batteries

Review
Energy Storage Systems: Technologies and
High-Power Applications
Ahmed Aghmadi and Osama A. Mohammed *

Energy Systems Research Laboratory, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Florida International
University, Miami, FL 33174, USA; aaghm001@fiu.edu
* Correspondence: mohammed@fiu.edu

Abstract: Energy storage systems are essential in modern energy infrastructure, addressing effi-
ciency, power quality, and reliability challenges in DC/AC power systems. Recognized for their
indispensable role in ensuring grid stability and seamless integration with renewable energy sources.
These storage systems prove crucial for aircraft, shipboard systems, and electric vehicles, addressing
peak load demands economically while enhancing overall system reliability and efficiency. Recent
advancements and research have focused on high-power storage technologies, including superca-
pacitors, superconducting magnetic energy storage, and flywheels, characterized by high-power
density and rapid response, ideally suited for applications requiring rapid charging and discharging.
Hybrid energy storage systems and multiple energy storage devices represent enhanced flexibility
and resilience, making them increasingly attractive for diverse applications, including critical loads.
This paper provides a comprehensive overview of recent technological advancements in high-power
storage devices, including lithium-ion batteries, recognized for their high energy density. In addition,
a summary of hybrid energy storage system applications in microgrids and scenarios involving
critical and pulse loads is provided. The research further discusses power, energy, cost, life, and
performance technologies.

Keywords: hybrid energy storage system; pulse load; flywheel; supercapacitor; battery; superconducting
magnetic energy storage; grid service; transportation system

Citation: Aghmadi, A.; Mohammed,

O.A. Energy Storage Systems:
Technologies and High-Power
1. Introduction
Applications. Batteries 2024, 10, 141.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ Energy storage systems designed for microgrids have emerged as a practical and
batteries10040141 extensively discussed topic in the energy sector. These systems play a critical role in sup-
porting the sustainable operation of microgrids by addressing the intermittency challenges
Academic Editors: Yong Tian and
associated with renewable energy sources [1–4]. Their capacity to store excess energy
Ottorino Veneri
during periods of high generation, primarily from renewables, and release it during peak
Received: 8 March 2024 demand or low renewable output enhances the reliability and resilience of microgrids [5].
Revised: 9 April 2024 This dynamic functionality ensures a consistent power supply, mitigates fluctuations, and
Accepted: 19 April 2024 optimizes the utilization of locally generated green energy. As microgrids gain prominence
Published: 20 April 2024 as decentralized and resilient energy solutions, effectively incorporating energy storage
systems becomes essential for achieving energy independence and meeting the chang-
ing demands of a more sustainable energy landscape [6]. Load conditions and power
generation characteristics significantly influence power exchange dynamics within a DC
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
microgrid. This power exchange can be broadly classified into two distinct categories:
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
low-frequency and high-frequency components. Low-frequency components primarily
This article is an open access article
encompass the natural variations in renewable energy sources (RESs) and daily energy
distributed under the terms and
consumption patterns. These variations are typically gradual and predictable, reflecting
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
the inherent behavior of renewable sources and the regular energy demands of the system.
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
On the other hand, high-frequency components represent sudden and unpredictable
4.0/).
fluctuations in power exchange. These fluctuations may arise due to increased power

Batteries 2024, 10, 141. https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10040141 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/batteries

Batteries 2024, 10, 141 2 of 21

demand, pulsed loads, or significant variations in renewable energy output, particularly

on cloudy days. Understanding and effectively managing both low- and high-frequency
components of power exchange are essential for ensuring the stability and reliability of DC
microgrids under varying operating conditions [7–10]. Thus, energy storage technologies
can be categorized into two main groups: those with high energy capacity for extended
discharge and those with high power capacity for rapid discharge. Established technologies
such as pumped hydroenergy storage (PHES), compressed air energy storage (CAES), and
electrochemical batteries fall into the high-energy storage category. These technologies
have seen widespread deployment, ranging from a few kilowatts in residential settings
to large-scale multimegawatt systems serving various grid purposes. These applications
include energy management, backup and seasonal reserves, and load leveling. The distinc-
tion between high-energy and high-power storage solutions highlights their versatility in
meeting diverse energy demands across different scales and applications. The effective
deployment of these technologies enhances grid reliability and efficiency by addressing the
varied energy needs of residential and utility-scale contexts [11–14]. The second category
concerns high-power storage technologies. This category includes supercapacitors, super-
conducting magnetic energy storage (SMES), and flywheels, all renowned for their capacity
to deliver intense power outputs over short durations. Their distinctive strength lies in
their ability to undergo frequent and rapid charge and discharge cycles with remarkable
efficiency. These high-power storage technologies have practical applications in power
systems dealing with critical and pulse loads, transportation systems, and power grids.
The ongoing endeavors in this domain mark a significant leap forward in refining the
capabilities and adaptability of energy storage solutions. This shift in focus highlights the
critical importance of addressing energy capacity and enhancing power output capabilities
to meet the diverse and instantaneous energy requirements across various sectors [15–18].
Hybrid energy storage systems (HESSs) have emerged as a groundbreaking approach,
standing at the forefront of energy storage innovation. These systems go beyond traditional
categories by seamlessly integrating multiple storage technologies such as batteries, su-
percapacitors, and flywheels. The synergy achieved through this amalgamation optimizes
critical metrics, including energy density, power density, efficiency, and cycle life, beginning
a new era in energy storage capabilities.
What sets an HESS apart is its ability to combine different storage mediums, each
contributing unique strengths strategically. Batteries, known for their high energy density
and sustained power output, form a stable foundation for storing and releasing energy
over extended periods. Supercapacitors complement this by excelling in delivering rapid
bursts of energy with exceptional power density and swift response times, making them
ideal for addressing sudden high-power demands. With their rotational inertia, flywheels
provide an additional dimension by offering instantaneous power during brief yet critical
energy spikes.
The dynamic integration of diverse storage technologies within hybrid energy stor-
age systems (HESSs) represents a pivotal advancement for adaptive responses to modern
applications’ diverse and evolving energy requirements. In microgrids, where intermit-
tent renewable energy sources pose challenges, the HESS is a linchpin in managing and
optimizing energy flows. By seamlessly combining batteries and ultracapacitors, an HESS
mitigates grid fluctuations, ensuring stability and reliability in localized and distributed
energy systems. The collaborative operation of these storage components within microgrids
contributes significantly to the effective utilization of renewable energy, addressing the
inherent intermittency of sources like solar and wind.
An HESS’s influence extends to transportation systems, particularly in optimizing
energy utilization for electric vehicles (EVs). The strategic combination of ultracapacitors
or Supercapacitor Energy Management Systems (SEMSs) with batteries allows the HESS
to enhance the range and performance of EVs through efficient power delivery. The high
power density of ultracapacitors plays a crucial role in delivering bursts of energy for
acceleration or regenerative braking, complementing the sustained energy output provided
Batteries 2024, 10, 141 3 of 21

by batteries. This collaboration ensures a harmonious response to the dynamic energy

