‭Name:‬ ‭Grade: IG1 ___‬ ‭Roll No:‬ ‭2024-25‬

‭Subject: Physics (Electricity booklet)‬ ‭Date:‬ ‭Teacher’s sign:‬

‭Electricity‬

‭Current in the simple circuit‬

‭Objectives:‬‭– to know how to measure an electric current‬

‭– to know the rule for the current in a simple circuit‬
‭– to know the link between current and charge.‬

‭ harge essentials‬
C
‭Electric charge can be positive (+) or negative (–). Like charges repel, unlike charges attract.‬
‭Charges come from atoms. In atoms, the charged particles are protons (+) and electrons (–).‬

E‭ lectrons‬ ‭can‬ ‭move‬ ‭through‬ ‭some‬ ‭materials,‬ ‭called‬ ‭conductors.‬ ‭Copper‬ ‭is‬ ‭the‬ ‭most‬ ‭commonly‬ ‭used‬
‭conductor.‬

‭The unit of charge is the coulomb (C).‬

‭ n‬ ‭electric‬ ‭cell‬ ‭(commonly‬ ‭called‬ ‭a‬ ‭battery)‬ ‭can‬ ‭make‬ ‭electrons‬ ‭move,‬ ‭but‬ ‭only‬ ‭if‬ ‭there‬ ‭is‬ ‭a‬ ‭conductor‬
A
‭connecting‬‭its‬‭two‬‭terminals.‬‭Then,‬‭chemical‬‭reactions‬‭inside‬‭the‬‭cell‬‭push‬‭electrons‬‭from‬‭the‬‭negative‬‭(–)‬
‭terminal round to the positive (+) terminal.‬

T‭ he‬‭cell‬‭below‬‭is‬‭being‬‭used‬‭to‬‭light‬‭a‬‭lamp.‬‭As‬‭electrons‬‭flow‬‭through‬‭the‬‭lamp,‬‭they‬‭make‬‭a‬‭filament‬‭(thin‬
‭wire)‬‭heat‬‭up‬‭so‬‭that‬‭it‬‭glows.‬‭The‬‭conducting‬‭path‬‭through‬‭the‬‭lamp,‬‭wires,‬‭switch,‬‭and‬‭battery‬‭is‬‭called‬‭a‬
‭circuit.‬‭There‬‭must‬‭be‬‭a‬‭complete‬‭circuit‬‭for‬‭the‬‭electrons‬‭to‬‭flow.‬‭Turning‬‭the‬‭switch‬‭OFF‬‭breaks‬‭the‬‭circuit‬
‭and stops the flow.‬

‭When the switch is OFF (open), the gap stops electron flow.‬
‭ easuring current‬
M
‭To‬‭measure‬‭a‬‭current,‬‭you‬‭need‬‭to‬‭choose‬‭a‬‭meter‬‭with‬‭a‬‭suitable‬‭range‬‭on‬‭its‬‭scale.‬‭This‬‭ammeter‬‭cannot‬
‭measure‬ ‭currents‬ ‭above‬ ‭5‬ ‭A.‬ ‭Also‬ ‭to‬ ‭measure,‬ ‭say,‬ ‭milliampere‬ ‭or‬ ‭microampere‬ ‭accurately,‬ ‭it‬ ‭would‬ ‭be‬
‭better to use a meter with a lower range.‬

‭ hen‬ ‭connecting‬ ‭up‬ ‭a‬ ‭meter,‬ ‭the‬ ‭red‬ ‭(+)‬ ‭terminal‬ ‭should‬ ‭be‬ ‭on‬ ‭the‬ ‭same‬ ‭side‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬ ‭circuit‬ ‭as‬ ‭the‬ ‭+‬
W
‭terminal of the battery.‬

‭A flow of charge is called an electric current. The higher the current, the greater the flow of charge.‬

T‭ he‬ ‭SI‬ ‭unit‬ ‭of‬ ‭current‬ ‭is‬ ‭the‬ ‭ampere‬ ‭(A).‬ ‭About‬ ‭6‬ ‭billion‬ ‭billion‬ ‭electrons‬ ‭flowing‬ ‭round‬ ‭a‬ ‭circuit‬ ‭every‬
‭second would give a current of 1 A. However, the ampere is not defined in this way.‬

