1.

BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY

What is electrical engineering?

Lightning unleashes electrical energy unpredictably and destructively.
Electrical engineering utilises electrical energy for human good.
Electrical engineering is the profession concerned with systems that
 produce,
 transmit,
 measure,
 control and
 process
electric signals.

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY

Electrical engineering
 make physical models of natural phenomena
 manipulates them with mathematics
 produce systems that meet practical needs.

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY
When electrical energy turn motors or illuminate department stores, we think of the
electrical power engineering.

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY

When energy is important for its information content, we think of the electronics
engineering.
 They both are divisions of electrical engineering and
 They both use electrical energy for beneficial purposes.

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY

There are five major classifications of electrical systems :

• communication systems generate, transmit, and distribute information.

• computer systems process information

• control systems regulate processes.

• power systems generate and distribute electric power.

• signal-processing systems transform information into a other suitable forms.

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY

Electrical energy generally is not used as an end-product.

It is more used when converted to
1. Mechanical Energy (motors)
2. Heat Energy (ovens and heaters)
3. Sound Energy (Loudspeakers)
4. Ligth Energy ( lamp)
5. Chemical Energy (electrolithic processes)

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY

Electrical Engineering generally deals with :

1. Converting other energy types to electrical energy
2. Transmitting and distribution of the Electrical Energy
3. Controlling and processing of the electrical energy (Electronic
Engineering) and
4. Converting the electrical energy back to other energy types.

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY

Why circuit theory?

Practically every electrical device is a circuit.
– A radio
– A power distribution system that runs our lights and air conditioners
– A computer
are basically all circuits,
An electric circuit is a mathematical model that aproximates the behaviour of an
actual electrical system.
Hence, understanding the methods used in circuit analysis is important for all areas
of electrical as well as computer engineering.

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY

The solution of an engineering problem (design) normally has four stages:

– first, a real-world problem is identified; (design specifications)
– second, the problem is modelled;
– third, the model is analyzed; and
– fourth, the results are applied to the original physical problem.

In electrical engineering,
– circuit is the model used in the second stage and
– circuit theory is used in the third stage to analyze this model. Known
circuit laws are used to solve these circuits for certain results

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY
A modern telephone system :
At each stage of the process,
electric circuits operate on the
signals

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY

In these lectures we shall explain the fundamental ideas and techniques of electrical
circuits.
Our goal is to provide you with a foundation to solve basic and practical electrical
circuit problems.
All engineers need this background to contribute in a technology that is
increasingly electrical.

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY
Automotive lighting system :
It consists of
• two headligths
• a battery
• a cable and a switch

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY
Circuit representing automotive lighting system :
The headlights are represented by resistances :

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY

The International System of Units (SI) Derived Units in SI

(MKS)

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1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY
Standardized Prefixes to Signify Powers of 10

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY

Question : (Final 2009) How many pico farads is 1000 nF ? (2 Points)

Answer : 106pF

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY

PHYSICAL BASIS OF CIRCUIT THEORY

1.CHARGE
Charge, is a property of matter and is a fundamental physical quantity.
Like mass, length, and time charge is one of the fundamental units from which
other units are derived.

Electric charge is the basis for describing all electrical phenomena.

The unit of electric charge is the coulomb (abbreviated C), named in honor of
Charles de Coulomb (1736-1806).

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1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY

There are two types of electrical charge :

– Positive charge

and
– Negative charge

These two types of charge creates opposite effects.

Traditionally
– Electron is defined to be negative
and
– proton is defined to be positive

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY

– The charge of an electron is the smallest possible charge and charge

exists in in discrete levels which are multiples of this charge.
– In MKS units this is e = -1.602 x 10-19 coulomb
– The mass of an electron is 9.11 x 10-31 kg
– Proton has a charge equal but opposite to that of the electron.
– The mass of proton is 1846 times greater than that of electron.

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY

2. CURRENT
Current occurs when charges move.
An electrical conductor has mobile (conduction) electrons capable of moving in
response to electric forces.
A nonconductor has plenty of charges but its charges cannot move.

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY

Consider a wire with a cross-section of A m2 with charges moving with a

velocity u (metre/seconds) from left to right.
If in a period of time Δt seconds, Δq coulombs cross A in the indicated
direction, we define the current to be

i = Δq / Δt ........ Coulomb/s
It can also be expressed as i = dq /dt where

i = the current in C/s,

t = time in seconds,
q = the charge in coulombs.