demands of transportation systems, contributing to the broader adoption of electric vehicles
and fostering sustainable mobility solutions. On a macro scale, an HESS acts as a stabilizing
force in large-scale power grids, addressing the challenges posed by the intermittent nature
of renewable energy inputs. The synergistic operation of batteries and ultracapacitors
allows the HESS to smooth out fluctuations in power generation, fortifying grid resilience
and contributing to the overall stability of the electricity network. This macro-level impact
is crucial in facilitating the integration of renewable energy sources into the mainstream
power grid, where maintaining a balance between supply and demand is paramount for
grid reliability. In essence, the HESS’s dynamic adaptability across different scales and
applications underscores its versatility and effectiveness in addressing the multifaceted
challenges of modern energy systems. From microgrids to transportation networks and
large-scale power grids, HESSs emerge as a robust solution, leveraging the synergies
between energy storage devices to create a resilient and efficient energy landscape.
The versatility of an HESS extends to applications characterized by dynamic and
diverse energy needs, where traditional energy storage systems fall short. Whether address-
ing rapid fluctuations in energy demand within microgrids or optimizing power delivery in
transportation systems, the HESS emerges as a pivotal technology that transcends limitations.
As research and development propel the evolution of energy storage technologies, the
HESS stands as a testament to relentless innovation. The intricate orchestration of batteries,
supercapacitors, and flywheels within hybrid systems represents a dynamic synthesis
responsive to the complicated demands of modern applications. The rise of hybrid energy
storage systems is not merely an evolution but a paradigm shift toward more adaptable,
efficient, and resilient energy solutions, marking a significant stride toward a sustainable
and energy-efficient future [19–21].
While several previous studies have addressed the issue of energy storage systems,
each offering distinctive perspectives, the current review focuses intensely on recent ad-
vances in high-power storage devices and hybrid energy storage systems (HESSs). Prior
studies explored several elements of energy storage devices. However, their focus may
have been something other than high-power storage systems or the integrated use of
different storage technologies throughout an HESS. As a result, this study aimed to fill
a significant vacuum in academic discussion by offering a detailed examination of these
topics. This study is an asset for affecting strategic decision making and encouraging
the greater utilization of new energy storage systems across several sectors by providing
current insights and performing comparison research.
This review article explores recent advancements in energy storage technologies,
including supercapacitors, superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES), flywheels,
lithium-ion batteries, and hybrid energy storage systems. Section 2 provides a comparative
analysis of these devices, highlighting their respective features and capabilities. In Section 3,
the focus shifts to the application of high-power storage technologies within grid systems,
covering essential services such as voltage control, pulse load, and oscillation damping.
Additionally, this section delves into the diverse applications of these technologies in
transportation systems, critical loads, and pulse loads. A detailed examination of the
advantages and limitations of high-power storage technologies for each application scenario
is provided, facilitating a comprehensive understanding of their practical implications.
Finally, Section 4 offers concluding remarks summarizing the essential findings and insights
presented throughout the review.

2. Energy Storage Technologies

2.1. Lithium-Ion Battery
Lithium-ion batteries, crucial to modern electronics, the aerospace industry, and elec-
tric vehicles, are sophisticated electrochemical devices adept at converting chemical energy
into electrical energy during discharge and, reversely, during charging [22]. Lithium bat-
teries’ attraction lies in lithium’s unique characteristics as an exceptionally electropositive
Batteries 2024, 10, 141 4 of 21

element and the lightest metal on the periodic table. Electrochemical cells are intercon-
nected in series or parallel in a typical battery configuration. Each cell comprises a negative
electrode (anode during discharge) and a positive electrode (cathode during discharge),
with an electrolyte layer as a separator. Additionally, a separator acts as a barrier between
the cathode and anode within each cell [23,24].
Battery performance and safety depend heavily on the electrolyte and separator
selection. Solid-state electrolytes, one of the emerging technologies, offer faster charging
and discharging times and increased safety [25]. Nevertheless, choosing materials that
can provide high ion conduction is constrained when the electrolyte is polymer-based
because of concerns about electrochemical stability. However, liquid electrolytes offer a
more comprehensive range of alternatives since various solvents have distinct viscosity
and dielectric constants that affect their performance in different ways [26,27].
As for the cathode, various lithiated metal oxides, including LiCoO2, Li-Mn-O,
LiFePO4, and lithium-layered metal oxide, can be utilized. Each cathode material possesses
unique electrochemical properties, affecting energy density, power density, and safety as
shown in Table 1. For instance, while lithium cobalt oxide offers high energy density, it
raises concerns about thermal stability and safety. On the other hand, lithium iron phos-
phate exhibits lower energy density but provides enhanced safety and thermal stability.
Therefore, carefully considering cathode materials is essential to balancing performance
metrics and ensuring safe battery operation.
During the charging process, the cathode transforms into lithium ions, traversing
the lithium salt electrolyte toward the anode, where they combine with external electrons.
The electrolyte, comprising organic carbonates of lithium (e.g., LiPF6), facilitates this elec-
trochemical process [24,28]. It is worth noting that electrolyte selection and formulation
significantly affect battery performance, particularly in ion conductivity, viscosity, flamma-
bility, and thermal stability. Therefore, optimizing electrolyte properties enhances battery
efficiency, safety, and lifespan.

Table 1. Comparison between three cathode materials [29].

Parameters Li-Ion Manganese Li-Ion Cobalt Li-Ion Phosphate

Specific energy density (Wh/kg) 100–135 150–190 90–120
Internal resistance (mΩ) 25–75 150–300 25–50
Cycle life (80% discharge) 500–1000 500–1000 1000–2000
Fast charge time (Hours) <1 2–4 <1
Cell voltage (nominal V) 3.8 3.6 3.3

Lithium-ion batteries are recognized for their high energy density, rapid response,
extended cyclic life, and high efficiency. The discharge voltage curves, particularly in Li-Mn
and Li–phosphate batteries, exhibit a notably flat profile, simplifying the application design
as nearly 80% of stored energy falls within this region. These advantages have positioned
lithium-ion batteries as prevalent choices in portable electronic devices and promising
components in electric and hybrid vehicles. However, challenges in implementation include
the substantial cost associated with large-scale utilization due to special packaging and
internal overcharge protection circuits. Additionally, deploying batteries in power systems
and managing grid-tied battery energy storage systems introduce complexities [26,30–33].

2.2. Pumped Hydroenergy Storage (PHES)

Pumped hydroenergy storage (PHES) is a proven and widely adopted technology in
renewable energy storage. This system plays a pivotal role in mitigating the intermittency
of renewable energy sources by storing excess electricity during periods of low demand
and releasing it when demand is high, as shown in Figure 1. The process involves two
water reservoirs positioned at different elevations. During surplus electricity generation,
 renewable energy storage. This system plays a pivotal role in mitigating the intermittency
of renewable energy sources by storing excess electricity during periods of low demand
and releasing it when demand is high, as shown in Figure 1. The process involves two
water reservoirs positioned at different elevations. During surplus electricity generation,
Batteries 2024, 10, 141 excess energy is utilized to pump water from the lower reservoir to the upper one. When 5 of 21
electricity demand peaks, the stored water is released, flowing downhill through turbines
to generate electricity.
The
excess amount
energy of stored
is utilized to energy depends
pump water fromonthethelower
storedreservoir
water volume and the
to the upper level
one. dif-
When
ference between
electricity demand both bodies.
peaks, thePHES
storedserves
waterasis areleased,
valuableflowing
solution for grid through
downhill stabilization and
turbines
to generateoverall
enhancing electricity.
grid reliability [34–36].

Structure of pumped hydroenergy storage [34], licensed under CC BY 4.0.