‭ urrents‬‭of‬‭about‬‭an‬‭ampere‬‭or‬‭so‬‭can‬‭be‬‭measured‬‭by‬‭connecting‬‭an‬‭ammeter‬‭into‬‭the‬‭circuit.‬‭For‬‭smaller‬
C
‭currents, a milliammeter is used. The unit in this case is the milliampere (mA). 1000 mA = 1 A.‬

‭ harge and current‬

C
‭There is a link between charge and current:‬
‭If charge flows at this rate... then the current is…‬

‭ coulomb per second

1 1 ampere‬
‭2 coulombs per second 2 amperes ...and so on.‬

‭The link can also be expressed as an equation: current = charge / time‬

‭In symbols: I = Q/t​‬
‭For example, if a charge of 6 coulombs (C) is delivered in 3 seconds, the current is 2 A.‬

T‭ herefore, the coulomb and the ampere are linked like this:‬
‭1 C is the charge passing when 1 A of current flows for 1 s.‬
‭ urrent direction‬
C
‭Some‬‭circuit‬‭diagrams‬‭have‬‭arrowheads‬‭marked‬‭on‬‭them.‬‭These‬‭show‬‭the‬‭conventional‬‭current‬‭direction‬‭:‬
‭the‬‭direction‬‭from‬‭+‬‭to‬‭–‬‭round‬‭the‬‭circuit.‬‭Electrons‬‭actually‬‭flow‬‭the‬‭other‬‭way.‬‭Being‬‭negatively‬‭charged,‬
‭they are repelled by negative charge, so are pushed out of the negative terminal of the battery.‬
T‭ he‬ ‭conventional‬ ‭current‬ ‭direction‬ ‭is‬ ‭equivalent‬ ‭to‬ ‭the‬ ‭direction‬ ‭of‬ ‭transfer‬ ‭of‬ ‭positive‬ ‭charge.‬ ‭It‬ ‭was‬
‭defined‬‭before‬‭the‬‭electron‬‭was‬‭discovered‬‭and‬‭scientists‬‭realized‬‭that‬‭positive‬‭charge‬‭did‬‭not‬‭flow‬‭through‬
‭wires.‬ ‭However,‬ ‭it‬ ‭isn’t‬ ‭‘wrong’.‬ ‭Mathematically,‬ ‭a‬ ‭transfer‬ ‭of‬‭positive‬‭charge‬‭is‬‭the‬‭same‬‭as‬‭a‬‭transfer‬‭of‬
‭negative charge in the opposite direction.‬

‭Questions:‬

‭1. Convert these currents into amperes:‬

‭(i) 500 mA‬
‭(ii) 2500 mA‬

‭2. Convert these currents into milliamperes:‬

‭(i) 2.0 A‬
‭(ii) 0.1 A‬

‭3. What charge is delivered if‬

‭(i) a current of 10 A flows for 5 seconds?‬

‭charge = ……………………….‬
‭(ii) a current of 250 mA flows for 40 seconds?‬

‭charge = ……………………….‬
‭4. (i) Draw the circuit on the right using circuit symbols.‬

‭(ii) On your diagram, mark in and label the conventional current direction and the direction of electron‬
‭flow.‬

‭(iii) The current reading on one of the ammeters is shown. What is the reading on the other one?‬

‭……………………………………………………………………………………………………………‬

‭(iv) Which lamp(s) will go out if the switch contacts are moved apart? Give a reason for your answer.‬

‭…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….‬

‭…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….‬
‭Current in series circuits‬

‭What is a series circuit?‬

‭●‬ ‭A series circuit contains a single complete loop.‬

‭In this circuit, the switch, battery, and both lamps are in a single loop, making it a series circuit.‬

‭Current in a series circuit‬

‭ ‬ I‭n a series circuit, the current is the same at any point.‬

●
‭●‬ ‭This‬‭is‬‭because‬‭the‬‭number‬‭of‬‭electrons‬‭per‬‭second‬‭that‬‭passes‬‭through‬‭one‬‭part‬‭of‬‭the‬‭circuit‬‭is‬‭the‬
‭same number that passes through any other part.‬
‭●‬ ‭This means that all components in a closed-loop have the same current.‬

