Module 1: The Inquiry on Philosophical Ethics: An

Introduction So what is common to all these characteristics?

 No other than society taken in broadest
Objectives: sense….society is interpreted philosophically as
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to: the “other”.
1. Define ethics.  Non-compliance with moral standards would
2. Distinguish the concept of moral standards from seriously injure us as human beings.
non-moral and amoral standards.
3. Articulate the differences of ordinary rules from Ethics and Morals
moral rules/standards. When do you say an experience calls for a moral decision?
…a choice made based on the person’s ethics, manners,
Related concepts: character…
 Some views relate ethics to other words like right,
value, morals, good, evil, happiness in their What are they?
attempt to define the term.  Ethics refers to the rules of conduct recognized in
 Some provide practical and common questions respect to a particular class of human actions or a
that relate to acts, desires and needs from which particular group or culture.
individuals find life’s meanings and purposes.  Morals are the Principles or habits with respect to
 There are different definitions of ethics because right or wrong conduct.
there are numerous questions entailed in our  While morals also prescribe dos and don'ts,
views regarding rightness and wrongness; as well morality is ultimately a personal compass of right
as the diverse responses to these questions. and wrong.

The Study on Morality What is their origin?

Moral standards as opposed to non-moral and amoral
standards  Ethics comes from the Greek word "ethos"
meaning ”character”.
Questions to Ponder:  Moral comes from the Latin word "mores"
• Why are there rules? meaning “custom".
• What rules do you find most constricting?
• How do moral standards differ from other rules in Where do they come from?
our lives?  Ethics comes from social system (external source).
We do it because society says it is the right thing to
The usual rules in our lives: do.
Etiquette: standards by which manners are judged to be  Morality comes from individual themselves
good or bad normally dictated by a socio-economic elite. (internal source).
 We do it (or we do not do it) because we believe
Athletic: standards by which we judge how good or bad a on something being right or wrong.
game is played, usually formulated by governing bodies.
What is the flexibility of the concepts?
The Moral Standards:  Ethics are dependent on others for definition. They
 Moral standards deal with matters that can tend to be consistent within a certain
seriously injure or benefit human beings. context, but can vary between contexts.
 The validity of moral standards rests on the  Moral is usually consistent, although can change if
adequacy of reasons to support and justify them, an individual’s beliefs change.
not on the decision of majority or authoritative
bodies. Acceptability of the terms…
 Moral standards are to be preferred to other Ethics are governed by professional and legal guidelines
values, including self-interest. within a particular time and place.
 Moral standards are based on impartial Moral transcends cultural norms.
considerations.
 Moral standards are expressed in universalizable In short…
view point from an ideal observer.  Ethics is codes of conduct that pertain to a
 Moral standards are associated with special community, family, company or a nation. On the
emotions such as ‘guilt’, ‘shame’, ‘remorse’, other hand, morality refers to personal sets of
‘praise’, ‘pity’, ‘indignation’. beliefs about what is right and wrong.
  Ethics is accepted by the entity of the community more alternatives. More informally, it can mean a
but morals are not. difficult situation or problem (as in the insoluble
 People have their morals that may or may not be in dilemma of adolescence). Some traditionalists
sync with society’s ethics. object to this weakened use, but it is recorded as
early as the first part of the 17th century, and is
Thus, the study of ethics… now widespread and generally acceptable. Not
 entails a reflective distance to critically examine that dilemma is spelled with a double m in the
standards. middle, not as –mn-.
 looks at values beneath the moral standards
(answers the questions of WHAT and WHY we do • Early 16th century (denoting a form of argument
the act) involving a choice between equally unfavourable
 looks into the agent who makes the moral decision alternatives): via Latin from Greek:
(level of maturity and moral development). Dilemma: di-twice + lemma-premise

It is about the moral decision process (HOW we arrive at the • Dilemmas are experiences where an agent is
moral decision). confused about the right decision to make
Ethics is not solely about theoretical knowledge but the because there are several competing values that
application of that knowledge…how to transform such are seemingly equally important and urgent.
knowledge into action in our everyday life.

Critical Thinking Steps in Solving a Moral Dilemma

1. Examine the act in relation to the agent. (The
Philosopher are able to establish scientific answers to agent and the facts surrounding the act must be
philosophical questions through critical thinking. Critical assessed.)
thinking is the objective analysis of facts to form a 2. Determine the consequences of the act. (The
judgment. principle of consequentialism suggests that one
Guidelines for critical thinking by Spencer Rathus (2017): must weigh the consequences of a human act to
determine whether it is moral or immoral.
1. Be skeptical. 3. Identify the intention of the act. (Bad intention is
immoral.)
2. Ask for evidence. 4. Decide in accordance to divine and natural laws
which govern moral life.
3. Examine the definition of terms.