Figure 1. Structure

The amount
2.3. Compressed Airof stored
Energy energy
Storage depends on the stored water volume and the level
(CAES)
difference between both bodies. PHES serves as a valuable solution for grid stabilization
Compressed air energy storage (CAES) is an advanced technology for efficient en-
and enhancing overall grid reliability [34–36].
ergy storage. Its operational mechanism involves air compression into underground cav-
erns or storage tanks
2.3. Compressed during
Air Energy periods
Storage of low electricity demand. Subsequently, the stored
(CAES)
compressed air is released during peak demand periods, undergoing expansion, and driv-
Compressed air energy storage (CAES) is an advanced technology for efficient energy
ing turbines to generate electricity. The CAES process is structured around two essential
storage. Its operational mechanism involves air compression into underground caverns
stages: compression and expansion. Surplus electricity is judiciously employed in the
or storage tanks during periods of low electricity demand. Subsequently, the stored
compression
compressed air phase to compress
is released duringandpeak
storedemand
air. Conversely,
periods, the stored compressed
undergoing expansion,air and is
methodically released during the expansion stage to generate electricity. It is pertinent
driving turbines to generate electricity. The CAES process is structured around two essential to
acknowledge that CAES
stages: compression andexhibits a relatively
expansion. Surpluslower energyisefficiency,
electricity ranging
judiciously between
employed in the40
and 70%. Despite
compression phasethis
toefficiency
compresslimitation,
and store CAES plays an integral
air. Conversely, role compressed
the stored in addressing airen-
is
ergy demand fluctuations and contributes significantly to the overall stability
methodically released during the expansion stage to generate electricity. It is pertinent of the elec-
trical grid [37–39].
to acknowledge that CAES exhibits a relatively lower energy efficiency, ranging between
40 and 70%. Despite this efficiency limitation, CAES plays an integral role in addressing
2.4. Supercapacitor
energy Energy Storage
demand fluctuations and contributes significantly to the overall stability of the
Supercapacitors,
electrical grid [37–39].also known as ultracapacitors, play a pivotal role in energy storage
systems owing to their exceptional attributes, including high power density, swift charg-
2.4. capabilities,
ing Supercapacitor Energy Storage
extended cycle life, and broad operating temperature range. Their signif-
icance has surged notably,
Supercapacitors, particularly
also known within transportation
as ultracapacitors, and smart
play a pivotal role grid applications,
in energy storage
systemsthey
where owing to their exceptional
effectively smooth outattributes, including
energy spikes. high power
Nonetheless, density,
it is crucialswift charging
to recognize
capabilities,
that extendedof
the performance cycle life, and broad
supercapacitors operating
can temperature
be influenced range.
by diverse Their significance
parameters like tem-
has surgedcurrent,
perature, notably,and
particularly
voltage, within transportation
resulting andinsmart
in fluctuations theirgrid applications,
physical where
and chemical
they effectively smooth out energy spikes. Nonetheless, it is crucial to
properties. Moreover, real-world conditions may lead to disparities among individualrecognize that the
performance of supercapacitors can be influenced by diverse parameters like temperature,
current, and voltage, resulting in fluctuations in their physical and chemical properties.
Moreover, real-world conditions may lead to disparities among individual cells within
supercapacitor modules, leading to diminished service performance and posing risks to
system reliability and safety.
In contrast to rechargeable batteries, supercapacitors have a comparable chemical
composition and operational method, allowing energy storage and conversion via ion
diffusion and migration. However, supercapacitors have particular characteristics that
make them essential in storage systems. They can store hundreds of times more energy
 cells within supercapacitor modules, leading to diminished service performance and pos-
ing risks to system reliability and safety.
In contrast to rechargeable batteries, supercapacitors have a comparable chemical
composition and operational method, allowing energy storage and conversion via ion dif-
Batteries 2024, 10, 141 fusion and migration. However, supercapacitors have particular characteristics that 6make of 21
them essential in storage systems. They can store hundreds of times more energy than
traditional capacitors because they operate as double-layer electrochemical capacitors as
depicted
than in Figure
traditional 2. Furthermore,
capacitors they
because they sufferas
operate fewer losses and
double-layer have a longercapacitors
electrochemical lifespan.
Notably, supercapacitors can withstand several charge and discharge cycles, significantly
as depicted in Figure 2. Furthermore, they suffer fewer losses and have a longer lifespan.
beyond the
Notably, lifespan of lead–acid
supercapacitors batteries,
can withstand which
several generally
charge last only cycles,
and discharge a few thousand cy-
significantly
cles. Supercapacitors also excel at supplying higher currents than regular batteries
beyond the lifespan of lead–acid batteries, which generally last only a few thousand cycles. [40–
44].
Supercapacitors also excel at supplying higher currents than regular batteries [40–44].

Figure 2. Structure
Figure 2. Structure of
of supercapacitor.
supercapacitor.

Understanding the complex dynamics of the electrode–electrolyte contact is critical.

Understanding the complex dynamics of the electrode–electrolyte contact is critical.
In situations with a rough interface and uniform electrolyte material, the dimensionless
In situations with a rough interface and uniform electrolyte ∗ material, the dimensionless
imaginary impedance of a supercapacitor, designated as Lm , is critical. The impedance,
imaginary impedance of a supercapacitor, designated as L∗ , is critical. The impedance,
represented by Equation (1), is significantly impacted by two significant factors: the dimen-
represented by Equation (1), is significantly impacted by two significant factors: the di-
sionless angular frequency (ω∗ ) and the electrolyte-to-electrode conductivity ratio (γ).
mensionless angular frequency (ω∗ ) and the electrolyte-to-electrode ∗ conductivity ratio (γ).
The dimensionless imaginary impedance of a supercapacitor Lm can be found as follows:
The dimensionless imaginary impedance of a supercapacitor L∗ can be found) as fol-
2

