs, grinding stones, sanding discs,
wire brush wheels and polishing pads.
30. What is impact wrench? State its uses.
An impact wrench is a power tool designed to deliver high torque
output with minimal effort from the user.
It is commonly used for tightening or loosening nuts, bolts and
other fastneres in automotive repair, construction, and other
industries.
31. What is circular saw? Write its uses.
A circular saw is a versatile power tool used for making straight cuts in
various materials such as wood, metal, plastic, and more. It consists
of a toothed circular blade that spins rapidly to cut through the material.

3 Marks – Questions & Answers Q&A.21

32. What are the types of circular saw?
1) Direct drive circular saw
2) Worm drive circular saw
3) Mini circular saw
4) Cordless circular saw
33. What is chain saw? Mention its common uses.
A chainsaw is a portable saw. It uses a set of teeth mounted on a
rotating chain to cut through materials.
It is commonly used for tree felling, pruning, logging, and other
tasks related to forestry, landscaping, and woodcutting.
34. What is jig saw? State its uses.
A jigsaw is a versatile power tool used for cutting curves, shapes, and
intricate patterns in various materials such as wood, metal, plastic, and
ceramics. It consists of a reciprocating blade that moves up and down
rapidly to make precise cuts.
35. Write the applications of jigsaw?
1) Creating detailed shapes and patterns in wood, metal, plastic, and
other materials.
2) Making angular cuts for joinery, moulding, and trim work.
3) Starting a cut in the middle of a material without an edge or pre-drilled
hole.
4) Trimming and resizing boards, panels, and other materials.
5) Home improvement tasks such as building furniture, shelves, and
custom woodwork.
36. What is impact driver? Mention its imporatant uses.
An impact driver is a tool that delivers a strong, sudden rotational
force and forward thrust.
It is widely used by mechanics to loosen larger screws, smaller
bolts and nuts that are corrosively frozen or over-torqued. The
direction can also be reversed for tightening screws with greater
torque.
37. Give the comparison between impact wrench and impact screw
driver.
Impact screw driver Impact wrench
1) Manual or battery power can be Pneumatic, electric or hydraulic
used. power can be used.
2) It produces less torque It produces more torque
3 Marks – Questions & Answers Q&A.22
 3) It accepts only smaller tool bits. It accepts larger tool bits.
4) It is suitable for driving larger It is suitable for driving larger
screws, smaller bolts and nuts. bolts and nuts.
5) It uses an hexagonal socket or bit for It uses a square shaft or anvil
driving screws, bolts and nuts. for driving bolts and nuts.
38. What are electrical screw drivers?
Electric screwdrivers are versatile tools designed to drive screws
quickly and with less effort compared to manual screwdrivers. They
are powered by electricity, either through a power cord or rechargeable
batteries.
39. What is stapler? State its uses.
A stapler is a device used to fasten sheets of paper or other materials
together with staples. A heavy-duty stapler is capable of stapling
through thick stacks of paper, cardboard, and lightweight plastics.
40. List out the types of staplers.
1) Desktop staplers
2) Heavy-duty staplers
3) Electric staplers
4) Staple guns
5) Hand-held staplers
6) Saddle staplers
41. List out the types of cutters.
1) Utility knives 2) Scissors 3) Tin snips
4) Bolt cutters 5) Wire cutters 6) Glass cutters
7) Rotary cutters 8) Pipe cutters 9) Tile cutters
42. What is blower? Mention its uses.
A blower is a versatile tool used to move air at high speeds for various
applications, such as cleaning, drying, cooling, and ventilating.
Blowers are commonly found in both household and industrial settings.
43. List out the common types of blowes.
1) Leaf blowers 2) Vacuum blowers
3) Heat blowers/Heat guns 4) Industrial blowers
44. What is heat gun? State its uses.
A heat gun is a versatile tool that emits a stream of hot air.
It is used for tasks involving heating, drying, stripping, and
softening materials.

3 Marks – Questions & Answers Q&A.23

45. List out the applications of heat gun.
1) Paint stripping
2) Shrink wrapping
3) Plastic welding
4) Warming frozen pipes
5) Bending and shaping plastics
6) Drying and curing
7) Removing adhesives
46. What is spray gun? Write its uses.
A spray gun is a tool used to apply liquid materials such as paint,
varnish, or primer onto surfaces by atomizing the liquid into a fine mist.
Spray guns are widely used in automotive, furniture, and industrial
applications to achieve a smooth and uniform coating.

 

3 Marks – Questions & Answers Q&A.24

 MANUFACTURING PROCESS
MODEL QUESTION PAPER
Time: 3 Hrs. Max. Marks : 100

[N.B: (1) Answer any 10 questions under Part – A.

All questions carry equal marks. (10 × 3 = 30)
(2) Answer all questions, choosing any two sub-divisions
from each question under Part – B. All questions carry
equal marks (5 × 14 = 70) (7+7)

PART - A

1. Why allowances are given in pattern making?

2. What are crucible furnaces? List out furnaces used for melting non-
ferrous metals.
3. List out any six defects in castings.
4. What are the three types of flames in gas welding? Explain any one
of them.
5. Briefly explain hard facing.
6. Differentiate between soldering and brazing.
7. List out the advantages of hot working.
8. What is drop forging? Give its applications.
9. List out the various bending operations performed in press.
10. What is infiltration? Give its advantages.
11. List out the applications of powder metallurgy.
12. What is quenching? List out various quenching media.
13. Compare steady rest and follower rest.
14. What is arbor? State its types.
15. What is impact wrench? State its uses.

,
Question Papers QP.1
 PART – B

21. (a) List out the various types of pattern and explain any two of
them.
(b) Draw a simple cross section view of a cupola and explain
briefly the operation of cupola.
(c) What is pressure die casting? Describe the cold chamber die
casting process with a neat sketch.

22. (a) Explain TIG welding process with a sketch.

(b) What is resistance welding? State the classification of
resistance welding. Explain any one method.
(c) Explain the ultrasonic testing of welded joints with a sketch.

23. (a) Explain the following forging operations:

(i) Upset forging (ii) Roll forging
(b) Explain the hydraulic press with sketch. State its advantages.
(c) Explain the following press working operations with sketches.
(i) Piercing (ii) Lancing

24. (a) State the various methods of manufacturing metal powders

and explain any one method in detail.
(b) Describe the iron – carbon equilibrium diagram with simple
sketch.
(c) Explain any three annealing processes in detail.

25. (a) Describe different types of lathe centres with sketches.

(b) Describe the working of drill chuck with a sketch.
(c) Explain the working of chain saw with a sketch. Give its
applications.

,
Question Papers QP.2