‭Factors affecting current in a series circuit‬

‭●‬ ‭The amount of current flowing around a series circuit depends on two things:‬
‭○‬ ‭The voltage of the power source.‬
‭○‬ ‭The resistance of the components in the circuit.‬
‭●‬ ‭Increasing the voltage of the power source drives more current around the circuit‬
‭○‬ ‭So, decreasing the voltage of the power source reduces the current.‬
 ‭●‬ ‭Increasing the number of components in the circuit increases the total resistance‬
‭○‬ ‭Hence less current flows through the circuit.‬

‭ urrent will increase if the voltage of the power supply increases, and decreases if the number of‬
C
‭components increases (because there will be more resistance)‬

‭ urrent in parallel circuits‬

C
‭What is a parallel circuit?‬
‭A parallel circuit consists of multiple loops containing circuit components‬

‭The bulbs are each in a separate loop in this circuit, making it a parallel circuit‬

‭What is the rule for current in a parallel circuit?‬

‭●‬ ‭In a parallel circuit, the current‬‭splits‬‭along each‬‭branch‬‭at a junction.‬

‭○‬ ‭Some of it goes down one branch and the rest goes down the other.‬
‭●‬ ‭This means that the current from the source is‬‭larger‬‭than the current in each branch.‬
‭Lighting circuits‬

‭●‬ ‭A lighting circuit is used to supply power to multiple light sources.‬

‭○‬ ‭Office‬ ‭lights‬ ‭are‬ ‭a‬ ‭common‬ ‭example,‬ ‭as‬ ‭multiple‬ ‭identical‬ ‭bulbs‬ ‭must‬ ‭have‬ ‭the‬ ‭same‬
‭brightness.‬
‭●‬ ‭Lighting circuits are constructed in‬‭parallel‬‭because:‬
‭○‬ ‭Bulbs all have the same potential difference and therefore the same brightness.‬
‭○‬ ‭If‬ ‭one‬ ‭bulb‬ ‭breaks,‬ ‭the‬ ‭rest‬ ‭continue‬ ‭to‬ ‭function‬ ‭as‬ ‭current‬ ‭passes‬ ‭along‬ ‭each‬ ‭branch‬
‭independently.‬
‭○‬ ‭This‬ ‭also‬ ‭means‬ ‭lamps‬‭can‬‭be‬‭switched‬‭off‬‭and‬‭on‬‭individually‬‭without‬‭breaking‬‭the‬‭whole‬
‭circuit.‬

‭Calculating current in parallel circuits‬

‭●‬ ‭The current‬‭before‬‭a junction is equal to the‬‭sum‬‭of currents along each branch‬‭after‬‭the junction.‬

‭Current from the power supply (4 A) is split along each branch (2 A). These currents combine‬
‭again at the other side.‬

‭●‬ ‭At a‬‭junction‬‭in a‬‭parallel circuit‬‭(where two or‬‭more wires meet), the current is‬‭conserved‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭This‬ ‭means‬ ‭the‬ ‭amount‬ ‭of‬ ‭current‬ ‭flowing‬ ‭into‬ ‭the‬ ‭junction‬ ‭is‬ ‭equal‬ ‭to‬ ‭the‬ ‭amount‬ ‭of‬
‭current flowing out of it.‬
‭●‬ ‭This is because‬‭charge‬‭is conserved.‬
‭●‬ ‭Note‬ ‭that‬ ‭the‬ ‭current‬ ‭does‬ ‭not‬ ‭always‬ ‭split‬ ‭equally—often‬ ‭there‬ ‭will‬ ‭be‬ ‭more‬ ‭current‬ ‭in‬ ‭some‬
‭branches than in others:‬
‭○‬ ‭The‬ ‭current‬ ‭in‬‭each‬‭branch‬‭will‬‭only‬‭be‬‭identical‬‭if‬‭the‬‭resistance‬‭of‬‭the‬‭components‬‭along‬
‭each branch is identical.‬
 ‭●‬ ‭Current behaves in this way because it is the‬‭flow of electrons‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Electrons are physical matter—they cannot be created or destroyed.‬
‭○‬ ‭This‬ ‭means‬ ‭the‬ ‭total‬ ‭number‬ ‭of‬ ‭electrons‬ ‭(and‬‭hence‬‭current)‬‭going‬‭around‬‭a‬‭circuit‬‭must‬
‭remain the same.‬
‭●‬ ‭When‬ ‭the‬ ‭electrons‬ ‭reach‬‭a‬‭junction,‬‭however,‬‭some‬‭of‬‭them‬‭will‬‭go‬‭one‬‭way‬‭and‬‭the‬‭rest‬‭will‬‭go‬
‭the other.‬