4. Examine the assumptions or premises of arguments. Module 2: Understanding the Moral Agent

5. Be cautious in drawing conclusions from evidence. This module explores an agent to be a moral agent, what
culture is all about, how facets of personal behavior
6. Consider alternative interpretations of evidence. attribute to culture, how Filipino culture establishes Filipino
ethical identity, and how different cultures help shape the
7. Do not oversimplify.
universal ethical standard.
8. Do not overgeneralize.
What is a Moral Agent?
9. Apply critical thinking to all areas of life.
MORAL AGENCY - says that a particular agent can
Module 1: Lesson 2: Moral Dilemma appropriately, be held responsible for her actions and their
consequences. To better understand moral agency we will
What is Moral Dilemma? discuss here how to be a moral agent addressing the two
• Cambridge Dictionary: “a situation in which a questions:
choice has to be made between possibilities that
1. What makes Us us?
will all have results you do not want”
• Oxford Dictionary: “a situation in which a difficult 2. What makes any agent moral agent?
choice has to be made between two or more
alternatives, especially ones that are equally The advantage of dealing these things, it allows one to focus
undesirable.” on mechanisms rather that dwelling on mysteries. By
changing the context slightly, it forces one to re-consider
• At this core, a dilemma is a situation in which a one's comfortable familiarity with concepts like "I/me",
difficult choice has to be made between two or "we/us", and "moral agency".
According to Kant... an action cannot be morally good  Make rational calculations of the consequences of
unless the agent in a fact reasoned in certain fairly complex our actions.
ways (allen et al, 2000, p. 253).
Hence, in this lesson, students will be articulated on how
We take a moral agent to be any agent to which it is culture shapes moral behaviour; understanding of right and
appropriate to attribute moral agency: that is, to be morally wrong in the Filipino context considering that there is
accountable for one's actions and their consequences. a universal values. Knowing the notion of culture from the
moral is we believe, necessarily a conceptual agent - three (3) perspective: personal, subconscious, and
example, an agent that possesses and employs concepts. universal. Then identifying the specific cultural
(the converse need not be true: a conceptual agent is not characteristics of Filipinos and Asians.
necessarily a moral agent: example, moral agents are a
subclass of conceptual agents.). According to Edward Tylor, Culture refers to that complex
whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, art, law, morals,
It is not enough, on our account, to be a moral agent that custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by
one does morally good things - contra what Colin Allen et al. man as a member of society.
ascribe to John Stuart Mill. No one, we believe - even the
die -hard utilitarian - would hold an agent morally Lesson 2.1. Filipino Culture and Ethics
responsible whose thoughts were not systematically and
productively structured in the manner of conceptual  Filipino views on Ethics
thought. Regardless of whether Robbie the Robot is a moral  The Filipino character
agent, my Aibo dog is not. Among other consequences, this  Asian Westerner
means that it is not enough for the agent merely to
memorize a list of percepts. ETHICS AND CULTURE
Understanding the Moral Agent
M2: LESSON 2 - ETHICS AND CULTURE- FEATURES AND
CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE
Culture, Defined…
Ethics - simply means lead to study of human conducts,  It refers to that complex whole which includes
study or Solomon says: a set of theories of value, virtue, or knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, custom, and
right (valuable) action. and for Johnson: it is a set of any other capabilities and habits acquired by man
theories that provide general rules or principles to be used as a member of society - Edward Tylor
in making those rules.  It refers to an appreciation of good literature,
music, art, and food.
Ethics is important because it help us not only in  For a biologist, it is likely to be a colony of bacteria
distinguishing between right and wrong but also in knowing or other microorganisms growing in a nutrient
why and on what grounds our judgment of human actions is medium in a laboratory Petri dish.
justified.  For anthropologists and other behavioral scientists,
culture is the full range of learned human behavior
Why do we have Moral Theories? MacDonnell: Moral patterns.
Theories " seek to introduce a degree of rationality and
rigor into our moral deliberations." CORE LAYERS OF CULTURE
For Moral Decision-making considerations:

 Facts surrounding the situations

 Taking into account the interests of ll parties
involved
 Taking into account the moral principles involved
 Take into account how the decisions will affect
others.
 Use reason to determine the best way to achieve
the highest moral good.
 Distinguish between primary and secondary moral
principles

Primary - general

Secondary - more specific

 FILIPINO CULTURE AND ETHICS

Layers of Culture by Dennis O’Neil

First, the body of cultural traditions that distinguish your Joe’s Pedicab Juan’s Tricycol
specific society
Filipinos’ View on Ethics:
When people speak of Italian, Samoan, or Japanese culture,  Propriety (Hiya) versus Troubled (Pagkabagabag)
they are referring to the shared language, traditions, and  Personal versus Duty/Obligations\
beliefs that set each of these peoples apart from others.  Family solidarity versus universal principle and
general good
The second layer of culture that may be part of your  Pakikipag kapwa tao versus Pakikisama
identity is the subculture.
The Filipino Character
This occurs in a complex, diverse societies in which people
have come from many different parts of the world, they
often retain much of their original cultural traditions

As the cultural differences between members of a

subculture and the dominant national culture blur and
eventually disappear, the subculture ceases to exist except
as a group of people who claim a common ancestry.

The third layer of culture consists of cultural universals.

These are learned behavior patterns that are shared by all
of humanity collectively. No matter where people live in
the world, they share these universal traits.

Examples of Universal Cultural Traits of Human Beings

 Communicating with a verbal language consisting
of a limited set of sounds and grammatical rules for
constructing sentences.
 Using age and gender to classify people
 Classifying people based on marriage and descent
relationships and having kinship terms to refer to
them
 Raising children in some sort of family setting
 Having rules to guide and regulate sexual
behaviour.
 Distinguishing between good and bad
behaviour
 Having some sort of body ornamentation
 Making jokes and playing games
 Having art
 Having some sorts of leadership roles and models
for the implementation of community decisions.

Language, politics, and even values do not make sense if

they are not transmitted or communicated with others.
Cultures necessitate peoples.
Asians Versus Westerners Cultural Relativism
Understanding moral differences and identifying common
grounds

Moral Relativism Defined..

Moral relativism is the view that ethical standards, morality,
and positions of right or wrong are culturally based and
therefore subject to a person's individual choice.

Hence, asserts there is no global, absolute moral law that

applies to all people, for all time, and in all places.

Different cultures have different moral codes. Thus,

“universal truths in Ethics are myths since, “moral
standards are culture-bound.”
Module 2: LESSON 3 – Cultural Relativism Argument Against Cultural Relativism
Culture - are those qualities and attributes that seem to be
characteristic of all humankind. Humans evolve and adapt P1: Different cultures have different moral codes
primarily through culture rather than changes in anatomy or P2: A culture’s moral code is right or correct relative to the
genetics. people of that culture.