( ) (
1+γ ∗ )cosh(ω∗ ) + sin(ω∗ )cos(ω∗ )
sinh(ωlows: γ sinh(ω∗ )cos(ω∗ ) + cosh(ω∗ )sin(ω∗ )
∗
Lm = 2 ∗ 2
+2 (1)
(1 + γ)(1 ∗ ) (ω∗ ) −∗cos
cosh
ω+ γ ) sinh(ω cosh(ω ) +
2 (ω∗ ) ∗
sin(ω ) cos(ω ∗) (1 + γ)γ2 ω∗ sinh(ω∗ )cosh 2
cos(ω ∗ )∗ ) − cos2 (∗ω
(ω + cosh(ω )
∗)
sin(ω ∗)
L∗ = +2 (1)
(1 + γ) ω∗ and ω cosh (ω∗ ) − cos (ω∗ )
∗ , which (1 + cosh (ω
γ) ω∗ frequency, ∗ ) − cos (ω∗ )
is the dimensionless angular can be determined using the
and ω∗ , which
following equation:
is the dimensionless q
angular frequency, can be determined using the fol-
lowing equation: ω∗ = ωaCL2 (κ + σ)/2κσ (2)
∗
𝜔 = 𝜔𝑎𝐶𝐿
where C is the capacitance per interfacial (κ +the
area and σ)/2κσ
interfacial area per unit volume ( (2)
a ),
and
whereL is𝐶the
is thickness of the electrode
the capacitance [43]. area and the interfacial area per unit volume
per interfacial
Derived from Equation (1), the imaginary
(𝑎), and 𝐿 is the thickness of the electrode [43]. impedance of the supercapacitor is notably
influenced by both the dimensionless angular frequency and the electrolyte-to-electrode
Derived from Equation (1), the imaginary impedance of the supercapacitor is notably
conductivity ratio. In the context of a pure capacitor, the cell capacitance aligns with the
influenced by both the dimensionless angular frequency and the electrolyte-to-electrode
inverse of the frequency multiplied by the imaginary component of the frequency response.
conductivity ratio. In the context of a pure capacitor, the cell capacitance ∗ aligns with the
Consequently, the cell capacitance can be expressed as a function of Lm as follows:
inverse of the frequency multiplied by the imaginary component of the frequency re-
sponse. Consequently, the cell capacitance can κσ be expressed as a function of L∗ as fol-
C= ∗ (3)
lows: Lm ω ( κ + σ ) L
κσ
𝐶= ∗
Supercapacitor technology is distinguished by its ability to store electrical energy (3)
L 𝜔(κ +
directly, facilitating rapid and efficient charging andσ)𝐿discharging processes. Unlike bat-
teries,Supercapacitor
supercapacitors exhibit a isnotably
technology low energy
distinguished by itsdensity.
ability toConsequently,
store electricalintegrating
energy di-
supercapacitors with high-energy-density storage devices, such as batteries, presents a
rectly, facilitating rapid and efficient charging and discharging processes. Unlike batteries,
practical solution for many applications. This hybrid combination proves particularly
supercapacitors exhibit a notably low energy density. Consequently, integrating superca-
beneficial across diverse domains, from large-scale grid applications to electric vehicles.
pacitors with high-energy-density storage devices, such as batteries, presents a practical
Aqueous and organic electrolytes are the two main types of electrolytes that are fre-
quently used in supercapacitor technology. Aqueous electrolytes provide several benefits,
such as strong ionic conductivity and low cost. They are often made of salts dissolved in
water, such as sulfuric acid (H2 SO4 ) or potassium hydroxide (KOH). Nevertheless, they fre-
quently show signs of electrochemical stability constraints, which limit the supercapacitors’
operational voltage range and energy density. Aqueous electrolytes have a stability limit
of 0.9 V, which limits the highest voltage at which supercapacitors may function. How-
Batteries 2024, 10, 141 7 of 21

ever, organic electrolytes, which use solvents like propylene carbonate (PC) or acetonitrile
(CH3CN), offer better electrochemical stability, enabling higher voltages and higher energy
densities. Supercapacitors may operate at higher voltages and store more energy per unit
volume because of the stability that organic electrolytes provide up to 2.7 V. Despite their
benefits, organic electrolytes are more expensive, have flammability-related safety issues,
and need organic solvents, which poses environmental problems. The optimal operating
voltage, energy density specifications, cost considerations, safety issues, and environmental
impact all play a role in choosing between aqueous and organic electrolytes [42–47].

2.5. Flywheel
Flywheel energy storage systems (FESSs) are formidable solutions in energy storage,
boasting a range of advantages that position them as a competitive alternative. Among
these advantages are the notably high energy density, low maintenance requirements, and
rapid response capabilities inherent to FESS technology. One of the key strengths lies in
the environmental sustainability of FESSs, as they adeptly harness the kinematic energy
of rotational mass to absorb and release energy efficiently, contributing to an extended
operational lifespan.
The operational principle of an FESS involves storing kinetic energy as an electrome-
chanical system. This is achieved by rotating mass on magnetic bearings, effectively
minimizing friction even at elevated speeds. The magnetic bearings play a crucial role in
facilitating the smooth rotation of the flywheel, ensuring that energy is stored and released
with minimal losses. This design contributes to the high efficiency of FESS, reaching approx-
imately 90% at rated power. The combination of a prolonged cycling life and elevated power
and energy densities positions FESS as a compelling technology for various applications.
Despite these commendable characteristics, an FESS encounters challenges in the form
of standing losses. The self-discharge rates, reaching approximately 20% of the stored
capacity per hour, represent an area of concern that necessitates further attention. Efforts
to address standing losses are crucial for optimizing the FESS’s overall efficiency and
performance, particularly in scenarios where extended periods of energy storage without
discharge are prevalent.
Flywheel energy storage systems offer robust advantages, making them an attractive
option in the diverse landscape of energy storage technologies. The focus on environmental
sustainability, high efficiency, and energy density positions FESS as a promising solution
for applications ranging from grid stabilization to uninterruptible power supply. While
challenges such as standing losses persist, ongoing research and innovation can enhance
their performance further and address limitations, solidifying the role of FESSs in the future
of energy storage [48,49].
The quantity of kinetic energy (E) stored in a rotating object depends on both its mass
and velocity, as expressed by the following equation:

1
E= Rω 2 (4)
2
where R represents the moment of inertia, and ω is the rotational velocity.
To guarantee the reliability and stability of the flywheel energy storage system (FESS),
precise control of the flywheel speed within a specific range is imperative. Consequently,
the accessible energy of the flywheel is determined within the defined parameters of
maximum and minimum speeds.

1  2 
Ep = R ωmax − ω2min (5)
2
While the flywheel has a significant power density, its energy density is very low.
As a result, it is best suited for grid applications that need frequency management and
short-term power quality services. Additionally, flywheel energy storage can be used in a
hybrid design with high-energy storage devices such as batteries or fuel cells [48–52].
 𝐸 = 𝑅 ω −ω
2
While the flywheel has a significant power density, its energy density is very low. As
a result, it is best suited for grid applications that need frequency management and short-
term power quality services. Additionally, flywheel energy storage can be used in a hybrid
Batteries 2024, 10, 141 8 of 21
design with high-energy storage devices such as batteries or fuel cells [48–52].

2.6. Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage

2.6. Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage
Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) systems leverage the properties of
Superconducting
superconductors magnetic
to store energyenergy storage (SMES)
in a magnetic systems
field. These leverage
systems the properties of
use superconducting
superconductors
coils to generate to and store energy
store in a magnetic
a magnetic field.
field, and These
when systems is
electricity use superconducting
needed, the stored
coils to generate and store a magnetic field, and when electricity
magnetic energy is converted back into electrical energy. SMES systems are known is needed, the stored
for
magnetic energy is converted back into electrical energy. SMES systems
their rapid response times and high efficiency, making them suitable for applications are known for their
re-
rapid
quiringresponse
quick andtimes and high
precise efficiency,
energy delivery,making
such asthem suitable
through grid for applications
frequency requiring
regulation. The
quick
storedand precise
energy E ofenergy
an SMESdelivery, such
coil with as throughL grid
inductance and frequency regulation.
current I can The stored
be expressed as fol-
energy
lows: E of an SMES coil with inductance L and current I can be expressed as follows:

11 2
E𝐸== LI𝐿𝐼 (6)
22
The schematic
The schematicrepresentation
representationbelow—Figure
below—Figure3—illustrates
3—illustrates thethe integral
integral components
components of
of a typical SMES system, encompassing a cryogenic system, superconducting
a typical SMES system, encompassing a cryogenic system, superconducting coil, protective coil, pro-
tective system,
system, and control
and control system. system. The superconducting
The superconducting coil serves
coil serves as theascentral
the central compo-
component,
nent, functioning
functioning as theas theofcore
core the of
SMESthe SMES
systemsystem by storing
by storing energy.energy. Maintaining
Maintaining its su-
its supercon-
perconducting
ducting state is state is facilitated
facilitated by the cryogenic
by the cryogenic refrigerator
refrigerator system,zero
system, ensuring ensuring
losses zero
and
losses and resistance in the coil. The coil is typically crafted from superconducting
resistance in the coil. The coil is typically crafted from superconducting materials like mate-
rials like mercury
mercury or niobium–titanium.
or niobium–titanium. The protective
The protective system system safeguards
safeguards againstagainst irregu-
irregularities
larities the
within within
SMEStheunit,
SMES unit,the
while while the control
control systemsystem establishes
establishes the connection
the connection betweenbetween
grid
grid power
power requirements
requirements and SMES
and SMES coil power
coil power flows.flows.

