JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY ANANTAPUR

ANANTHAPURAMU – 515 002 , ANDHRA PRADESH

GATE Coaching Classes as per the Direction of
Ministry of Education
GOVERNMENT OF ANDHRA PRADESH

Electronic Devices and Circuits

11-05-2020 to 23-05-2020

Prof. S. Srinivas Kumar

Vice Chancellor
 Content of the Lecture
Second Class (Prof. S. Srinivas Kumar)
1. Generation and Recombination of Charges
2. Injected Minority carrier charges
3. Continuity equation and Poisson Equation
4. Potential variation within a Graded Semiconductor
5. Fermi level
6. Fermi level in Intrinsic and Extrinsic semiconductor
7. Exercise Problems & Objective Type Questions
 Generation and Recombination of Charges

The hole (minority ) concentration in an n-type semiconductor as a

function of time due to generation and recombination
 In pure semi-conductor, the number of holes is equal to the
number of free electrons. Thermal agitation, however, continues to
generate g new hole-electron pairs per unit volume per second,
while other hole-electron pairs disappear as a result of
recombination; in other words, free electrons fall into empty
covalent bond, resulting in the loss of a pair of mobile carriers.
On an average, a hole will exist for before recombination.
This time is called the mean lifetime of the hole respectively.
Consider a bar of n-type silicon containing the thermal-
equilibrium concentration po and no.
Assume that t = t’ the specimen is illuminated and that
additional hole-electron pairs are generated uniformly throughout
the crystal. An equilibrium situation is reached, and the new
concentrations are and under the influence of the radiation. The
photo injected, or excess, concentration is for the holes and
for electrons.
.
 Although the increase in hole concentration p equals that
for the electron density n, the percentage increase for electrons in
an n-type semiconductor (where electrons are plentiful) is very
small.

On the other hand, the percentage increase in holes may be

tremendous, because holes are scarce in an n-type crystal. In
summary, the radiation affects the majority concentration hardly
carriers.

After steady state is reached, at t=0, the radiation is

removed. The excess carrier density returns to zero exponentially
with time.
 decrease in hole concentration per second due to recombination
from the definition of the generation rate,
g = increase in hole concentration per second due to thermal
generation
Since charge can neither be created nor destroyed. there
must be an increase in hole concentration per second of amount
dp/dt. This rate must, at every instant of time, equal the algebraic
sum of the rates given in Eq. and or

under steady state conditions dp/dt =0, and with no radiation falling
on the sample, the hole concentration reaches its thermal
equilibrium value .
 Hence, and the above equation becomes

the excess, or injected, carrier density p’ is defined as the increase in

minority concentration above the equilibrium value. Since p’ is a function of
time, then

the differential equation controlling p’ is

The minus sign indicates that the change is a decrease in the case of
recombination and an increase when the concentration is recovering from a
temporary depletion
Since the radiation results in an initial (at t << 0) excess
concentration p’(0)= and then this excitation is removed
the solution for t >> 0 is

The excess concentration decreases exponentially to zero (p’ =0

or p = p0 )with a time constant equal to the mean lifetime
An N-type silicon sample is uniformly illuminated with light
which generates 1020 electron-hole pairs per cm3 per second.
The minority carrier life time in the sample is 1 microsecond. In
the life steady state, the hole concentration in the sample is
approximately 10x, where is an integer. The value of x is______
Answer:

Generation of carriers (g) = 1020 electron pairs per cm3 per second

Under steady state condition

Thereby,
 Continuity Equation

Carrier concentration in the body of a semiconductor is a function of both

time and distance.

We now derive the differential equation which governs this functional

relationship. This equation is based on the fact that charge and be neither
created not destroyed
 Consider the infinitesimal element of volume of area A and length dx
in fig. within which the average hole concentration is p.

Assume that the problem is one-dimensional and that the hole

current Ip is a function of x. If, as indicated in fig. , the current entering the
volume at x is Ip at time t and leaving at x + dx is Ip +dIp at the same time t,
there must be dIp more coulombs per second leaving the volume than
entering it (for a positive value of dIp).

Hence, the decrease in number of coulombs per second within the

volume is dIp. Since the magnitude of the carrier charge is q, then
dIp/q equals the decrease in the number of holes per second within the
elemental volume A dx. Remembering that the current density Jp = Ip / A, we
have

= Decrease in hole concentration (holes per unit

volume)per second, due to current Ip
We know that there is an increase per second of g = p0/τp holes per unit
volume due to thermal generation, a decrease per second of p/ τp holes per
unit volume because of recombination.