‭Current split at a junction into individual branches‬

E‭ xaminer Tips and Tricks‬

‭The‬ ‭direction‬ ‭of‬ ‭current‬ ‭flow‬ ‭is‬ ‭important‬ ‭when‬ ‭considering‬ ‭junctions‬ ‭in‬ ‭a‬‭circuit.‬‭You‬‭should‬‭remember‬
‭that‬ ‭current‬ ‭flows‬ ‭from‬ ‭the‬ ‭positive‬ ‭terminal‬ ‭to‬ ‭the‬ ‭negative‬ ‭terminal‬ ‭of‬ ‭a‬ ‭cell/battery.‬ ‭This‬ ‭will‬ ‭help‬
‭determine the direction current is flowing round a circuit.‬
‭Example 1:‬‭In the circuit below, ammeter A‬‭0‬ ‭shows a reading of 10 A, and ammeter A‬‭1‬ ‭shows a reading of‬
‭6A.‬

‭What is the reading on ammeter A‬‭2‬ ‭?‬

‭Ammeter reading = ………………………..‬

‭ otential difference‬
P
‭Objectives:‬‭–‬‭to‬‭explain‬‭what‬‭is‬‭meant‬‭by‬‭p.d.‬‭and‬‭e.m.f.,‬‭–‬‭to‬‭know‬‭the‬‭rule‬‭for‬‭the‬‭p.d.s‬‭around‬‭a‬‭simple‬
‭circuit.‬

‭Circuit essentials‬

‭ ‬ ‭cell‬ ‭can‬ ‭make‬ ‭electrons‬ ‭flow‬ ‭round‬ ‭a‬‭circuit.‬‭The‬‭flow‬‭of‬‭electrons‬‭is‬‭called‬‭a‬‭current.‬‭Electrons‬‭carry‬‭a‬

A
‭negative‬‭(–)‬‭charge.‬‭As‬‭like‬‭charges‬‭repel,‬‭electrons‬‭are‬‭pushed‬‭out‬‭of‬‭the‬‭negative‬‭(–)‬‭terminal‬‭of‬‭the‬‭cell.‬
‭Charge is measured in coulombs (C).‬

‭Energy and work essentials‬

E‭ nergy is measured in joules (J).‬

‭Energy can be transferred from one store to another, but the total quantity always stays the same.‬
‭Work done generally defined as force into displacement.‬
‭W = F x d‬
‭Work is also measured in joules.‬
‭Work is done whenever energy is transferred:‬ ‭work‬‭done = energy transferred‬‭.‬

‭p.d. (voltage) across a cell‬

‭ ‬ ‭cell‬ ‭normally‬ ‭has‬‭a‬‭voltage‬‭marked‬‭on‬‭it.‬‭The‬‭higher‬‭the‬‭voltage,‬‭the‬‭more‬‭work‬‭is‬‭done‬‭in‬‭pushing‬‭out‬

A
‭each‬ ‭coulomb.‬ ‭In‬ ‭other‬ ‭words,‬‭the‬‭more‬‭energy‬‭per‬‭coulomb‬‭is‬‭transferred‬‭by‬‭the‬‭electrons‬‭to‬‭the‬‭lamp.‬
‭The‬‭scientific‬‭name‬‭for‬‭voltage‬‭is‬‭potential‬‭difference‬‭(p.d.).‬‭It‬‭can‬‭be‬‭measured‬‭by‬‭connecting‬‭a‬‭voltmeter‬
‭across the terminals. The SI unit of p.d. is the volt (V).‬