Figure 3.
Figure 3. Structure
Structure of
of SEMS.
SEMS.

Advancements in in superconducting
superconductingmaterials
materialsand
andcryogenic
cryogenicsystems have
systems opened
have openedup
up
newnew possibilities
possibilities for superconducting
for superconducting magnetic
magnetic energyenergy storage
storage (SMES)(SMES) in various
in various appli-
applications. The combination
cations. The combination of improved
of improved superconducting
superconducting coils
coils and and advanced
advanced power power
condi-
conditioning
tioning systems enables SMES to respond swiftly, typically within milliseconds, withwith
systems enables SMES to respond swiftly, typically within milliseconds, the
the capacity
capacity to handle
to handle power
power ratings
ratings extending
extending to several
to several megawatts
megawatts [53–57].
[53–57].

2.7. Comparative Analysis of Various Energy Storage Technologies

The various energy storage technologies exhibit distinct characteristics based on a
comparative analysis on critical variables, as shown in Table 2. Power density, a crucial
factor in assessing the rate of energy release or absorption, varies across these options.
Supercapacitors stand out with a remarkable power density exceeding 100,000 W/kg,
indicating their ability for rapid charge and discharge. Lithium-ion batteries and SEMS
follow, with power densities ranging from 1500 to 10,000 W/kg and 1000 to 4000 W/kg,
respectively. The flywheel lags slightly behind, with a range of 1000 to 2000 W/kg.
Energy density is another vital parameter, representing the amount of energy stored
per unit mass. Lithium-ion batteries and flywheels showcase high energy density, ranging
from 200 to 500 Wh/kg and 20 to 80 Wh/kg, respectively. Supercapacitors and SEMS,
Batteries 2024, 10, 141 9 of 21

however, exhibit lower energy density, with values spanning from 2.5 to 15 Wh/kg and 0.2
to 2.5 Wh/kg, respectively.

Table 2. Comparison between energy storage technologies.

Energy Energy Energy

Power Density Efficiency Lifetime
Storage Density Advantages Drawbacks Capital
(W/kg) (%) (Cycles)
Technologies (Wh/kg) ($/kWh)
High energy Limited cycle life,
Li-ion battery 1500–10,000 200–500 85–95 500–1000 density, widely potential safety 600–2500
used concerns
Limited energy
Rapid response,
Flywheel 1000–2000 20–80 90 10 k–100 k density, high upfront 2000–5000
long cycle life
cost
High power
Lower energy density
Supercapacitor >100,000 2.5–15 95–98 >125 k density, fast 100–400
compared to batteries
charge/discharge
Superconducting Extremely high High initial cost,
magnetic 1000–4000 0.2–2.5 95–99 >125 k power density, fast complexity, 200–500
(SEMS) response cryogenic cooling

Efficiency, denoting the ratio of useful energy output to the input, is relatively high
across all technologies. Supercapacitors and SEMS lead with efficiency levels between 95%
and 99%, while lithium-ion batteries and flywheels maintain efficiency within the range of
85% to 95% and 90%, respectively.
Lifetime, indicating the number of charge–discharge cycles a storage system can un-
dergo, is notably extended for flywheels and SEMS, ranging from 10,000 to 100,000 cycles
and exceeding 125,000 cycles, respectively. Lithium-ion batteries and supercapacitors,
however, have more limited lifetimes, ranging from 500 to 1000 cycles and over 125,000 cy-
cles, respectively.
Considering drawbacks, each technology has its challenges. Lithium-ion batteries face
limited cycle life and potential safety concerns. Flywheels encounter limitations in energy
density and higher upfront costs. Supercapacitors trade off energy density compared to
traditional batteries. SEMS poses challenges with high initial costs, complexity, and the
need for cryogenic cooling [58].
It is evident from examining the critical factors of different energy storage systems that
each choice has compromises and factors to consider. Supercapacitors have an excellent
power density that allows for rapid charging and discharging; moreover, their energy
density is lower than those of flywheels and lithium-ion batteries. On the other hand,
superconducting magnetic energy storage (SEMS) systems have higher power densities
and efficiency but are more complicated and have lower energy densities due to issues
such as high startup costs and cryogenic cooling requirements.

3. Energy Storage System Applications

3.1. Hybrid Energy Storage Systems
A hybrid energy storage system (HESS) plays a pivotal role in enhancing the per-
formance of power systems, especially in applications characterized by diverse power
dynamics. The intricate design of an HESS involves the strategic combination of two or
more complementary energy storage devices. Managing “high-frequency components” is
crucial, demanding high power density and swift dynamic response. An ultracapacitor
or SEMS is an optimal choice due to their unique efficiency and extended cycle lifetime.
Concurrently, the second storage component is designed to address the challenges of slow
power fluctuations, emphasizing high energy density. In this context, a battery energy
storage system (BESS) is a practical addition, offering the capacity to efficiently compen-
sate for gradual power variations. Hybrid energy storage systems (HESSs) leverage the
synergies between energy storage devices with complementary characteristics, such as
batteries and ultracapacitors. This integration allows HESSs to attain high power and
Batteries 2024, 10, 141 10 of 21

energy densities, creating a robust system capable of successfully mitigating short and
high-power fluctuations within systems (i.e., microgrids). The collaborative operation
of these storage components ensures a harmonious response to the dynamic energy de-
mands of the microgrid, contributing to its overall stability and efficiency. For instance,
research studies [7,8,59,60] have shown that an HESS can reduce the DC bus fluctuations
in a DC standalone microgrid by incorporating a Li-ion battery with supercapacitor in
case of pulse loads or variable pulse loads by allocating the high transient demand to the
supercapacitor and average demand to the battery. In another study [61], a hybrid energy
storage system (HESS) with an effective adaptive energy management technique (EMS)
was used to counteract power fluctuations. The authors concluded through a simulation
and experiment validation that the fluctuation in DC link voltage was reduced, and the
battery and supercapacitor’s coordinated function lessened the battery’s stress. In [62],
a dual model predictive control (D-MPC) technique for a hybrid energy storage system
(HESS) coupled with superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) and a battery in
naval DC microgrids was used to meet pulsed power demands.
The indispensability of a hybrid energy storage system becomes particularly apparent
in applications characterized by specific load profiles. Models where multiple loads exhibit
a standard profile, requiring relatively high pulse power but a lower average, highlight
the significance of an HESS. The high level of short-term current behavior inherent in
these scenarios necessitates components with higher power ratings, as failure to meet
these requirements could disrupt the entire grid. In such applications, the flexibility and
adaptability of an HESS prove instrumental in maintaining grid integrity and ensuring
reliable performance, making it an indispensable asset for the evolving landscape of DC
microgrids. Several research studies have been conducted to analyze the impact of HESSs
on power systems [61–71].