Since charge can neither be created not destroyed, the increase in holes per
unit volume per second, dp/dt, must equal the algebraic sum of all the
increases listed above, or

(since both p and Jp are functions of both t and x, then partial derivatives are
used in this equation)
Continuity equation is given as
Increase in holes per second = Holes generated per unit volume due to
thermal generation - Holes lost per unit volume due to recombination -
Holes leaving the bar per unit volume

This law applies equally well for electrons, and the corresponding equation is
obtained by replacing p by n.
 Injected Minority Carrier Charge
A long semiconductor bar is doped uniformly with donor atoms so
that the concentration n = ND is independent of position. Radiation
falls upon the end of the bar at x=0.
 (Hole diffusion equation)

(Continuity equation)

(Under steady state conditions)

(differentiating hole diffusion equation)

Substituting in Continuity equation results in

 We shall make the reasonable assumption that the injected
minority concentration is very small compared with the doping level;
that is, p’ < n.

The minority concentration is much smaller than the majority

concentration is called the low-level injection condition.

Since the drift current is proportional to the concentration

and since p = p’ + p0 << n, neglect the hole drift current and shall
assume that Ip is due entirely to diffusion.

The controlling differential equation for p is

.
the differential equation for the injected hole concentration p’ = p – p0 becomes

the solution of this equation is

where K1 and K2 are constants of integration.

Consider very long piece of semiconductor extending from x=0 in the positive X
direction. Since the concentration cannot become infinite as x → ∞, then K2 must
be zero. we shall assume that x=0 the injected concentration is p’(0), to satisfy this
boundary condition K1 = p’(0). Hence

The hole concentration decreases exponentially with distance.

we see that the diffusion length Lp represents the distance into the semiconductor
at which the injected concentration falls in 1/ε of its value at x=0. It is
demonstrated that Lp also represents the average distance that an injected hole
travels before recombining with an electron.
 Diffusion Currents
The minority (hole) diffusion current is IP = A Jp where A is the cross
section of the bar.
This current falls exponentially with distance in the same manner
that the minority-carrier concentration decreases. This result is
used to find the current in a semiconductor diode.

The majority (electron) diffusion current is dn/dx. Assuming that

electrical neutrality is preserved under low-level injection, Then

n’=p’ or n- n0 = p – po
Since the thermal-equilibrium concentrations n0 and po are
independent of the position x, then
Hence, the electron diffusion current is

where Ip = -AqDp dp/dx = the hole diffusion current.

 Drift Currents
An Open-circuited bar, the resultant current (the sum of
hole and electron currents) must be zero every where. Hence a
majority (electron) drift current Ind must exist such that

or

we see that the electron drift current also decreases exponentially

with distance.
it is important to point out that an electric field ε must exist in the
bat in order for a drift current to exist. This field is created
internally by the injected carriers.
( from previous eq. )
The results obtained are based on the assumption that the hole
drift current Ipd is zero. with n replaced by p, the next
approximation for this current is

Since p ˂˂ n, then Ipd << Ip The hole drift current is negligible

compared with the hole diffusion current, thus justifying the
assumption that the injected minority-carrier current, under low-
level injection, is essentially a diffusion current.
 Objective Questions
1)What is the time constant with which the minority carriers , fall
down exponentially with time, when semiconductor in excited
with light?
(a) (b) (c) (d)

2) What is the time constant with the excess minority carrier

concentration fall down exponentially with distance, when
semiconductor is excited to light
(a) (b) (c) (d)

3) Which of the following is correct? Lp is diffusion length Dp is

diffusion constant is mean life time.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

(4) What is the diffusion length of holes when Dp=25 cm2/sec
and τp = 25 sec.
(a) 25 cm
(b) 1 cm
(c) 0.04 cm
(d) 50 cm
 Potential variation within a Graded Semiconductor

The hole concentration p is a function of x; that is, the doping is

nonuniform, or graded. With no excitation there can be no steady movement
of charge in the bar, although the carriers possess random motion due to
thermal agitation.
Hence the total hole current must be zero. (Also, the total electron
current must be zero.) Since p is not constant, we expect a nonzero hole
diffusion current.
In order for the total hole current to vanish there must exist a hole drift
current which is equal and opposite to the diffusion current.
• However, a conduction current requires an electric field, and
hence we conclude that, as a result of the nonuniform doping,
an electric field is generated within the semiconductor.