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY

The units of current are coulombs per second, but to honor Andre Ampere
(1775--1836), we give this unit a special name, the ampere (A).

To specify a current, we require

• a direction
and
• a numerical value, which may be positive or negative.

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY
The current directions are indicated,
– by arrowheads drawn on the lines representing the conductors, or
– with arrows beside the wires, or
– with subscripts.

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY

“ If we change the direction of current in a circuit, we must change the sign (+/-)
of the current as well.”

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY

A copper wire has a concentration of conduction electrons of ne = 1.13 x 1029

electrons/m3.

If the electrons are moving with a velocity u (m/sec) , the number of electrons
crossing A (m2) in time Δt (s) would be Δn = neAuΔt. Hence, the current would be

i = Δq / Δt = eΔn / Δt = eneAu Amperes

Since e is (-)ve, “the direction of current

is opposite to the direction of electron motion”.

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY

Example : If electrons travel downward in a wire (0.081 in. in diameter) at a speed

of 0.1 mm/s, what would be the magnitude and direction of the current flowing in the
wire ?

Answer :
i = e x ne x u x A
= - (1.602 x 10-19) x (1.13 x 1029) x (0.1 x 10-3) x [3.14 x (0.0405 x 2.54 x 10-2)2]
= - 106x1.602x1.13x 3.14x (0.001)2 = - 1.602x1.13x3.14
= - 5.7 Amperes downward or
= + 5.7Amperes upward

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 1.TEMEL DEVRE TEORİSİ
Question : A steady current of +10-6 A flows towards the rigth in a copper wire of
0.001 in. diameter. Find the speed and direction of the electron motion.

Answer :
i = e . ne . u . A = (-1.602 x 10-19) x (1.13 x 1029) x [3.14 x (0.0005 x 2.54 x 10-2)2]x u
= 10-6 A

u = 10-6 / [(-1.602 x 10-19) x (1.13 x 1029) x 3.14 x (0.0005 x 2.54 x 0.01)2 ]

= 10-16 x 1/(-1.602x1.13x3.14x161.29x10-12) = -10-4 x 1/916.8 = 10-4 x 1.09 x 10-3
= -1.09 x 10-7 m/s
Hence electrons go from rigth to left.
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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY
If ΔQ amount of charge is passing through a conductor in
time Δt, the current would be
i = ΔQ / Δt = Amperes slope = current = fixed
Q
i = dQ / dt = slope = derivative

dQ = i.dt ΔQ
Δt
∫dQ = ∫ i.dt + Qinitial
The amount of charge passing through the cross section
of the conductor in time between tı < t < t2 , Q would be t
i
i0 i (t)
t2
Q = ∫i (t) dt coulomb
t1 Area = Q
= i0 x (t2-t1)
t2
= i0 . t | = i0 x (t2-t1)
t1 t1 t2 t
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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY

Question : If charge is changing as shown in the figure, what is the current

flowing through the device in mA?

Answer : i = dq/dt = -50x10-6/10x10-3 = -5 mA

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY

Question : (Finals) Current in the figure below is flowing at the rate of 5A/sec.
What would be the total charge in 4 seconds ?

Answer : 40 Coulombs

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY
3. ENERGY
Energy is exchanged whenever physical affects take place between materials.
– In mechanics, it takes force and movement to do work and hence
exchange energy,
and
– in electricity, it takes electrical force and movement of charges to do work
and hence exchange energy,

 The electrical force is represented by the voltage and

 the movement of charge is represented by the current in an electrical
circuit.

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY

4. VOLTAGE
In circuit theory,
– the motion of charge creates electric fluid (current)
and
– the separation of charges create electric force (voltage),

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY

Reference direction of Voltage :

According to the “passive sign convention”, when we talk about voltage VAB
between points A and B , we mean
VAB = Voltage between points A and B
= Voltage drop between points A and B
= VA - VB

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY

Voltage expresses the potential of an electrical system for doing work.