‭p.d. (V), charge (Q), and work done (W) are linked by this equation:‬‭V = W/Q‬
​F‭ or example, if the p.d. across the cell is 1.5 V:‬
‭1.5 J of work is done in pushing out 1 C of charge.‬
‭3 J of work is done in pushing out 2 C of charge... and so on.‬

T‭ he‬ ‭p.d.‬ ‭across‬ ‭a‬ ‭cell‬ ‭is‬ ‭highest‬ ‭when‬ ‭it‬ ‭isn’t‬ ‭connected‬ ‭in‬ ‭a‬ ‭circuit.‬ ‭This‬ ‭maximum‬ ‭p.d.‬ ‭is‬ ‭called‬ ‭the‬
‭electromotive‬‭force‬‭(e.m.f.)‬‭of‬‭the‬‭cell.‬‭When‬‭the‬‭cell‬‭is‬‭supplying‬‭a‬‭current,‬‭the‬‭p.d.‬‭across‬‭it‬‭drops‬‭because‬
‭the‬ ‭cell‬ ‭heats‬ ‭up‬ ‭and‬ ‭energy‬ ‭is‬ ‭wasted.‬ ‭For‬ ‭example,‬ ‭a‬ ‭car‬ ‭battery‬‭labelled‬‭12‬‭V‬‭might‬‭only‬‭produce‬‭9‬‭V‬
‭when being used to turn a starter motor.‬
‭The p.d. in a circuit is measured through the device called voltmeter.‬

‭EMF in series‬

‭●‬ W
‭ hen‬ ‭several‬ ‭cells‬ ‭are‬ ‭connected‬ ‭together‬ ‭in‬ ‭series,‬ ‭their‬ ‭combined‬‭e.m.f.‬‭is‬‭equal‬‭to‬‭the‬‭sum‬‭of‬
‭their individual e.m.f.s.‬

‭The total e.m.f. of these cells is equal to the sum of their individual e.m.f.s‬
‭Potential difference in series circuits‬

‭●‬ I‭n‬‭a‬‭series‬‭circuit,‬‭the‬‭sum‬‭of‬‭potential‬‭differences‬‭across‬‭the‬‭components‬‭is‬‭equal‬‭to‬‭the‬‭total‬‭e.m.f.‬
‭(electromotive force) of the power supply.‬

‭In the series circuit the components share the e.m.f. of the power supply‬

E‭ xample‬ ‭1:‬ ‭In‬ ‭the‬ ‭circuit‬ ‭diagram‬ ‭below,‬ ‭the‬ ‭power‬ ‭source‬ ‭has‬ ‭an‬ ‭e.m.f.,‬ ‭E‬‭,‬ ‭of‬ ‭16‬‭V.‬‭There‬‭is‬‭a‬‭potential‬
‭difference of 10 V across component X. Calculate the potential difference across component Y.‬
‭Potential difference in a parallel circuit‬

‭●‬ T‭ he‬ ‭potential‬ ‭difference‬ ‭across‬ ‭each‬ ‭branch‬ ‭of‬ ‭a‬ ‭parallel‬ ‭circuit‬ ‭is‬ ‭the‬ ‭same‬ ‭as‬ ‭the‬ ‭e.m.f.‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬
‭power source.‬

‭The power source has an e.m.f. of 12 V and there is a potential difference of 12 V across each branch.‬

‭ ‬ I‭t is important to notice that the potential difference in a parallel circuit is equal across each branch‬
●
‭●‬ ‭In‬‭the‬‭example‬‭above,‬‭if‬‭one‬‭branch‬‭in‬‭the‬‭circuit‬‭contained‬‭multiple‬‭components,‬‭the‬‭12‬‭V‬‭would‬
‭be split between the components on that branch.‬