Culture survives if it can accommodate to changing Therefore: There are no such things as universal moral
conditions. Culture is viewed as a macro system, binds a standards or objective truths in Ethics.
particular society together, and includes its manners,
morals, tools, and techniques. Relativism in and of itself is self-defeating. Logically, there
must be some standard by which to compare
Culture is a group phenomenon, evolve from the interaction two different moral statements to determine which is the
of person with others, and a person's belief or behavior “more correct” one.
becomes part of the culture when it is externalized and
objectified. Moral relativists are also accused of inconsistently claiming
that there are no universal moral norms while appealing to
According to Erikson, cultures change through the action of a principle of tolerance as a universal norm.
persons whose ideas and behavior "fit" the culture. Change
can also occur as a result of a "paradigm shift" in Note:
fundamental understandings by those in the culture.
Cultural differences are real. But should not be exaggerated.
Culture is viewed as a ways of doing, being, and explaining, There is always a “value” behind cultural practices. Practices
as they exist in each particular system. As a culture may vary and in conflict to one another BUT the value
becomes more complex and differentiated, so too child behind the practices remain constant, thus, universally
rearing, and other social provisions appear. These new acceptable.
systems arise to realize more effectively the complex values
of a culture. Certain values are in conflict with certain other
values, leading to tension and strain within the culture. Module 3: Introduction and Objectives

Culture are marked by the style in which they conduct social This module refers to "The Act" that focuses on the
relationships. Caring is a dimension of culture as much as meaning, substantial elements, and classification of human
tools and language. Caring involves both an emotional acts and explains the chief acts of will and reason. Also, this
disposition and caring labor. it is a practice in which both will explain that moral courage is one of the most desirable
thought and action ate integrated around central aims or character traits in an individual.
goals.
Lastly, this module gives you the concept of Reason and
Hence, regardless of sex, individuals and groups who occupy Impartiality as requirements for ethics, evaluate real-life
subordinates status display a responsive orientation to cases against 7-step mode, a model that uses reason and
others characterized by difference, attentiveness, impartiality. Furthermore, you will be able to articulate
awareness of needs, understanding of perspectives, moods, knowing and actually doing a good moral decision, judge
intentions, and responsiveness. your own moral behavior in terms of planning and making
important moral experiences
Module 3 Lesson 1- HUMAN ACTS VS ACTS OF MAN

Human acts are actions performed by a person who has full

knowledge through free will. Human acts are grounded in
the very nature of a person that he or she is intelligent and
free.

ELEMENTS OF HUMAN ACTS

1. Knowledge - it is
employed in doing human
act. This is to say that when
the doer is conscious of his
or her actions, his or her
senses are active, and he or
she is aware of the reason
and the consequences of his There are circumstances where human acts may be
or her actions. modified and be deemed as acts of man. These are the
factors that diminish one's responsibility and impair the
2. Freedom - when the doer element of voluntariness of human act.
acts through his or her own initiative and choice without
being forced by another person or situation, then the act is 1. Ignorance- pertains to lack, want, or absence of
done on the basis of freedom. knowledge in a person capable of such.

3. Voluntariness - the act is done willfully when the doer 2. Passion or Concupiscence - defined as a compelling desire
consents to the act, accepting it as his or his own, and for something. It can also refer to a person's sexual desire
assume the accountability for its consequences. or lust.

Classification of Human Acts 3. Fear-defined as a feeling induced by perceived danger or

threat.
1. Acts of Will - refer to actions that human performs freely
or with their free will. 4. Violence-a physical force exerted on a person by another
free agent for the purpose of compelling the said person to
2. Acts of Reason - are actions conceived by reason as act against his or her will.
morally good or morally bad.
5. Habits- are inclination to perform specific acts acquired
Norms of Human Acts by repetition, and characterized by decreased power of
resistance and increased facility of performance.
Norms are the accepted standards of behavior of social
groups. Moral norms are the rules of morality that people Check-in Activity
ought to follow. In ethics, there are two kinds of norms:
conscience and law. Conscience is the "inner voice" that In what circumstances can self-defense be justified? Discuss
tells a person to do what is good and avoid evil. It also your answer using the modifiers of human act as your
judges particular choices, approving what is good and bases.
denouncing what is evil. Law is a rule of conduct enacted
Module 3 Lesson 2: MORAL COURAGE
by competent figures of authority for the sake of common
good. Courage is derived from the Latin word cor meaning heart.
Courage is the ability to do something that one is fearful of.
The Modifiers of Human Acts
This suggests that courage is "to speak one's mind but
telling all one's heart".

Greek philosophers Aristotle and Plato regarded courage as

one of the most desirable human character traits. In Plato's
Republic, courage is related to that element of the soul
which is called thymos (the spirited, courageous element) -
the part of the soul in which courage resides and in which
courage perfects.
Aristotle believed that the epitome of courage is facing noble death at the hands of the enemy during an offensive attack in a just
war for the people.

Courage as Virtue

Both Plato and Aristotle wrote about courage as a virtue. Plato's Laches is a dialogue about nature of courage (literally translated,
"manliness"). Aristotle defined virtue as a purposive disposition, lying in a mean and being determined by the right reason.

Module 3 Lesson 3: Reason and Impartiality

Reason and Impartiality

 Reason is a faculty that is used by man in dealing

with issues.
 Moral judgements are not a matter of personal
preferences or tastes.

Such that in moral reasoning…

 We identify the morally relevant aspect of the
situation.
 We weigh these morally relevant aspects giving
due considerations to the views of the persons
concerned.
 We enumerate all possible actions to be/ can be
pursued.
 We decide on a particular action reasoned to be
most ethically justified.

THUS, the minimum conception of morality can be stated:

 It is at the very least, the effort to guide one’s

conduct by reason- that is to do what could be the
best reason/s for doing- while giving equal weight
to the interests of each individual who shall be
affected by one’s conduct.

Seven-Step Guide to Ethics Decision-Making

Michael Davis series that in order arrive at an imperial

decision, one must follow the seven-step guide to ethical
decision-making. He emphasizes the importance of
identifying multiple responses to ethical challenges.