Voltage between points a and b is defined as

Vab = (work done by moving charge q from a →b) / q

According to Passive Sign convention :

if energy is delivered to the element between points a and b, it is positive
and
if energy is delivered by the element between points a and b, it is negative

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY

According to the definition of voltage we can express voltage v as :

v = dw /dq
where
w = the energy given out by the electrical system in joules,
q = the charge in coulombs,

In the MKS system, to honor Count Alessandro Volta (1745- 1827), we use the
special name volt (V) for units of voltage.

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY
Consider Headligths in Automotive headlight circuit :

When battery turns on the headlight, energy is

delivered by the electrical circuit to headligths ;
according to passive sign convention, this energy is
positive.
The definition of voltage says:

Vab = (work done by moving q from a →b) /q

For Vab to be +ve the charge q taken from a to b must q

be +ve (+q).

i.e. current must be flowing from a to b through RL or

RR
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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY
Consider Battery in Automotive headlight circuit :

When chemical processes in the battery are delivering

energy to the battery :

According to passive sign convention work done by

a
the electrical system (via q) is negative.

According to the definition of voltage :

q
Vab = (work done by moving q from a →b) /q

For Vab to be +ve the charge q taken from a to b must

be -ve (-q). b

i.e. current must be flowing from b to a inside the Automotive headlight circuit.
battery (from a to be outside the battery).
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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY
Passive Sign Convention :
If for an electrical element “current enters at the (+) voltage terminal and leaves
from the (-) voltage terminal”, power is positive, and is being delivered to the box .
If for an electrical element “current enters at the (-) voltage terminal and leaves
from the (+) voltage terminal”, power is negative, and is being extracted from the
box .

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY

Voltage is similar to gravitational potential, which is caused when a mass is

taken from one heigth to another in a gravitational field.
For both a (gravitational potential and electric potential), the path of the charge
or mass does not matter.

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY

The charge can be moved from a to b through the bulb or it can be moved
outside the bulb.
In both cases, the work on the hypothetical charge, and hence the voltage,
would be the same.

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY

If we change the sign of the voltage Vab then we have to change the places of
the letters too.
Vab = - Vba = - (Vb- Va )

Voltage can be shown as indicated in the diagram too :

Vab = VL = Va- Vb

If we change the places of’ “+” ve “–”

signs at the terminals of VL then we have to
change the sign of the voltage too.

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY

Question : (Finals question)

If the voltage between points A and B is 10V (ie VA-VB=10V), what would be the
work done when taking the +4 Coulomb charge from point B to A ?

Answer : W = -4x10V = -40 Joule

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY

4.3 KIRCHHOFF'S CURRENT LAW

All the evidence suggests that the universe was created charge-neutral.
For every negatiye charge, there exists somewhere a positive charge.
Furthermore, charge is neither created nor destroyed in electrical circuits.

This conservation principle leads directly to a constraint on the currents at a

junction of wires.

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY
The junction of two or more wires is called a node.
The constraint imposed by conservation of charge and charge neutrality is
known as Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) and can be stated as follows:

“Because charge is conserved, the sum of the currents entering a node is

equal to zero”.
or “the sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the sum of the
currents leaving the node”

i1 + i2 + i4 – i3 = 0
-i2 - i4 - i5 + i3 = 0

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY
Supernode
Kirchhoff's current law does not only apply to a simple nodes. It applies also to
groups of nodes, which are called supernodes.
KCL at node a’ : i1 + i2 + i4 – i3 = 0
KCL at node b’ : -i2 - i4 - i5 + i3 = 0
If we add the for super node : i1 –i5 = 0
which is applying KCL to the supernode enclosed with the dashed line.

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY
Example : Find current i2 in the circuit shown below :

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY
Anwer :
i1 + i2 = iL
8 + i2 = 12
İ2 = 4 Amperes

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY
Question : Currents i1, i2, i3 are entering a node in a circuit and current i4 is
leaving the same node. If i1= 1A, i2= -4A, i3= -2A what is the value and sign of the
current i4?
Show all currents at the node with directions and positive values

Answer : a) i4 = 1 + (-4) + (-2) , i4 = -5 A ; b)

i3=2 A

i1=1 A

i2= 4 A
i4=5 A

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY

4.3 KIRCHHOFF'S VOLTAGE LAW (KVL) :

Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL) expresses conservation of electrical energy in
electrical circuits.
This means that if you were to move a hypothetical test charge around a
complete loop in a circuit, the total energy exchanged would add to zero.
During part of the loop, you would have to push on the charge to move it, but
during other parts of the loop, it would pull on you.