3.2. Energy Storage for Transportation Systems

Developing energy storage technologies is critical in the global search for sustain-
able and efficient transportation options. The widespread lithium-ion battery, which has
driven the growth of electric vehicles (EVs) and hybrids, is a key participant in this en-
vironment. Energy storage for transportation purposes may be broadly classified into
high power/rapid discharge and high energy/extended discharge. High-power devices
deliver brief, quick discharges for vehicle starting and accelerating. While they cannot
offer continuous discharge for electrified transportation, they may significantly increase
fuel efficiency for today’s hybrid electric cars. Hybrid energy storage systems can be an
alternative to such transportation systems. They are merging many technologies, such as
lithium-ion batteries, supercapacitors, and flywheels. This technique seeks to maximize the
twin objectives of energy and power density, establishing a balance between long-range
and high-performance demands. The use of lithium-ion batteries offers long-term energy
for movement, while supercapacitors excel at supplying quick bursts of power during
acceleration and regenerative braking. An example to prove this approach was introduced
in [72], in which the author presented a hybrid energy storage system (HESS) paradigm for
electric cars (EVs) that addresses issues such as long charging times, frequent discharging,
and battery life degradation. A bidirectional converter with a battery–SC combination is
part of the HESS used. The supercapacitor responds to the regenerative braking action
by absorbing the transients and reducing the battery’s peak current. Supercapacitors help
absorb discharge/charge current by reducing the strain on battery current when used
with batteries. The idea of high-power storage hybridization may be used for several
industrial, railroad, and airplane applications in addition to the transportation system, with
the comparable benefits and advantages previously mentioned [19,73–78].

3.3. Critical Loads

To ensure reliable power supply for commercial, public, and residential users, un-
interruptible power supplies (UPSs) have been the go-to solution, traditionally relying
Batteries 2024, 10, 141 11 of 21

on lead–acid batteries for energy storage. However, the prevalence of very short power
failures and disturbances, often lasting less than 1 s, necessitates oversized battery banks,
incurring additional costs for unused energy reserves. Telecommunication centers and
critical facilities, mandated to have standby gensets, require short-duration energy storage
to mitigate brief power disturbances and facilitate a seamless transition to startup and syn-
chronize the standby gensets for an extended power supply. In addressing these challenges,
flywheel energy storage systems emerged as a viable alternative, offering immediate power
availability during outages, dips, or surges in voltage and/or current. Compared to batter-
ies, flywheel systems present a lower cost per power unit, reduced operating costs due to
lower maintenance and replacement expenses, and enhanced environmental friendliness.
The compact design of flywheel UPS technology, leveraging high power density, further
distinguishes it as a favorable option.
Flywheel energy storage systems operate on the principle of storing kinetic energy in
a rapidly spinning mass. During regular operation, the flywheel spins and stores energy.
In the event of a power disruption, the stored kinetic energy is rapidly converted back
into electricity, providing an instantaneous and reliable power source. This contrasts with
traditional lead-acid batteries, which require charging time before delivering power.
The economic advantages of flywheel systems become apparent when considering
their lower cost per power unit than batteries. Additionally, their reduced operating costs
stem from lower maintenance and replacement expenses, as flywheels do not suffer from
the degradation that batteries experience over time. The environmental benefits of flywheel
technology contribute to its appeal, aligning with the growing emphasis on sustainable
and eco-friendly energy solutions.
The compact design of flywheel UPS technology, leveraging high power density,
allows for more efficient use of space compared to traditional battery-based systems. This
makes flywheel systems particularly suitable for environments with premium space, such
as densely populated urban areas or critical facilities with limited physical footprint [79–81].
Similarly, supercapacitors are an effective solution for short-term failures with their
high power density and low cost per unit power. These systems, ranging from 20 kW to
several milliwatts in size, can function as bridging power supplies to more permanent
backup sources, such as gensets or fuel cells. Supercapacitor UPSs, known for their com-
pactness, entail minimal maintenance and standby power costs, making them a pragmatic
choice for applications requiring swift responses to short-term power disruptions [82–86].

3.4. Pulse Load

In communication, shipboard, and spacecraft power systems, the strategic application
of high-power energy storage plays a key role, particularly when addressing the unique
challenges of pulsed loads. These applications share a distinctive profile characterized by
relatively low average power consumption but with intermittent, high, and instantaneous
power requirements. Pulsed loads in these scenarios exhibit varying durations from
hundreds of milliseconds to seconds, with power levels that dynamically adjust based on
specific use cases.
Pulsed power loads (PPLs) are aptly described as fluctuating load demands that tran-
sition from the minimum power (Pmin ) to the maximum power (Pmax ) over a defined period
(T), with a specific duty cycle (D), as shown in Figure 4. This fluctuating nature necessitates
innovative solutions to efficiently manage these dynamic loads’ power requirements. For
N pulses, the instantaneous power demand PD (t) may be computed as

N −1
PD (t) = Pmin + ∑ ( Pmax − Pmin )[δ(t − KT ) − δ(T − (K + D)T )] (7)
K =0

where δ is a unit step function at t = 0.

 𝑃 = 𝑃 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 𝐷(𝑃 −𝑃 )+𝑃 (8)
𝑇

𝑃 = 𝑃 (𝑡) − 𝑃 = −𝐷(𝑃 −𝑃 )+ (𝑃 −𝑃 ) ∗ (𝛿(𝑡 − 𝐾𝑇) − 𝛿(𝑇 − (𝐾 + 𝐷)𝑇)) (9)

Batteries 2024, 10, 141 12 of 21

Figure 4.
Figure Pulse load
4. Pulse load structure.
structure.

As shown insupercapacitors
Integrating Figure 1, the computed instantaneous
or flywheels becomes avalue of theoption
strategic PPL demand may be
in response to
described using two components of the power profiles: average power P ave
the challenges posed by pulsed loads. This approach proves essential when a single en-and dynamic
power
ergy Pdyn ;struggles to handle a pulse load’s high instantaneous power demands, poten-
source Z T
tial power outages, and 1 concerns.
thermal
Pave = PD (t)dt When
= D ( Pcombined with appropriate power elec-
max − Pmin ) + Pmin (8)
T
tronic infrastructure and management methodologies, supercapacitors and flywheels
0
emerge as power-dense storageN −1 systems with a low cost per unit power, significantly en-
Pdyn = PD (t) − Phancing
ave = − Doverall
( Pmax system
− Pmin ) + ∑ max − Pmin ) ∗ (δ(t − KT ) − δ(T − (K + D)T ))
performance.
( P (9)
The configuration of Kincorporating
=0 supercapacitors or flywheels into the power sys-
tem is designed to manage dynamic power requirements effectively. In this approach,
Integrating supercapacitors or flywheels becomes a strategic option in response to the
while meeting typical pulse load demands, the long-term primary energy supply is com-
challenges posed by pulsed loads. This approach proves essential when a single energy
plemented by supercapacitors or flywheels’ rapid response and high-power capabilities.
source struggles to handle a pulse load’s high instantaneous power demands, potential
power outages, and thermal concerns. When combined with appropriate power electronic
infrastructure and management methodologies, supercapacitors and flywheels emerge
as power-dense storage systems with a low cost per unit power, significantly enhancing
overall system performance.
The configuration of incorporating supercapacitors or flywheels into the power system
is designed to manage dynamic power requirements effectively. In this approach, while
meeting typical pulse load demands, the long-term primary energy supply is comple-
mented by supercapacitors or flywheels’ rapid response and high-power capabilities. This
dynamic interplay offers notable benefits, including reducing system weight and volume.
Integrating these energy storage components minimizes voltage disturbances, frequency
variations, and heat-related issues, ensuring enhanced reliability and efficiency in power
system operations.
Supercapacitors, with their ability to deliver rapid bursts of energy and high-power
density, prove instrumental in handling the instantaneous power requirements of pulsed
loads. Their efficiency and longevity make them well suited for applications where frequent
and rapid charging and discharging cycles are essential. Similarly, flywheels leverage
kinetic energy storage, responding instantly to fluctuating power demands. Their rotational
inertia allows for seamless energy discharge during pulsed load scenarios, making them an
ideal complement to the primary energy source.
When implemented with careful consideration of power electronic infrastructure
and management methodologies, the integration of supercapacitors or flywheels into
power systems ensures a harmonious balance between instantaneous power demands and
sustained energy supply. This innovative configuration addresses the specific challenges
posed by pulsed loads and sets the stage for more efficient, reliable, and adaptable power
systems in communication, shipboard, and spacecraft applications [7,8,87].
Batteries 2024, 10, 141 13 of 21