The seven-step guide to ethical decision-making according

to Davis (1999) appears as follows:
This module begins with the basic definition of feelings and original experience.
values. How they influence our moral perceptions of  Differentiate the hierarchy of values in different
people. And how we grow as a person. All of us are levels of feeling states.
expected to grow. As a living organism, our growth can be  Articulate on the idea that values are “feelable”
visible like in physical aspects. But growth is also true with phenomena.
our inner self which is considered invisible but observable
through our behavior, the way we speak, and the way we Max Ferdinand Scheler (22 August 1874 – 19 May 1928)
act. And this is what we call Moral Development. It has a German philosopher known for his work in
stages and depending on our age or on our maturity. phenomenology, ethics, and philosophical anthropology.
Scheler developed further the philosophical method of the
You will enjoy knowing what stage are you. Be ready to founder of phenomenology, Edmund Husserl, and was
learn and to accept yourself and others as well. And as a called by José Ortega y Gasset "the first man of the
group, you will make your own model of stages of moral philosophical paradise."
development base on your own experience and reflection.
Scheler believed that phenomenology is not a method in
Module 3A Lesson 1- Feelings and Values
the strict sense (as opposed to Husserl), but rather "an
Immanuel Kant's View of Feelings attitude of spiritual seeing...something which otherwise
remains hidden….”
Feelings are easy to describe. However, formally defining
the concept of feelings in the context of moral philosophy Phenomenology has the original experience as its main
has proved to be an elusive and difficult task. Immanuel domain… the domain where givenness of phenomenological
Kant is one of the first philosophers who explored the facts are found…where essences or values are a priority
nature of feelings and attempted to explain the relationship
between feelings and morality. According to his theory of Phenomenology is an engagement of phenomena, while
moral feelings, when people make moral decisions, feelings simultaneously a waiting for its self-givenness; it is not a
come into play, organizing them into inclinations, affects, methodical procedure of observation as if its object is
passions, and desires. stationary.
Kant defines moral feelings as "the susceptibility to feel Thus, the particular attitude (Geisteshaltung, lit. "disposition
pleasure or displeasure merely from being aware that of the spirit" or "spiritual posture") of the
actions are consistent or contrary to the law of duty" philosopher is crucial for the disclosure, or seeing, of
(Borges, 2013). phenomenological facts.
Susceptibility to sensible pleasure or pain, then, is condition
at the deepest root of human experience. Moral feeling can This attitude is fundamentally a moral one, where the
be perceived to be representation of moral law, strength of philosophical inquiry rests upon the basis of
consequently, it is not an incentive to act morally. love.

Meaning and Theory of Values

Values determine behaviors. They influence decision-
making. Common sources of values are one' personal
experience and relationship with others. Major influences
in values formation are one's family, peers, education, and
the media.

Axiology is the study of values. Generally, values are things

considered important in life. Values are beliefs that
influence people's behaviors and decision-making.

Phenomenology of Feelings
“A sensitive heart is a rich source of ideas”
– Nikolai Karamzin

OBJECTIVES:
At the end the lesson, the students should be able to:

 Point out the relation/role of value to the

 Do values vary with respect to the bearers?
Example: the value of specific religious articles may vary
Scheler vs. Husserl according to differences of culture and religion.
Husserl characterized the world of the natural standpoint as
constituted by things present in perception as correlates of How does a priori claim of value possible in
consciousness this example?
Scheler’s answers:
Scheler describes the world of the natural standpoint as one However, this variation of values with respect to their
primarily of “value things or goods (and affairs [Sachen]), bearers by no means amounts to the relativity of values as
not primarily things of perception. such, but only with respect to the particular value-bearer.

Scheler contends that the being and appearance of the As such, the values of culture are always spiritual
characteristics of objects are founded on feeling as a irrespective of the objects that may bear this value, and
response to value rather than on the presentation of an values of the holy still remain the highest values regardless
object as Husserl had argued of their bearers.

Scheler: If the primary mode of being and appearance of

thing is a function of its value-structure rather than its
thing-structure, then the unity of the thing in question and
its determinate “whatness” is a function not of its
presentation in acts of perception, but instead this unity is a
function of and therefore founded upon its axiological
givenness in the feelability of values…

If philosophy is always concerned with knowing, reason

itself is not the proper participative faculty by which the
greatest level of knowing is achieved. Scheler argues that,
“only when reason and logic have behind them the
movement of love and the proper moral preconditions
can one achieve philosophical knowledge”. Ranking of Values in Accordance to Essentiality:

Love is the movement which "brings about the continuous 1. Values of the holy vs. disvalues of the unholy
emergence of ever-higher value in the object; on the part of 2. Values of the spirit (truth, beauty) vs. disvalues of
the lover .... true love opens our spiritual eyes to ever-higher their opposites
values in the object loved.” 3. Values of life and the noble vs. disvalues of the
vulgar
Hatred, on the other hand, is the closing off of oneself or 4. Values of pleasure vs. disvalues of pain
closing ones eyes to the world of values. 5. Values of utility vs. disvalues of the useless

Love and hate are not only reactions to felt- values…rather, Ranking of Values in Accordance to
"Love and hate are acts in which the value-realm becomes Va l u e s ’ E x i s t e n c e a n d N o n - E x i s t e n c e
accessible to the feelings of a being. is either extended
or narrowed.” 1. The existence of a positive value is itself a
positive value.
Love (hate) is not a psychical feeling; it has intentional 2. The existence of a negative value (disvalue) is
function (part of man’s willing and thinking); it is a value- itself a negative value.
cognition. 3. The non-existence of a positive value is itself a
negative value.
Material Value Ethics (Scheler) versus Formal Ethics (Kant) 4. The non-existence of a negative value is itself a
positive value
 Values are given a priori, and are "feelable"
phenomena. Ranking of Values With Respect to Good and Evil
 Values are not formal realities (they are not
objective realities); they do not exist somewhere 1. Good is the value that is attached to the realization
apart from the world and their bearers, and they of a positive value in the sphere of willing.
only exist with a value-bearer, as a value-being.
 2. Evil is the value that is attached to the realization
of a negative value in the sphere of willing.

3. Good is the value that is attached to the realization

of a higher value in the sphere of willing.