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY

Because the energy sum is zero, it follows from the definition of voltage that the
voltage sum around a closed loop is zero also.
This is Kirchhoff's VoItage law (KVL):

∑ voltages = O
loop

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY
We can apply KVL to the circuit in fig. below with these three results:
vab+ vbf + vfe+ vea = 0 ................................................1
vab+ vbd+ vdc+ vca = 0 .............................................. 2
Vef + vfd+ vdc+ vce = 0 .............................................. 3

The direct connections between a and c,

d and b, and h and f imply ideal
connections, and hence no voltage,
between these points.
Therefore,
Vca = Vbd = Vbf = Vfd = 0

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY
vab+ vbf + vfe+ vea = 0
vab+ vbd+ vdc+ vca = 0
Vef + vfd+ vdc+ vce = 0

and Eqs. (1) through (3) reduce to

Vab + Vfe + Vea = O
Vab + Vdc = O
Vef + Vdc + Vae = O

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY
Two rules for Voltage subscripts :
1. The physical work done in moving a charge between two points is the
negative of the work done in moving the same charge in the opposite direction :
Vab = -Vba
2. By KVL  vac + vcb + vba = 0
vac = - vba - vcb
vac = vab + vbc

Similarly  vac = vad + vdc

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY
“In writing KVL equations, we write the voltage
– with a positive sign if the (+) is encountered before the (–)
and
– with a negative sign if the (-) is encountered first
as we move around the loop .

vsw + vL - 12.6 = 0

i1 i2

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY

Example : Determine the unknown voltages, v and vcd in below circuit

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY
Answer :
KVL can also be applied in loops when no path exists for current. Writing KVL
in the rigth loop starting at point a and going counterclockwise:
- (-4) + (v) + vca = 0
v = - vca - 4 = - 8V
Vcd = Vca + Vad
Vcd = +4 – 6 = - 2V

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY

Question : We connect a 10V DC source between points a and c. If b is a third

point, what is the total value of the voltage Vab + Vbc + Vca = ?

Answer : 0V

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY
5. ENERGY FLOW IN ELECTRlCAL CIRCUITS
– Voltage is the energy exchanged per charge
– Current is the rate of charge flow.

Power is defined as the rate of energy exchange :

Power = Work (energy)/ time = v (work / charge) x i ( charge/time)
P = v x i (volts x amperes = watts).
Hence, the power is by definition the product of voltage and current:

W = Work done
= P (Power delivered by the electrical system) x t
(birim: watts x secs = joule)
P = dw/ dt

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY

P = dw /dt
The energy exchanged in a period of time t1 < t < t2 can be computed by
integration:

t2
w = ∫ p.dt
t1
P
t2 P0 P (t)
= ∫ P0.dt
Area = W
t1
= P0 x (t2-t1)

t2
= P0 . t | = P0 x (t2-t1) t1 t
t2
t1

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY

Question : If a circuit element is drawing power as shown in the diagram, what

is the amount of total energy exchanged at t= 1sec and t=2sec.

Answer : W=0J and W = +0.5 Joules

(energy is delivered by the electrical system)

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY
Polarity references and the expression for power :
According to the passive sign convention, if for an electrical element
“current enters at the (+) voltage terminal and leaves from the (-) voltage terminal”,
power is positive and because power is (v.i) both voltage v and current i are positive.
Power is being delivered to the box.

“current enters at the (-) voltage terminal and leaves from the (+) voltage terminal”,
power is negative and because power is (v.i) either voltage v or current i is negative.
Power is being extracted from the box.

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY
example:
Assume i = 4A and v = -10V.
Then the power associated with the terminal pair 1,2 is
P = (-10)(4) = -40 W.
Thus the power is drawn from the box.

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY
Example :
Taking the picture (a) as reference for the below circuit :

Ps = (10V)(-2A) = -20 Watt

=(power supplied by the battery)

P1 = (6V)(2A) = +12 Watt

= (power taken by the resistor R1 )

P2 = (4V)(2A) = +8 Watt (alınan güç)

= (power taken by the resistor R2 )

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY
According to passive sign convention :
• If current is going into the (+) voltage this is normally a component extracting
energy from the circuit (i.e. a resistance)(+ve power).

