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Physics 2

The document outlines key topics in Electromagnetic Theory, including scalar and vector fields, divergence, curl, and Maxwell's equations. It explains fundamental concepts such as line, surface, and volume integrals, along with theorems related to gradient, divergence, and curl. The document serves as a comprehensive guide for understanding the physical significance of these mathematical tools in the context of electromagnetic theory.

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Anuj Verma
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12 views18 pages

Physics 2

The document outlines key topics in Electromagnetic Theory, including scalar and vector fields, divergence, curl, and Maxwell's equations. It explains fundamental concepts such as line, surface, and volume integrals, along with theorems related to gradient, divergence, and curl. The document serves as a comprehensive guide for understanding the physical significance of these mathematical tools in the context of electromagnetic theory.

Uploaded by

Anuj Verma
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Engineering Physics

L-2
(Electromagnetic Theory)

ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY QUANTUM MECHANICS

LASER WAVES

Dr. Mukesh Kumar


SOLID STATE PHYSICS
Lovely Professional University
Phagwara, Punjab-144411
FIBRE OPTICS
EMT-Topics

1. Scalar and Vector fields.


2. Concepts of gradient, divergence and curl.
3. Gauss Theorem and Stokes theorem.
4. Poisson and Laplace’s Equation.
5. Continuity equation.
6. Maxwell’s Electromagnetic equation.
7. Physical significance of Maxwell’s equation.
8. Ampere’s Circuital law.
9. Maxwell displacement current and correction in Amperes law.
Recap
Divergence: Curl: Gradient:
Imagine a fluid, with the vector field Let's go back to our fluid, with Gradient tells you how much
representing the velocity of the fluid at each the vector field representing something changes as you move
point in space. Divergence measures the net fluid velocity. The curl measures from one point to another.
flow of fluid out of (i.e., diverging from) a given the degree to which the fluid is
point. If fluid is instead flowing into that point, rotating about a given point,
the divergence will be negative. with whirlpools and tornadoes
being extreme examples.
A point or region with positive divergence is
often referred to as a "source" (of fluid, or
whatever the field is describing), while a point
or region with negative divergence is a "sink"

https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-physical-meaning-of-divergence-curl-and-gradient-of-a-vector-field
Recap
At each point, the gradient is a vector which points in the
direction at which the scalar field rises the most rapidly, and
the length of the vector corresponds to the steepness of the
rise.

If you're at the very top of the hill, there's no going up. The
gradient here is 0. Similarly, if you're at the very bottom of the
valley, every direction is up; the gradient here is also 0. But in
all other places (assuming the terrain is smooth, not ragged
with sheer cliffs and fissures), there's a single direction which
points in the steepest up route, and that's where the gradient
points at.

https://www.quora.com/How-do-we-visualise-gradient-vector-of-a-scalar-field
Recap: Important to Note

• If the divergence of a vector field is zero, we call that to be SOLENOIDAL or INCOMPRESSIBLE.

• If the curl of a vector field is zero then it is called IRROTATIONAL and CONSERVATIVE.

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝛁. 𝛁 × 𝒗 = 𝑖 +𝑗 +𝑘 . (𝛁 × 𝒗)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Prove?
 Divergence of Curl is Zero

 Curl of a Gradient is zero


𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝛁 × 𝛁𝑺 = 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑆 𝜕𝑆 𝜕𝑆
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
Line Integral, Surface Integral and Volume Integral
Line Integral

where v is a vector function, dl is the


infinitesimal displacement vector, and the
integral is to be carried out along a prescribed
path V from point a to point b. If the path in
question forms a closed loop (that is, if b = a),
then we write,
Line Integral
 Ordinarily, the value of a line integral depends critically on the
path taken from a to b, but there is an important special class of
vector functions for which the line integral is independent of
path and is determined entirely by the end points. Such vector
fields are known as conservative fields.

 In physics if a force has this property then we call that force


conservative.

 Gravitational force is an example of a conservative force, while


frictional force is an example of a non-conservative force.

 Other examples of conservative forces are: force in elastic


spring, electrostatic force between two electric charges,
magnetic force between two magnetic poles.
Surface Integral

Where, v is again some vector function, and the integral is over a specified surface S. Here
da is an infinitesimal patch of area, with direction perpendicular to the surface as shown
in figure. If the surface is closed (forming a "balloon"), then again put a circle on the
integral sign.

𝐼= 𝑱. 𝒅𝒂
da
Volume Integral

𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 = 𝝆 𝒅𝝉

𝝆 = 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚
Fundamental Theorems of Calculus

• Three fundamental theorems associated with each of the three quantities gradient,
divergence and curl.

• The fundamental theorem of divergence is also known as Gauss theorem or Green’s


theorem.

• The fundamental theorem of curl is also known as Stokes Theorem.


Fundamental Theorem of Gradient
 Let us consider a function T(x, y, z).
 The function ‘T’ may represent any scalar quantity like temperature, potential etc.
 Starting at any point a, we move a small distance 𝒅𝒍𝟏 . According to the definition of gradient,
the function T will change by an amount

𝒅𝑻 = (𝛁𝑻). 𝒅𝒍𝟏
Fundamental Theorem of Gradient
Fundamental Theorem of Gradient
Fundamental Theorem of Divergence or Gauss Theorem
It states that, the integral of the divergence over a region of space (a volume, V), is equal to the value
of the function at the boundary (the surface S that bounds the volume).

* Boundary of a volume is a surface

If v represents the flow of an incompressible fluid, then the flux of v (the right side of the above
Equation) is the total amount of fluid passing out through the surface, per unit time. Now, the divergence
measures the "spreading out" of the vectors from a point—a place of high divergence is like a "faucet,"
pouring out liquid. If we have a bunch of faucets in a region filled with incompressible fluid, an equal
amount of liquid will be forced out through the boundaries of the region.
Fundamental Theorem of Curl or Stokes Theorem
It states that, the integral of the curl over a patch of surface, S is equal to the value of the function at the
boundary (here, the perimeter of the patch, V). As in the case of the divergence theorem, the boundary
term is itself an integral—specifically, a closed line integral.
Fundamental Theorem of Curl or Stokes Theorem
Fundamental Theorem of Curl or Stokes Theorem
 Recall that the curl measures the "twist" of the vectors v.

 A region of high curl is a whirlpool—if you put a tiny paddle wheel there, it will rotate.

 Now, the integral of the curl over some surface (or, more precisely, the flux of the curl through that surface)
represents the "total amount of swirl," and we can determine that just as well by going around the edge and
finding how much the flow is following the boundary.

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