‭Resistance‬

‭Objectives:‬ ‭– to know the definition of resistance.‬

‭– to know that resistance has a heating effect.‬

‭– to describe some devices and components that have resistance.‬

‭ ircuit essentials‬
C
‭A‬‭battery‬‭pushes‬‭electrons‬‭round‬‭a‬‭circuit.‬‭The‬‭flow‬‭of‬‭electrons‬‭is‬‭called‬‭a‬‭current.‬‭Current‬‭is‬‭measured‬‭in‬
‭amperes (A).‬

‭ otential‬ ‭difference‬ ‭(p.d.),‬ ‭or‬ ‭voltage,‬ ‭is‬ ‭measured‬ ‭in‬ ‭volts‬ ‭(V).‬ ‭The‬ ‭greater‬ ‭the‬ ‭p.d.‬‭across‬‭a‬‭battery,‬‭the‬
P
‭more‬ ‭energy‬ ‭each‬ ‭electron‬ ‭is‬ ‭given.‬ ‭The‬ ‭greater‬ ‭the‬ ‭p.d.‬ ‭across‬ ‭a‬ ‭lamp‬ ‭or‬ ‭other‬ ‭component,‬ ‭the‬ ‭more‬
‭energy each electron transfers to it as it passes through.‬

T‭ o‬ ‭make‬ ‭a‬ ‭current‬ ‭flow‬ ‭in‬ ‭a‬ ‭conductor,‬ ‭there‬ ‭must‬ ‭be‬ ‭a‬ ‭potential‬ ‭difference‬ ‭(voltage)‬ ‭across‬ ‭it.‬ ‭Copper‬
‭connecting‬ ‭wire‬ ‭is‬ ‭a‬ ‭good‬ ‭conductor‬ ‭and‬ ‭a‬ ‭current‬ ‭passes‬ ‭through‬ ‭it‬ ‭easily.‬ ‭However,‬ ‭a‬ ‭similar‬ ‭piece‬ ‭of‬
‭nichrome‬ ‭wire‬ ‭is‬ ‭not‬ ‭so‬ ‭good‬ ‭and‬ ‭less‬ ‭current‬ ‭flows‬ ‭for‬ ‭the‬ ‭same‬ ‭p.d.‬ ‭The‬ ‭nichrome‬ ‭wire‬ ‭has‬ ‭more‬
‭resistance than the copper.‬

‭ esistance‬‭is‬‭calculated‬‭using‬‭the‬‭equation‬‭below.‬‭The‬‭SI‬‭unit‬‭of‬‭resistance‬‭is‬‭the‬‭ohm‬‭(Ω).‬‭(The‬‭symbol‬‭Ω‬‭is‬
R
‭the Greek letter omega.)‬
‭resistance (Ω) =‬ ‭p.d. across conductor (V)‬
‭current through conductor (A)‬

‭For example, if a p.d. of 6 V is needed to make a current of 3 A flow in a wire:‬

‭resistance = 6 V / 3 A‬
‭= 2 Ω‬

‭ ith‬ ‭a‬ ‭lower‬‭resistance,‬‭a‬‭lower‬‭p.d.‬‭would‬‭be‬‭needed‬‭to‬‭give‬‭the‬‭same‬‭current.‬‭Even‬‭copper‬‭connecting‬

W
‭wire‬ ‭has‬ ‭some‬ ‭resistance.‬ ‭However,‬ ‭it‬ ‭is‬ ‭normally‬ ‭so‬ ‭low‬ ‭that‬‭only‬‭a‬‭very‬‭small‬‭p.d.‬‭is‬‭needed‬‭to‬‭make‬‭a‬
‭current flow in it, and this can be neglected in calculations.‬

S‭ ome factors affecting resistance‬

‭The resistance of a conductor depends on several factors:‬

‭ ‬ L‭ ength:‬‭Doubling the length of a wire doubles its‬‭resistance.‬

●
‭●‬ ‭Cross-sectional‬ ‭area:‬ ‭Halving‬ ‭the‬ ‭‘end‬‭on’‬‭area‬‭of‬‭a‬‭wire‬‭doubles‬‭its‬‭resistance.‬‭So‬‭a‬‭thin‬‭wire‬‭has‬
‭more resistance than a thick one.‬
‭●‬ ‭Material:‬‭A nichrome wire has more resistance than‬‭a copper wire of the same size.‬
‭●‬ ‭Temperature:‬ ‭For‬‭metal‬‭conductors,‬‭resistance‬‭increases‬‭with‬‭temperature.‬‭For‬‭semiconductors,‬‭it‬
‭decreases with temperature.‬
‭Combined Resistance‬