P = v . i watts

• If current is coming out of the (+) voltage this is normally a power supply, giving
power to the circuit (-ve power).

P = v . (-i) watts

In a power supply, current may flow into the + terminal too. This is possible
when a bigger power supply is connected to the power supply. This way power
may be given to the voltage source.
This is the way car batteries are charged. 65
1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY

In a circuit with more than one

supply, it is difficult to determine
current and voltage directions. We
have to make assumptions.

The true directions can only be

determined after solving the circuit.

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY
Question : The starter motor of an automobile draws 60 A when turning over the
engine. If the battery voltage is 12.6 V and the engine starts after 10 seconds, what
is the power to the starter motor and energy required to start the engine?
Answer :

Pout = v.i = 12.6 x 60 = 756 Watt

Enerji, w = 10 x 756 = 7560 Joule
Alternative method :
t
2 10

W = ∫ P.dt = 756.t | = 756x10 = 7560 Joule

t
1 0

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY
CIRCUIT ELEMENTS: RESISTANCES AND SOURCES
Ohm’s Law :
For a large class of conductors, the current increases in direct proportion to
the voltage.
Physical experimentation leads to the following equation, known as Ohm's law:

i=v/R
v = voltage in volts,
i = current in amperes,
R = the resistance in volts per ampere,
But to honor Georg Ohm (1787-1854), we use the unit ohm, abbreviated by the
Greek letter omega, Ω.
Resistance is the capacity of materials to impede the flow of current. The
circuit element used to model this behavior is the resistor.
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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY
The circuit symbol for a resistor :

i
_
+
v

The power into the resistance is +vi. We can express the power into a resistance in
several ways :
p = + v.i = (Ri) i = i2 R
= v (v / R) = v2 / R watts

Resistance, always removes electrical energy from a circuit (+ve energy).

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY

Question : The maximum power that a resistance of value 4 Ω can withstand is

1W. What are the values of maximum voltage and current that can be allowed for
this resistance ?

Answer : v2/4 = 1 → v = 2 V ; i2.4=1 → i = 2A

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY

On the rigth, ohm's law is presented in graphical form :

The slope of the line is the reciprocal of

resistance which is referred to as conductance.
Conductance is symbolized by the letter G, and
is measured in siemens (S) or mho’s (upside-
down omega) .
Thus
G = (1/ R) Siemens (mho’s)

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY

The resistance of a piece of wire is directly proportional to

– its length,
– to a property of the metal called resistivity,
– and inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area:

R = resistance of a piece of wire = l ρ /A

– where l is the length of the wire (m),

– ρ is the metal resistivity (m/Ω),
– and A is the area of the wire( m2)

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY

Metals such as copper and aluminum have small values of resistance.

Therefore they are good choices for wiring used to conduct electric current.
Iron is not so good as a conductor.
In electronic circuits, we use resistors made out of
– carbon-impregnated binder, or
– high-resistance wire, or
– metals deposited on nonconducting surfaces.

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY
Colour Coding of Resistors
SIGNIFICANT
COLOR DIGIT MULTIPLIER TOLERANCE
Black 0 1 -
Brown 1 10 -
Red 2 100 -
Orange 3 1000 -
Yellow 4 10,000 -
Green 5 100,000 -
Blue 6 1,000,000 -
Violet 7 10,000,000 -
Gray 8 - -
White 9 - -
Gold - - (+/-) 5%
Silver - - (+/-) 10%
No Color - - (+/-) 20%

Blue (6) Gray (8) Red (00) Gold (+/- 5%) = 6800 Ω
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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY

Ohm's law relates voltage and currents for resistive elements.

Other circuit elements which have different voltage - current relationships are
– voltage sources,
– current sources,

– capacitors and →
– inductors.
→

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY
Open Circuits and Short Circuits:
There are two special resistances.
• A short circuit (R = O).
Ohm’s Law → V = I.R = 0
Hence a short circuit permits current to
flow without any resulting voltage (V = O),

• An open circuit (R = ∞)

Ohm’s Law → I = V/R = 0

Hence an open circuit permits voltage
with no current (i = O).
In both cases, no power is required for
the open or short circuit.