• The objective is to find the field strength due to non-uniform

doping

If Jp= 0 then
If the doping concentration p(x) is known, this equation allows the built-in
field ε (x) to be calculated. From ε = -dV/dx we can calculate the potential
variation. Thus

If this equation is integrated between x1, where the concentration is p1

and the potential is V1 and at x2, where p = p2 and V = V2,

the result is

Note that the potential difference between two points depends only upon
the concentrations at these two points and is independent of their
separation x2 –x1. Equation may be put in the form

This is the Boltzmann relationship of kinetic gas theory.

 Mass-action Law
Starting with Jn = 0 and proceeding as above, the Boltzmann
equation for electrons is obtained.

Multiplying Eqs. above gives

This equation states that the product np is a constant

independent of x1 and x2; and hence of the amount of doping,
under thermal equilibrium.
For an intrinsic semiconductor, n = p =ni and hence
np = ni2
which is the law of mass action.
 An Open-circuited Step-graded Junction
The left half of the bar is p-type with a constant con-centration NA,
whereas the right-half is n-type with a uniform density ND.
The dashed plane is a metallurgical (p-n) junction separating the two
sections with different concentration. This type of doping, where the density
changes abruptly from p- to n-type, is called step grading.
The step-graded junction is located at the plane where the concentration
is zero. The above theory indicates that there is a built-in potential between these
two sections (called the contact difference of potential V0). Equation allows us to
calculate V0) Thus

because p1 = p21 = thermal-equilibrium hole concentration in p side and P2 = pn0 =

thermal-equilibrium hole concentration in n side. From Eq. pno= NA, and from
equation pno= ni2 /ND, so that

The same expression for Vo. is obtained from an analysis corresponding to that
given above and based upon equating the total electron current In, to zero.
 The Fermi-Dirac Function

The equation for f(E) is called the Fermi-Dirac probability function, and specifies the fraction of all
states at energy E (electron volts) occupied under conditions of thermal equilibrium.

where k = Boltzmann constant, eV/°K T = temperature, °K

EF= Fermi level, or characteristic energy, for the crystal, eV

If E = EF then f(E) = 1/ 2 for any value of temperature. Means Fermi level is energy level, with 50%
probability of being filled if no forbidden exists.

When T = 0°K, two possible conditions exist:

1. If E >EF, the exponential term becomes infinite and f(E) = 0. Consequently, there is no
probability of finding an occupied quantum state of energy greater than. EF at absolute zero.
2. If E <EF , the exponential in Eq. becomes zero and f(E) = 1. All quantum levels with
energies less than EF will be occupied at T = 0°K.
Let
ρE = Number of electrons per electron volt per cubic
meter
 N(E) = Density of states (Number of states per electron volt
per cubic meter)
 f(E) = Probability that a quantum state with energy E is
occupied by the electron

or ρE = f(E) N(E)
where, N(E) = ϒE1/2 ( ϒ= 6.82 x 1027 (m-3) (ev) -3/2)
 For E < EF
For E > EF
 There are no electrons at 0°K which have energies in excess of EF.
 That is, the Fermi energy is the maximum energy that any electron may
possess at absolute zero.
A plot of the distribution in energy given. for a metal at T = 0°K and
T = 2500°K is shown

The area under each curve is simply the total number of free electrons
per cubic meter of the metal; hence the two areas must be equal. Also, the
curves for all tempera-tures must pass through the same ordinate, namely,

at the point E = EF, f(E)= ½ for E = EF

 A most important characteristic is to be noted, viz., the distribution
function changes only very slightly with temperature, even though the temperature
change is as great as 2500°K.

The effect of the high temperature is merely to give those electrons having the
high energies at absolute zero (those in the neighborhood of EF) still higher energies,
whereas those having lower energies have been left practically undisturbed.

Since the curve for T = 2500°K approaches the energy axis asymptotically, a few
electrons will have large values of energy.
 The Fermi Level
An expression for EF may be obtained on the basis of the completely
degenerate function. The area under the curve of Fig. represents the total
number of free electrons (as always, per cubic, meter of the metal).

Thus

or

Inserting the numerical value (6.82 X 1027) of the constant 7 in this expression,
there results
EF= 3.64 X 10-19n3
Since the density n varies from metal to metal, EF will also vary among metals.
Knowing the specific gravity, the atomic weight., and the number of free
electrons per atom, it is a simple matter to calculate n, and so EF. For most
metals the numerical value of EF, is less than 10 eV.
 Carrier Concentrations in an Intrinsic Semiconductor

To calculate the conductivity of a semiconductor, it is necessary to know

the concentration of free electrons n and the concentration of holes p.
dn = N(E)f(E) dE
where dn represents the number of conduction electrons per cubic
meter whose energies lie between E and E + dE.