‭Resistors in series & parallel‬

‭Combination of resistance in series‬

‭●‬ ‭When two or more components are connected in series:‬

‭○‬ ‭The combined resistance of the components is equal to the sum of individual resistances‬

‭ hen several components are connected in series, their combined resistance is equal to the sum of‬
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‭their individual resistances. In a series circuit, the total resistance of the circuit is increased.‬

‭Combination of resistance in parallel‬

‭●‬ W ‭ hen‬‭resistors‬‭are‬‭connected‬‭in‬‭parallel,‬‭the‬‭combined‬‭resistance‬‭is‬‭less‬‭than‬‭the‬‭resistance‬‭of‬‭any‬
‭of the individual components.‬
‭●‬ ‭If‬ ‭two‬ ‭resistors‬ ‭of‬ ‭equal‬ ‭resistance‬ ‭are‬ ‭connected‬ ‭in‬ ‭parallel,‬ ‭then‬ ‭the‬ ‭combined‬ ‭resistance‬ ‭will‬
‭halve‬

T‭ he above resistors will have a combined resistance of 2 Ω - halve the value of each resistor in this‬
‭case.‬
‭Determining resistance in parallel‬
‭●‬ ‭To‬ ‭determine‬ ‭the‬ ‭combined‬ ‭resistance‬ ‭of‬ ‭any‬ ‭combination‬ ‭of‬ ‭two‬ ‭resistors,‬ ‭you‬ ‭must‬ ‭use‬ ‭the‬
‭equation:‬

‭1/R = 1/R‬‭1‬‭+ 1/R‬‭2‬

‭ here,‬
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‭R is the combined resistance in ohms, Ω‬
‭R‭1‬ ‬ ‭is the resistance of resistor 1 in ohms, Ω‬
‭R‬‭2‬ ‭is the resistance of resistor 2 in ohms, Ω‬

‭The combined resistance in parallel is always less than the resistance of either resistor individually.‬
‭The method to calculate the resistance:‬
‭○‬ ‭First find the value of 1/R (by adding the‬‭1/R‬‭1‭+‬ 1/R‬‭2‬‭)‬
‭○‬ ‭Next‬‭find‬‭the‬‭value‬‭of‬‭R‬‭by‬‭using‬‭the‬‭reciprocal‬‭button‬‭on‬‭your‬‭calculator‬‭(labelled‬‭either‬ 𝓍
‭ ‬‭-1‬
‭or 1/𝓍, depending on the calculator)‬

‭Example 1:‬‭Two resistors of identical resistance are‬‭connected to a 3 V cell. Which value of a current is‬
‭correct for ammeter A‬‭3‬ ‭?‬

‭A. I = 2 / (3R)‬

‭B. I = 3 / (2R)‬

‭C. I = 2R‬

‭D. I = 3R‬
‭Example 2:‬‭The diagram shows part of a circuit. A 3.0‬‭Ω and a 6.0 Ω resistor are connected as shown.‬
‭Calculate the combined resistance of these two resistors.‬

‭combined resistance = ……………………‬

‭ , I, R equations‬
V
‭The resistance equation can be written using symbols:‬

‭R =‬‭V‬‭/ I‬

‭where‬

‭R = resistance,‬

‭V‬‭= p.d. (voltage), and‬

‭I = current‬

‭(Note the difference between the symbol‬‭V‬‭for p.d.‬‭and the symbol V for volt.)‬

‭The above equation can be rearranged in two ways:‬

‭V‬‭= I * R‬

‭and‬

‭I =‬‭V / R‬

‭These are useful if the p.d. across a known resistance, or the current in it, is to be calculated.‬

‭Example:‬‭A 12 Ω resistor has a p.d. of 6 V across‬‭it. What is the current in the resistor?‬

‭current = …………………….‬