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY
VOLTAGE SOURCES :
Figure shows the circuit symbol, mathematical definition, and graphical
characteristic of an ideal general voltage source and a dc voltage source.
The ideal voltage source maintains its voltage, independent of its output current.

General Voltage source DC Voltage Source DC Voltage Source

symbol symbol Graphical caharacteristic
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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY

In general, an ideal voltage source may have positive or negative voltage, and
it may be constant or time-varying.

Normally, a voltage source would produce a positive current, out of the +

terminal and thus act as a source of energy for the circuit.

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY
CURRENT SOURCE :
Figure shows the circuit symbol, mathematical definition, and graphical
characteristic of ideal general current source and dc current sources.
The ideal current source produces its current, independent of its output
voltage.

General Current source DC Current Sourceı DC Current Source

symbol symbol Graphical caharacteristic
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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY

Unlike the voltage source, there is no physical device at your local hardware
store as current sources;
However, we can build electronic devices that act like current sources.

Ideal voltage and current sources can be further described as

– independent sources or
– dependent sources
An independent source establishes a voltage or current in a circuit without
relying on voltages or currents elsewhere in the circuit.
Dependent source establishes a voltage or current whose value depend on the
value of a voltage or current elsewhere in the circuit.

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY
The circuit symbols for independent sources
(a) an ideal independent voltage source
(b) an ideal independent current source.

The circuit symbols for dependent sources

• (a) an ideal dependent voltage-controlled
voltage source,
• (b) An ideal dependent current-controlied
voltage source,
• (c) An ideal dependent voltage-controlled
current source, and
• (d) an ideal dependent current-controlled
current source.
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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY
Analysis of DC Circuits
“In electrical circuits we guess and try to place the currents and voltages according
to the polarity reference rule”. This can be summarised as follows :
1. Current normally flows outwards from the +ve terminal to the –ve terminal of a
source (-ve power).
2. Current enters a power consuming element (i.e resistance) at a +ve voltage and
leaves at a –ve voltage (+ve power).

R1
i + _

Voltage Current
+V1
Source + + Source
_ V i +V2 R2

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY
Going clockwise around the left and
rigth loops, and writing KVL we find :
Vsw + VL - 12.6 = 0
VR - VL = O
with the switch OFF :
Because VL = VR = O, Eq. reduces to
-12.6 + Vsw + O = O ==> Vsw = 12.6 V
Thus, all the voltage of the battery
appears across the switch.
The power out of the battery is zero, and
the power into each resistance is zero.

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY
with the switch ON,
Vsw = O, and VL = VR = 12.6 V.
The currents in the headlights follow
from Ohm's law:
iL = iR = VL/ RL = 12.6 V / 5,25 =2.40 A
Applying Kirchhoff's current law (KCL)
to the node where the two resistances
connect at the top:
-iB + iL + iR = O ==> iB = iL + iR
= 2.40 + 2.40 = 4.80 A
The power out of the battery is
POUT = -(12.6) (iB) = 12.6 x 4.80 = -60.5 W
the power into each resistance is
Presistances = +(12.6) (2.40) = +30.2 W
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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY
8. series and parallel combinations :
8.1. Parallel Resistances :
We note that both ends of the resistances are connected together; hence, both
resistances have the same voltage, vp applied to them.
This is called a parallel connection.

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY

Writing KCL, we have ip = iL + iR

But from Ohm's law, we have
iL = vP/RL and iR = vP/RR
ip = vP/RL + vP/RR = vP ( 1/RL + 1/RR )
ip / vP = 1/RL + 1/RR

iP /vP = 1/Req
Therefore → (1/RL) + (1/RR) = (1/ Req),

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY
Thus we can replace two parallel connected resistors (R1 and R2) by the
equivalent circuit shown in below.

vP / ip = Req

where 1/ Req = (1/RL) + (1/RR)

Equation is awkward to write, so we introduce the parallel bars symbol, Req = RL II RR ,

as a shorthand symbol.
For example : 2 II 5 = 1/ (1/2 + 1/5) = 1.43Ω
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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY
8.2 Series Resistances :
In the circuit shown,
• Rsw represents the resistance of the switch
• The voltage of the battery is represented by VB.
• RP represents the equivalent resistance of two parallel connected car headligths

When circuit elements have the same current it is called a series connection
So the battery, switch, and equivalent resistance RP are connected in series.