3.5. Power Grid

3.5.1. Frequency Regulation
Maintaining the ideal frequency of 60 Hz is crucial for power systems, and high-power
energy storage devices offer effective solutions for frequency control [12]. These devices,
reaching traditional options like compressed air energy storage (CAES) and pumped
hydroenergy storage (PHES) systems in efficiency and responsiveness, have become eco-
nomically viable with advancements in frequency control techniques [88]. Large flywheel
systems and advanced power monitoring software have been proven to be particularly
successful for frequency regulation services. Additionally, studies have highlighted the
suitability of high-power energy storage technologies such as supercapacitors, batteries,
and superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) for frequency control, especially in
primary control scenarios [49].
Effective frequency management is essential in maintaining grid stability to keep
the system frequency within allowable bounds. These regulators operate as primary,
secondary, and tertiary controllers, with primary control balancing the system frequency
over five minutes, secondary control supervising and sustaining frequency based on
primary control, and tertiary control serving as a backup for the secondary controller.
This coordinated strategy, ensuring a harmonious balance between generation and load,
significantly contributes to the overall stability of the power system [89–91].

3.5.2. Voltage Control

Power grid stability depends on voltage regulation, ensuring that transmission sys-
tem voltages remain within predetermined bounds. Voltage instability can result from
variations in renewable energy sources, such as wind and solar power, in heavily utilized
systems. Batteries and other sophisticated storage systems are high-power technologies
that work well with dynamic reactive power supplies to facilitate voltage management.
These technologies’ quick response times allow them to inject or absorb power quickly,
controlling voltage levels within predetermined bounds. Storage devices can minimize
the impact on stored actual energy by continually providing reactive power at the grid
frequency by utilizing four-quadrant power converters. High-power storage technologies,
which function as dynamic voltage regulators, are essential for maintaining grid integrity,
guaranteeing that the power system runs smoothly, and averting unfavorable circumstances
like overvoltage or undervoltage. These storage devices are essential for voltage stability in
power networks with high integration with renewable energy [92,93].

3.5.3. Grid Resilience

High-power storage systems provide a dependable backup for power outages or
variations in renewable energy output, guaranteeing a continuous supply of electricity to
vital loads. These technologies can immediately supply electricity during unanticipated sit-
uations, eliminating grid interruptions. High-power storage solutions minimize downtime,
improve overall power supply dependability, and strengthen grid resilience by serving as a
backup power source. This becomes especially important when there must be a consistent
and reliable power source, such as in emergencies or essential infrastructure [89].

3.5.4. Oscillation Damping

Controlling oscillations caused by disturbances or variations in demand is essential
to grid stability. Technologies for high-power storage actively contribute to oscillation
damping, which is a critical part of this process. These technologies contribute to grid
stability by lowering the possibility of amplification that might cause disruptions through
the injection or absorption of electricity as needed. Effective oscillation control is essential
for optimal performance in power grids with a large percentage of renewable energy since
intermittent sources bring extra dynamics. High-power storage systems have a dynamic
impact on the flow of power within the grid, which improves the grid’s capacity to absorb
and reduce oscillations and maintain overall stability and dependability. This support
Batteries 2024, 10, 141 14 of 21

becomes crucial to keeping a steady and uninterrupted power supply and avoiding power
outages [94].
Synchronous machines maintain consistent rotor angular positions in stable, disturbance-
free grids. On the other hand, power oscillations might result from changes in power in
renewable resources or from the loss of a primary transmission line. These oscillations can
potentially cause undamped electromechanical oscillations and rotor angular instability.
If not adequately mitigated, such disturbances, particularly those occurring across poor
transmission connections, may cause partial or complete power outages. Counteracting
these disturbances can be achieved by injecting or absorbing actual oscillatory power at
frequencies between 0.5 and 1 Hz. For this application, high-power energy storage devices
with sophisticated power electronics interfaces—such as SMES, supercapacitors, flywheels,
and high-power batteries—have become competitive options. These storage devices can
sense disturbances, react at full power in 20 ms, and inject or absorb oscillatory power for
a maximum of 20 cycles. As a result, they offer practical solutions for mitigating power
oscillations and ensuring grid stability [12,95].

3.6. Military Applications of High-Power Energy Storage Systems (ESSs)

High-power energy storage systems (ESSs) have emerged as revolutionary assets in
military operations, where the demand for reliable, portable, and adaptable power solutions
is paramount. These advanced energy storage systems play a multifaceted role, enhancing
the operational capabilities of military forces across a spectrum of applications. In this
comprehensive exploration, we delve into the intricacies of high-power ESSs in military
contexts, uncovering the diverse applications, technological advancements, and strategic
implications that underscore their importance on the modern battlefield. Military opera-
tions often unfold in remote or hostile environments where traditional power infrastructure
is unavailable or impractical. A high-power ESS addresses this challenge by offering a swift
and mobile power source that can be rapidly deployed to support communication systems,
electronic equipment, and other mission-critical devices. These energy storage systems’
compact and portable nature becomes a linchpin in sustaining connectivity, information
flow, and overall mission success [96–98].
The rapid response capabilities of high-power ESSs play a pivotal role in addressing
military operations’ dynamic and unpredictable nature. Electronic warfare systems, known
for their sudden spikes in power demand, benefit immensely from an ESS’s agility. Whether
adapting to abrupt changes in energy requirements or ensuring a stealthy and silent power
source, a high-power ESS empowers military forces to maintain a tactical advantage without
compromising operational efficiency.
Durability and resilience are non-negotiable attributes in military applications, and
high-power ESSs rise to the occasion. These systems are designed to withstand harsh envi-
ronmental conditions, extreme temperatures, and physical stresses, ensuring operational
continuity in challenging terrains and adverse weather conditions. From arid deserts to
freezing arctic landscapes, high-power ESSs remain steadfast, providing a reliable power
supply that is integral to the success of military missions.
The versatility of high-power ESSs extends to a diverse range of military applications.
In addition to supporting communication systems and electronic warfare, these systems
power surveillance systems, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), command and control
centers, and field hospitals. The adaptability of high-power ESSs makes them a universal
solution, contributing to the overall effectiveness of military operations across various
domains. Technological advancements further amplify the impact of high-power ESSs
in military settings. The integration of smart and predictive capabilities enhances the
efficiency of energy deployment. Predictive analytics allow military forces to anticipate
energy needs, optimize the use of stored power, and ensure a continuous supply during
critical operations. This predictive approach conserves energy and contributes to strategic
planning and resource management.
Batteries 2024, 10, 141 15 of 21