4. Evil is the value that is attached to the realization

of a lower value [at the expense of a higher one] in
the sphere of willing

Summing up….
 Values have true primacy as real inherent qualities
discovered in things, people, situations and the
like.
 Values and immanent emotive experience are co-
extensive and intentional. The American psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg grouped
 The correlates of feelings and emotions are values together children while they were still small and did a
study on the moral development of these people in a span
 As a value being and bearer of values every
of about twenty years. He was interested in the
person is as unique
justification or reasoning behind the right behavior of the
 Values are emotively intuited (it comes before
group and was able to mark out six stages of development.
reason).
 Values are realized though personal apprehensions
(i.e. "attractions" and "repulsions") of positive (and
negative) qualities discoverable through our own
pre-thought, pre- willed acts of preference.

Lesson 2- Stages of Moral Development

What is Moral Character?

The word "character" is derived from the Greek word
"kharakter"- a stamping tool used to make coins. Later, the
word came to imply a distinctive mark that differentiates
one thing from another. Nowadays, the emphasis on
individuality tends to combine character with personality.
Pre- Conventional - Self-Focused
In Book 2 of Aristotle's Nocomachean Ethics, he describes
Stage 1: Punishment; Authority Orientation
the two different kinds of human excellences: excellences
• Obey or Pay
in thought and excellences of character. Tha latter in Greek
• Authority- Fear
is phrased Aristotle as etikai aretai which is translated as
Stage 2: Pleasure Orientation
moral virtue or moral excellence. The Greek word ethikos
• Self-satisfaction
(ethical) is the adjective similar to ethos (character).
• “What’s in it for me?”
Aristotle believes that excellence of character or good moral
character is a state concerned with choice that is
Pre-conventional level is concerned with concrete
determined by reason.
consequences to individuals, focusing on pursuing
Development of Moral Character
concrete interest while avoiding sanctions.
In childhood and adolescence, it is crucial to learn how to
distinguish between right and wrong or good and bad to
Stage One
develop moral character. To be a moral person is to think
Punishment- Obedient Orientation
morally and act accordingly.
What is right is to obey the rules, avoid physical damage to
persons and property.
STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
 The reason is that one wants to avoid
punishment. There is the difference to power and
position. In relation to social perspective, what is
considered is simply one's own interest as there is
still no sense of another's point of view.

Stage Two
Instrumental-Purposive Orientation is the institution, the society, or the church. One
What is right is one's own immediate interest, and letting sees a given social issue from the perspective of a
others act also in their own interest. What is right is what is fixed system of laws and beliefs.
fair. You do your thing, I do my thing; we have fair equal
exchange. Post-Conventional - Universal Focused
• The reason is to satisfy one's need and admit the Stage 5: Common Good
needs of others in their own self-interest. While ▸ Standards of Society
other is after his/her own interest, I too have my ▸ Social Contract
own interest. If I do what is wrong, I might not Stage 6: Universal Principles
obtain my own interest. ▸ Decision of Conscience
▸ Logical Moral Principles
Conventional - Group- focused
Post-conventional level is concerned of the effort to define
Stage 3: Peer and Group Acceptance the moral values and principles that have validity and
Orientation application apart from the authority of groups or persons
▸Approval- Group Norms and the ability to see beyond laws and norms of society. It is
▸Loyalty- Belonging here that one examines, adopts, and applies the different
Stage 4: Legalistic Orientation(LAW) ethical frameworks or principles.
▸Law and Order
▸ Duty to Society Stage 5
Social Contract Orientation
Conventional Level is concerned with fulfilling role This stage includes what is right, individual rights, and
expectations, maintaining and supporting the social order, standards which have been critically examined and agreed
and identifying persons or groups involved in this order. upon. One says, “these rights have been examined, and
since they are right, they are the ones to be followed.”
Stage 3 Here, one is concerned that obligations be based on
Interpersonal Agreement Orientation calculations of overall utilty, what is really good for all. To a
What is deemed right is what pleases or helps others, what certain extent, there is universality in this good but still
is approved by others, what reinforces mutual relationships within basic human society, basic human agreements.
such as trust, loyalty, respect, and gratitude.
 The reason for helping others, for pleasing others,  The social perspective here views the rights of
for doing what is conventional or what is each as best protected when stability governs
mutually good for everyone is the need to be seen relations, when one recognizes that moral and
by the self and others as a loyal, caring legal perspectives sometimes differ and thus one
person(important here is my image to others), the may question the legal because it may not be
desire to maintain rules and authority that moral.
support your typical good behaviour and living up
to what significant others expect. Stage 6
• In relation to the social perspective, one takes the Universal Ethical Principles
group expectations that take primacy over Kohlberg was not able to observe this stage in his group ,
individaul interest. thus he projected it. What is right is following self chosen
ethical principles based on judgements that are
Stage 4 universalizable and consistent.
Social Structure Orientation What is right are the universal principles of justice, and the
What is right is doing one's duty, showing respects for laws, reason given are the validity of universal and moral
authority and society and contributing to the maintenance principles and the sense of personal commitment to these
of society and institutions. One's reason for doing one's duty principles.
and the like is that, action which breaks the social or moral
agreements impair the system which is a value. It would be  The social perspective taken is the moral point of
hazardous to digress from conformity and from social view from which even the social arrangements
norms. are derived; from this universalizable moral point
 One reason for this is that conscience is of view, moral judgments are made.
imperative to the moral law, to the ethical  Thought of as an ideal, aspirational stage
system. Another reason is the maintenance of the
system for its own sake. The social perspective
takes the perspective of a generalized other and M4: While Task Lesson 1 Frameworks and Principles
not just the personal other. The generalized other
Lesson 1: Moral Framework and Principles action. Ethical obligations are the same for all rational
creatures.
What Exactly Is Moral Framework?
An ethical framework is a set of codes that an individual The Rights Approach, the second important approach to
uses to guide his or her behavior. Ethics are what people ethics has its roots in the philosophy of the 18th-century
use to distinguish right from wrong in the way they interact thinker Immanuel Kant and others like him, who focused on
with the world. So based on your moral judgment what you the individual's right to choose for herself or himself. what
think is the best solution for a particular problem is moral makes human beings different from mere things is that
framework. people have dignity based on their ability to choose freely
What they will do with their lives, and they have a
Why is it necessary? fundamental moral right to have these choices respected.
Moral values help in improving behavior, instilling respect
and enhancing relationships with others. Knowing what is The Fairness or Justice Approach (the best ethical action)
right or wrong is an important element in life that shapes protects the ethical rights of those who are affected by the
the character on an individual. Good moral values allow a action. It emphasizes the belief that all humans have a right
person to make the right decisions and improve their to dignity. Act in such a way that you treat humanity,
interactions with other people. whether in your own person or in the person of another,
always at the same time as an end and never simply as a
Lesson 2. Ethical Theories means to an end.