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY

We write KVL around the loop

-VB + Vsw + vp = O → VB = Vsw + Vp
and introduce Ohm's law for both resistances:
Vsw = iB.Rsw and Vp = iB.Rp
VB = (Rsw + Rp) iB
VB / iB = Req.

Therefore Req = Rsw + Rp

Thus, we may determine the battery current as
iB= VB/ Req
which is Ohm’s law with equivalent resistance Req

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY
Thus the two series connected resistors (R1 and R2) can be represented with
an equivalent circuit as shown below :

Req = R1 + R2

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY
8.3 Series Resistances and Voltage Dividers
Figure shows a series connection of three resistances and a battery.

Req = equivalent resistance

= (R1 + R2 + R3) .
i = Vs/Req = Vs/ 50
Ohm’s Law:
v1 = R1.i = R1 (Vs/Req)
= (R1/Req). Vs
= (10/50 ) Vs

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY
Formulas for v2 and v3 can be written
similarly.
Our results can be generalized as :
vi = (Ri / Req) Vs
where
Req = R1+ R1 + ... + Ri + ... (all series resistors)

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY
Example :
Calculate the voltage vB accross the 2.5 Ω
resistor.

0.3Ω
+
1.5V
-
0.3Ω
+
1.5V
-

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY
Example :
Calculate the voltage vB accross the 2.5 Ω
resistor.
Each of the two batteries in the circuit have 0.3
Ohm internal resistance.
According to their connection the total voltage
given is
1.5 + 1.5 = 3v’dur. 0.3Ω
+
Using voltage divider : 1.5V
-
vB = 3 x [2.5 / (2.5 + 0.3 + 0.3)] 0.3Ω
= 7.5 /3.1 +
1.5V
= 2.42v
-

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY
Parallel Resistances and Current Dividers
Figure shows a parallel combination of three resistances and a current source.
If Req is the equivalent resistance of R1 , R2, and R3 connected in parallel,
1 / Req = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3
v = Req . IS

i1 = v/R1 = (Req / R1 ) IS

For any number of resistances that

are connected in parallel, the current
through the i th resistance is :

ii = (Req / Ri ) IT

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY
Example : (A full voltage-divider / current-divider Technique) :
In the below circuit calculate Vs ,V1 ,V2 ,V3 ,, i2, i3 using voltage and current
dividers.

Note : In circuits which has two sources, we cannot use voltage and current
dividers.
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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY
Using Voltage Dividers :
• First find the equivalent resistance of the 4 II 6 Ω
as Req = 2.4 Ω.
• Then add this to the 2 Ω series resistance → 2Ω +
2.4Ω = 4.4Ω
• apply KVL in the loop : Vs = 2x(4.4 Ω) V = 8.8 V
• apply voltage divider in the loop
• v1 = 8.8V x [ 2 Ω /(4.4) Ω ] = 4 V
v3 = v2 = 8.8 x [2.4 Ω / 4.4 Ω] = 4.80Volts
i2 = 4.80/4= 1.2A ; i3 = 4.80/6 = 0.8A

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY
Using current dividers : i3 = 2A x [1 / (1/6 + 1/4)] /6
= 2A x 2.4 /6 = 0.8 A
i2 = 2A x [1 / (1/6 + 1/4)] /4R3 . i3
= 2A x 2.4 /4 = 1.2 A

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY
Problem :
Find the voltage on the resistances ?

v4 v8

Vs

v′4 v′′4

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 1.BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY
Problem 1 : Find the voltages on the resistances

Answer 1 :
Req = (4+4)Ω // (8+4)Ω
= 8Ω // 12Ω = 96/20 Ω = 4.8 Ω v4 v8
Vs = 4.8 x 5 = 24v
Voltage divider : v4 = v′4 = 24 x 4/8 = 12v Vs

v8 = 24 x 8/12 = 16v
v′4 v′′4
v′′4 = 24 x 4/12 = 8v

Answer 2 :
Current Divider :
İ4 = (5 / 8) x 4.8 = 3 A → KCL : İ8 = 2 A
v4 = v′4 = 3 X 4 = 12v
v8 = 2 x 8 = 12v
101
v′′4 = 2 x 4 = 8v