Moreover, the development of energy-harvesting technologies complements the ca-

pabilities of high-power ESSs in military applications. Harvesting energy from ambient
sources, such as solar or kinetic energy, provides an additional layer of sustainability. This
capability is particularly valuable in prolonged missions or scenarios where recharging
traditional power sources is impractical.
The cybersecurity aspect of high-power ESSs in military operations is of paramount
importance. As military systems increasingly rely on interconnected electronic devices,
safeguarding the integrity and security of power storage and distribution becomes crucial.
Encryption, secure communication protocols, and robust cyber defenses ensure that high-
power ESSs remain a dependable and secure asset in military applications. The strategic
implications of incorporating high-power ESSs into military operations are profound. These
systems’ rapid deployment and adaptability contribute to increased agility and flexibility
on the battlefield. Military forces equipped with high-power ESSs can precisely execute
complex maneuvers, responding dynamically to changing circumstances. This enhanced
flexibility improves the chances of mission success and contributes to personnel safety.
Furthermore, the reduced logistical burden associated with high-power ESSs enhances
the overall operational efficiency of military forces. Traditional power solutions often
require extensive fuel supply lines, presenting logistical challenges and vulnerabilities.
With its self-contained energy storage and rapid deployment capabilities, high-power ESS
mitigates these challenges, allowing military forces to operate with increased autonomy
and reduced dependence on external resources [96–103].

3.7. Industrial Peak Shaving

Industries with a high power demand face many operational and economic challenges,
particularly during peak demand periods when the strain on the electrical grid is at its
zenith. In response to these challenges, high-power energy storage systems (ESSs) have
emerged as strategic solutions by applying industrial peak shaving. This innovative
approach addresses the immediate concerns of industries and contributes to broader goals
of cost savings, grid stability, and overall operational efficiency. Industrial peak shaving is
a sophisticated strategy that reduces electricity consumption precisely when the demand
on the electrical grid reaches its highest point. High-power ESSs support this strategy by
efficiently storing surplus energy during off-peak hours, which is characterized by lower
electricity demand. This stored energy is subsequently released during peak demand
times, alleviating the need for industries to draw excessive power directly from the grid
during these critical periods. The economic benefits of industrial peak shaving facilitated by
high-power ESSs are substantial. By avoiding electricity consumption during peak hours,
industries can take advantage of lower electricity rates during off-peak times, resulting
in significant cost savings. This financial advantage is particularly relevant for industries
with high power demands, where electricity costs can constitute a substantial portion of
operational expenses [104–106].
One key advantage of high-power ESSs for industrial peak shaving is their remarkable
rapid response capabilities. Industrial facilities are dynamic environments where the energy
demand can experience sudden fluctuations due to production processes or operational
shifts. An ESS’s ability to adapt swiftly by releasing stored energy ensures that industries
can effectively manage their power consumption in real time. This responsiveness mini-
mizes the impact of demand spikes on operational costs and contributes to the stability of
the broader electrical grid.
In addition to the economic benefits, deploying high-power ESSs in industrial settings
significantly contributes to grid stability. By strategically managing energy consump-
tion and reducing the overall demand during peak hours, industries equipped with ESSs
play a crucial role in stabilizing the electrical grid. This proactive approach helps pre-
vent voltage fluctuations or disruptions, fostering a more reliable and resilient energy
infrastructure [107].
Batteries 2024, 10, 141 16 of 21

Furthermore, the integration of high-power ESSs aligns with broader sustainability

goals. Reducing peak demand from the grid translates into a decreased reliance on con-
ventional power sources during critical periods. This lowers the environmental impact of
high-power consumption and aligns with the growing global emphasis on sustainable and
responsible energy practices. As industries continue to navigate the evolving landscape of
energy management, the role of high-power ESSs in industrial peak shaving is poised to
grow exponentially. The versatility and adaptability of these energy storage systems offer
industries dynamic and cost-effective solutions for optimizing energy usage, reducing peak
demand from the grid, and enhancing overall grid stability. The strategic incorporation of
high-power ESSs into industrial operations reflects a forward-thinking approach, ensuring
industries’ sustainability, efficiency, and competitiveness in an increasingly complex and
dynamic energy landscape [108–110].
Thorough analyses and performance evaluations are essential before implementing en-
ergy storage technologies in practical applications. Hybrid energy storage systems (HESSs)
show promise in managing power dynamics, yet integration challenges, maintenance needs,
and system optimization pose deployment obstacles. Transportation concerns, including
weight, cost, and lifetime of hybrid systems, particularly for EVs and hybrids, require
attention. Despite energy storage devices’ critical role in critical load scenarios, ensuring
dependability and smooth integration into existing infrastructure remains challenging.
High-power energy storage systems offer reliable military power, but logistical issues like
maintenance and equipment compatibility persist.
Moreover, sustainability demands careful consideration of environmental impacts
from resource extraction, manufacturing, and disposal. While high-power energy storage
aids industrial peak shaving for grid stability and economic benefits, scalability, efficiency,
and their broader influence on the energy ecosystem raise concerns. Effective and sus-
tainable deployment across sectors demands careful consideration of technical, financial,
environmental, and societal factors.

4. Conclusions
This comprehensive study presents the critical roles of high-power storage technolo-
gies in promoting sustainable energy solutions, focusing on microgrid resilience, grid
stability, and frequency control. This paper discussed the profound impact of Li-ion bat-
teries, supercapacitors, superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES), and flywheels
on these critical domains by distinguishing between high-energy and high-power storage
categories and providing valuable insights into their respective capabilities and diverse
applications. In addition, the beneficial integration of several storage technologies into
hybrid systems has emerged as a practical approach to maximizing performance met-
rics across distinct applications, providing detailed insights into critical decision-making
criteria for choosing specific storage solutions. In an energy environment characterized
by fast transitions and more renewable integration, the research emphasizes the crucial
role of high-power storage technologies in improving grid dependability and promoting
sustainability. Furthermore, this work enhances our understanding of the minor differences
between high-energy and high-power storage. It emphasizes their combined influence on
advancing sustainable energy solutions as the energy storage sector evolves with ongoing
technical advancements and strategic implementations. Research and development efforts
continue to investigate new substances and composites that will improve the energy den-
sity, power density, and cycle life of storage systems. This will encourage more innovation
in the continually developing field of energy storage technologies.

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Batteries 2024, 10, 141 17 of 21

Abbreviations

HESS Hybrid Energy Storage System

ESS Energy Storage System
RES Renewable Energy Resource
BESS Battery Energy Storage System
SEMS Superconducting Energy Storage
SC Supercapacitor
FESS Flywheel Energy Storage System
PHES Pumped Hydroenergy Storage
CAES Compressed Air Energy Storage
PC Propylene Carbonate
Li-Ion Lithium-Ion
PPL Pulse Power Load
UPS Uninterruptible Power Supply
EV Electric Vehicle
UAV Unmanned Aerial Vehicle
D-MPC Dual-Model Predictive Control
DC Direct Current
EMS Energy Management System

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