The density of states N(E) in metal , is derived on the assumption that

the bottom of the conduction band is at zero potential.

In a semiconductor the lowest energy in the conduction band is EC , and

hence the number of states with energy (E) is as follows.
 (a )Energy-band diagram for an intrinsic semiconductor. The Fermi-Dirac probability
function f(E) is drawn at 0°K and at room temperature.
(b) The density of states N(E) in each band.
(c) The density of carriers (E) =N(E) f(E) for electrons and N(E) [1 — f(E)] for holes at
room temperature

The Fermi function f(E) is given by Eq. namely,

At room temperature kT = 0.03 eV, so that f(E) = 0 if E — EF >>0.03 and
f(E) = 1 if E- EF << 0.03. The Fermi level lies in the region of the energy gap
midway between the valence and conduction bands, as indicated.

This diagram shows the Fermi-Dirac distribution of Eq. superimposed on the

energy-band diagram of a semi-conductor. At absolute zero (T = 0°K) the
function is as shown in Fig.
The probability of finding an electron in the conduction band is zero [f (E) =
0], and the probability of finding a hole in the valence band is zero
[1 — f(E) =0].
At room temperature some electrons are excited to higher energies and some
states near the bottom of the conduction band E c will be filled as indicated
by the curve marked T = 300°K in Fig. Similarly, near the top of the valence
band Ev, the probability of occupancy is decreased from unity since some
electrons have escaped from their covalent bond and are now in the
conduction band.
The concentration of electrons in the conduction
band is the area under this curve and is given by
For E ≥ Ec , E- EF >>kT and f(E) reduces to

and

This integral evaluates to

Where

k is given in electron volts per degree Kelvin,

and is expressed in joules per degree Kelvin. The mass m has been
replaced by the symbol mn, which represents the effective mass of the
electron.
 The Number of Holes in the Valence Band
Since the top of the valence band (the maximum energy) is Ev , the
density of states analogous to Eq. is given by

Since a "hole" signifies an empty energy level, the Fermi function for a
hole is 1 — f(E), where f(E) is the probability that the level is occupied by an
elec-tron. For example, if the probability that a particular energy level is
occupied by an electron is 0.2, the probability that it is empty (occupied by a
hole) is 0.8. Using Eq. for f(E), we obtain

where we have made use of the fact that EF E » kT for E <Ev Fig..Hence the
number of holes per cubic meter in the valence band is

This integral, which represents the area under the bottom curve in Fig.,
evaluates to

where Nv is given by Eq. with mn in replaced by mp, the effective mass of a hole
 The Fermi Level in an Intrinsic Semiconductor

It is important to note that Eqs. apply to both intrinsic and extrinsic or impure
semiconductors. In the case of intrinsic material, the subscript i will be added
to n and p. Since the crystal must be electrically neutral
ni = p i
and we have from Eqs.

Taking the logarithm of both sides, we obtain

Hence

If the effective masses of a hole and a free electron are the same, Nc = Nv, and
Eq. yields

Hence the Fermi level lies in the center of the forbidden energy band, as
shown in Fig
 The Intrinsic Concentration
Using Eqs., we have for the product of electron-hole concentrations

Note that this product is independent of the Fermi level, but does
depend upon the temperature and the energy gap EG = EC - Ev. Equation is
valid for either an extrinsic or intrinsic material. Hence, writing n = ni and
p= pi = niwe have the important relationship (called the mass-action law)

np = ni2

Note that, regardless of the donor or acceptor concentrations, or

the individual magnitudes of n and p, the product is always a constant at a
fixed temperature. Substituting numerical values for the physical constants in
Eq, we obtain
where Nc has the dimensions of a concentration (number per cubic meter).
Note that Nvis given by right-hand side of Eq. with mn replaced by mp. From
Eqs. to

As indicated in Eqs. and the energy gap decreases linearly with temperature,
so that

where EGOis the magnitude of the energy gap at 0°K. Substituting this
relationship into Eq. gives an expression of the following form:

This result has been verified experimentally

 Fermi Level In a Semiconductor Having Impurities

Positions of Fermi level in (a) n-type and (b) p-type Semiconductors

A calculation of the exact position of the Fermi level in an n-type material
can be made if we substitute n = ND from. We obtain

or solving for EF

Similarly, for p-type material, from Eqs., we obtain

Note that if NA = ND, Eqs. added together (and divided by 2) yield Eq.