Ethical theories are often broadly divided into three types: Divine Command Approach sees what is right as the same
1. Consequentialist Theories as what God commands, and ethical standards are the
(The Utilitarian, Egoistic Approach) creation of God’s will. Following God’s will is seen as the
2. Non-consequentialist Theories very definition what is ethical. Because God is seen as
(The Common Good, Duty, Based, Right, omnipotent and possessed of free will, God could change
Justice, Fairness and Justice, Divine Command what is now considered ethical, and God is not bound by
Approach) any standard of right or wrong short of logical
3. Agent-cantered Theories (The Virtue, Feminist contradiction.
Approach
Agent-centered Theories
Consequentialist Theories or the Utilitarian
Approach analyze an issue using the utilitarian approach, The Virtue Approach assumes that there are certain ideals
we first identify the various courses of action available to toward which we should strive, which provide for the full
us. Second, we ask who will be affected by each action and development of our humanity. These ideals are discovered
what benefits or harms will be derived from each. And through thoughtful reflection on what kind of people we
third, we choose the action that will produce the greatest have the potential to become.
benefits and the least harm. The ethical action is the one
that provides the greatest good for the greatest number. Feminist Approach, in recent decades has been
supplemented and sometimes significantly revised by
The Egoistic Approach is one variation of the utilitarian thinkers in the feminist tradition, who often emphasize the
approach is known as ethical egoism, or the ethics of self- importance of the experiences of women and other
interest. In this approach, an individual often uses utilitarian marginalized groups to ethical deliberation.
calculation to produce the greatest amount of good for him
or herself. M4: Lesson 2 Chart of Main Contrasts between the three
Frameworks

The chart below is designed to highlight the main contrasts

between the three frameworks:
Non-consequentialist Theories
The Common Good Approach underscores the networked
aspects of society and emphasizes respect and compassion
for others, especially those who are more vulnerable.

The Duty-Based Approach sometimes called deontological

ethics. The ethical action is one taken from duty, that is, it
is done precisely because it is our obligation to perform the
 Formulate Actions and Consider Alternatives
Evaluate your decision-making options by asking the
M4: Lesson 3 Applying the Framework to Cases following questions:
1. Which action will produce the most good and
Non-
Consequentialist Agent-centered do the least harm? (The Utilitarian Approach)
consequentialist
What are my
What kind of obligations in this What kind of person 2. Which action respects the rights of all who
Deliberative outcomes should I situation, and should I be (or try to be), have a stake in the decision? (The Rights
process produce (or try to what are the and what will my actions Approach)
produce)? things I should show about my character?
never do?
3. Which action treats people equally or
Directs attention
to the future Directs attention Attempts to discern proportionately? (The Justice Approach)
effects of an to the duties that character traits (virtues
Focus action, for all exist prior to the and vices) that are, or 4. Which action serves the community as a
people who will be situation and could be, motivating the whole, not just some members?
directly or determines people involved in the
indirectly affected obligations. situation.
(The Common Good Approach)
by the action.
Ethical conduct 5. Which action leads me to act as the sort of
Definition Ethical conduct is involves always Ethical conduct is person I should be? (The Virtue Approach)
of Ethical the action that will doing the right whatever a fully virtuous
achieve the best thing: never person would do in the
Conduct
consequences. failing to do one's circumstances.
Make a Decision and Consider It
duty. After examining all of the potential actions, which best
Aim is to produce Aim is to perform Aim is to develop one’s
addresses the situation? How do I feel about my choice?
Motivation
the most good. the right action. character.
Act
Many ethical situations are uncomfortable because we can
Lesson 3: APPLYING THE FRAMEWORKS TO CASES
never have all of the information. Even so, we must often
When using the frameworks to make ethical judgments
take action.
about specific cases, it will be useful to follow the process
below.
Reflect on the Outcome
What were the results of my decision? What were the
Recognizing an Ethical Issue
intended and unintended consequences? Would I change
One of the most important things to do at the beginning of
anything now that I have seen the consequences?
ethical deliberation is to locate, to the extent possible, the
specifically ethical aspects of the issue at hand. Sometimes
what appears to be an ethical dispute is really a dispute
CONCLUSIONS:
about facts or concepts. For example, some Utilitarian
Making ethical decisions requires sensitivity to the ethical
might argue that the death penalty is ethical because it
implications of problems and situations. It also requires
deters crime and thus produces the greatest amount of
practice. Having a framework for ethical decision making is
good with the least harm. Other Utilitarian, however, might
essential. We hope that the information above is helpful in
argue that the death penalty does not deter crime, and thus
developing your own experience in making choices.
produces more harm than good. The argument here is over
which facts argue for the morality of a particular action, not
simply over the morality of particular principles. All
M5- Lesson 1: Justice and Fairness
Utilitarian would abide by the principle of producing the
What is Fairness?
most good with the least harm.
It refers to the level of even-handedness in dispensing
justice whereby claims are recognized in order of their legal
Consider the Parties Involved
and contractual priority.
Another important aspect to reflect upon are the various
It has been used with regard to an ability to judge without
individuals and groups who may be affected by your
reference to one’s feelings or interests.
decision. Consider who might be harmed or who might
benefit.
What is Justice?
It is giving each person what he/she deserves; or giving
Gather all of the Relevant Information
what is due.
Before taking action, it is a good idea to make sure that you
The term justice often means the whole array of virtues: full
have gathered all of the pertinent information, and that all
and complete moral goodness (cf. Mt 5:6, 20).
potential sources of information have been consulted.
Study this presentation for this module, so that we can have
a better understanding of justice and fairness.
Objectives
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
1. Articulate what justice and fairness are.
2. Critique justice and fairness.
3. Articulate and critique the divisions and kinds of
justice
Fairness
 It refers to the level of even-handedness in
dispensing justice whereby claims are recognized in
order of their legal and contractual priority.
 It has been used with regard to an ability to judge
without reference to one’s feelings or interests. • Legal, general, or social justice is directly and
primarily aimed at the common good
The Concept of Justice • Legal Justice - duties of the individual
• It is a theory (philosophical and legal) by which toward the community (ex. Taxes,
fairness is administered. cooperation in public affairs)
• Plato: justice is a command from God. • Particular justice is directed to the private good
• John Locke: Justice is derived from the natural law. • Distributive Justice – duties of the
• Social Contract theorists: It is about the mutual community toward the individual
agreement of everyone concerned. • that inclines the ruler of a
• John Stuart Mill: It is about something that has the community to equitably
best consequences (maximity of happiness) distribute burdens and honors
• Egalitarians: Justice exists only in the context of among its members according to
equality. their capacities and merits.
• John Rawls: (Distributive) Justice is a form of • Commutative Justice – duties of an
fairness. individual toward other individuals (cf.
CCC, 2236, 2411.)
Principles of Justice • private person’s stable
 It is giving each person what he/she deserves; or determination to give another
giving what is due. private person what is strictly
 The term justice often means the whole array of his due
virtues: full and complete moral goodness (cf. Mt • Vindictive or Penal Justice - which
5:6, 20). inclines the ruler of a community to
 The perpetual and constant will to render to each punish crime with the right penalties.
one his right (cf. ST, II-II, q. 58, a. 1; CCC, 1807)

According to Aristotle, “equals should be treated equals

and unequals unequally.”

“Equality asks us to give the exact amount to each one.

Equity asks to give one what is needed.”

“Justice is giving our neighbor what is theirs. Charity is

giving them what is ours.”

Properties of Justice
The three essential properties of justice:
i. Justice always refers to another person. Strictly
speaking, there are no obligations of justice toward
oneself.
ii. The object of justice is not a free gift, but
something that is strictly due. Compensatory Justice
iii. Justice does not demand an approximate • refers to the extent to which people are fairly
compensation, but only what is exactly due, compensated for their injuries by those who have
neither more nor less.
 injured them; just compensation is proportional to contribution the individual makes to a society, a
the loss inflicted on a person. task, a group, or an exchange.”
• concerns the fairness when restoring to a person How the value of the contribution is to be measured?
what the person lost when he or she was wronged 1. By work effort: the harder you work, the greater
by someone else. the benefits accrued to you.
2. Productivity: the greater the quantity the person
Conditions for obligation to Compensate injured party contributed, the greater the gains of the person.
1. The action inflicted was wrong and negligent.
2. The action was the real cause of the injury Justice based on Needs and Abilities: (Socialism)
3. The act was voluntarily inflicted. • “Work burden should be distributed according to
people’s abilities, and (but) benefits should be
Procedural or Retributive Justice distributed according to people’s needs.”
• Issues of procedural justice concern the fairness of • Acts 2:45,11:29, “From each according to his
how information is gathered or how a decision is ability, to each according to his need.”
made (fairness in the imposition of punishment Bases of Socialist Principle:
and penalties); also known as Retributive Justice. 1. People realize their human potential by exercising
• The punishment should be consistent and their abilities in productive work.
proportionate to the wrong act. If the purpose of a 2. Benefits of work should be used to promote
punishment is to deter others from committing the human happiness and well being, by distributing
same wrong or to prevent the wrongdoer from them to meet basic needs.
repeating the same wrong, then punishment
should not be greater than what is consistently Justice as Freedom: (Libertarianism)
necessary to achieve these aims. • “From each according to what he chooses to do, to
Distributive Justice each according to what he makes for himself and
• Refers to the extent to which society's institutions what others choose to do for him and choose to
ensure that benefits and burdens are distributed give him of what they’ve been given previously and
among society's members in ways that are fair and have not yet expanded or transferred.”
just. • “From each as they choose, to each as they are
• When the institutions of a society distribute chosen.”
benefits or burdens in unjust ways, there is a Critique:
strong presumption that those institutions should 1. Freedom from coercion at the expense of other
be changed. rights and values.
• Issues of distributive justice concern the fairness of 2. It will generate unjust treatment for the
the distribution of something among several disadvantaged.
people or groups.
Theories on Justice Justice as Fairness:
1. Justice as Equality • The distribution of benefits and burdens in a
2. Justice based on Contribution society is just, if and only if:
3. Justice based on Needs and Abilities 1. Each person has an equal right to the most
4. Justice as Freedom extensive basic liberties compatible with similar
5. Justice as Fairness liberties;
2. Social and economic inequalities are arranged so
Justice as Equality: (Egalitarianism) that they are both:
• All burdens and benefits should be distributed a) to the greatest benefits of the least advantaged
according to the formula: people and
• “Every person should be given exactly equal shares b) attached to offices and positions open to all under
of a society’s or a group’s benefits and burdens.” conditions of FAIR and EQUALITY of opportunities.
• Critique 1: Humans are not equal in terms of
abilities, values, needs, desires, physical
characteristics. M6 - Lesson 1: Globalization and its Ethical Challenges
• Critique 2: Egalitarians ignore some characteristics Lesson 1: Globalization and its Ethical Challenges
that should be taken into accounting in the
distribution of goods: need, ability, effort. What is Globalization?
Globalization is a process of interaction and integration
Justice based on Contribution: (Capitalism) among the people, companies, and governments of
• For Capitalist Justice: “Benefits should be different nations, a process driven by international trade
distributed according to the value of the and investment and aided by information technology.

This process has effects on the environment, on culture, on

political systems, on economic development and prosperity,
and on human physical well-being in societies around the
world. Globalization is deeply controversial, however. Proponents of
globalization argue that it allows poor countries and their
Globalization is not new, though. For thousands of years, citizens to develop economically and raise their standards of
people—and, later, corporations—have been buying living, while opponents of globalization claim that the creation
from and selling to each other in lands at great distances, of an unfettered international free market has benefited
such as through the famed Silk Road across Central Asia multinational corporations in the Western world at the
that connected China and Europe during the Middle expense of local enterprises, local cultures, and common
Ages. people.

Likewise, for centuries, people and corporations have Resistance to globalization has therefore taken shape both at
invested in enterprises in other countries. In fact, many of a popular and at a governmental level as people and
the features of the current wave of globalization are governments try to manage the flow of capital, labor, goods,
similar to those prevailing before the outbreak of the First and ideas that constitute the current wave of globalization.
World War in 1914.
M6 - Lesson 1.1 - Various Aspects of Globalization Various
But policy and technological developments of the past Aspects of Globalization
few decades have spurred increases in cross-border
trade, investment, and migration so large that many Globalization has various aspects which affect the world in
observers believe the world has entered a qualitatively several different ways. These aspects include:
new phase in its economic development.
 Industrial globalization – development of
Since 1950, for example, the volume of world trade has worldwide production markets and broader
increased by 20 times, and from just 1997 to 1999 flows access to a range of foreign products for
of foreign investment nearly doubled, from $468 billion consumers and companies involving
to particularly movement of material and goods
$827 billion. Distinguishing this current wave of between and within national boundaries.
globalization from earlier ones, author Thomas Friedman  Financial globalization – development of
has said that today globalization is “farther, faster, worldwide financial markets and better access
cheaper, and deeper.” to external financing for borrowers.
 Economic globalization – establishment of a
This current wave of globalization has been driven by global common market, based on the freedom
policies that have opened economies domestically and of exchange of goods and capital.
internationally. In the years since the Second World War,  Political globalization - creation of
and especially during the past two decades, many international organizations to regulate the
governments have adopted free-market economic relationships among governments and to guarantee the
systems, vastly increasing their own productive potential rights arising from social and economic globalization.
and creating myriad new opportunities for international  Informational globalization – increase in
trade and investment. information flows between geographically
Governments also have negotiated dramatic reductions in remote locations. (This can also be seen as a
barriers to commerce and have established international technological change related to the advent of
agreements to promote trade in goods, services, and fibre optic communications, satellites, and
investment. increased availability of telephone and
Internet.)
Taking advantage of new opportunities in foreign markets,  Cultural globalization - sharing of ideas,
corporations have built foreign factories and established attitudes and values across national borders.
production and marketing arrangements with foreign This sharing generally leads to an
partners. A defining feature of globalization, therefore, is an interconnectedness and interaction between
international industrial and financial business structure. peoples of diverse cultures and ways of life.
Mass media and communication technologies
Technology has been the other principal driver of are the primary instruments for cultural
globalization. Advances in information technology, in globalization.
particular, have dramatically transformed economic life. 
Corruption
Information technologies have given all sorts of individual Corruption is a concept that agglomerates practices
economic actors—consumers, investors, businesses— ranging from multi-million dollar payments to high
valuable new tools for identifying and pursuing economic government officials to a few dollars bribe to a low-level
opportunities, including faster and more informed analyses bureaucrat. It is estimated that over $1 trillion are paid in
of economic trends around the world, easy transfers of bribes annually, which squanders public resources and
assets, and collaboration with far-flung partners. deprives millions of food, education and other government
services to which they are entitled. Millennial Generation is also known as Generation Y,
because it comes after Generation X — those people
Bribery in foreign operations was not always considered between the early 1960s and the 1980s. The publication Ad
morally wrong. Some even saw it as a normal operating Age was one of the first to coin the term "Generation Y," in
expense when doing business in emerging economies. an editorial in August 1993. But the term didn't age well,
German corporate law, while severely punishing bribery and "Millennials" has largely overtaken it. But the terms
at home, considered foreign bribes as tax deductible basically mean the same thing.
expenses.
Millennials Characteristics
Attitudes toward bribery changed in the late 1970s after Millennials have been characterized in a number of
the US Congress passed the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act different ways. On the negative side, they've been
which outlawed paying bribes abroad for American described as lazy, narcissistic and prone to jump from job
companies. to job. The 2008 book "Trophy Kids" by Ron Alsop discusses
It is beyond doubt that bribing foreign officials to win a how many young people have been rewarded for minimal
contract is immoral. However, less clarity exists in other accomplishments (such as mere participation) in
situations. For example, is it acceptable to bribe a low- competitive sports, and have unrealistic expectations of
level bureaucrat to speed up a procedure he is supposed working life.
to do anyway? A story in Time magazine said polls show that Millennials
Small payments are tolerated in some countries and even "want flexible work schedules, more 'me time' on the job,
rationalized by the need to supplement the meager and nearly nonstop feedback and career advice from
salaries earned by public officials. It is not always clear, managers." Another Time story in May 2013, titled "The
however, what should count as a “small payment”. In Me Me Me Generation," begins: "They're narcissistic.
April 2012, it was reported that Walmart paid more than They're lazy. They're coddled. They're even a bit delusional.
$24 million to Mexican officials to speed up permits to Those aren't just unfounded negative stereotypes about 80
open new branches. Payments were made to expedite a million Americans born roughly between 1980 and 2000.
process that officials should have executed anyway. Is They're backed up by a decade of sociological research."
$24 million a “small payment” for a company the size of The article also points out that Millennials may be simply
Walmart? adapting quickly to a world undergoing rapid technological
change.
In some cases, cultural differences exist in the They have also been described in positive ways. They are
appropriate relationship between a company and its generally regarded as being more open-minded, and
stakeholders. Following China’s integration in the global
economy, scholars became interested by the ethical more supportive of gay rights and equal rights for
status of guanxi, informal networks of favor exchange minorities.
between companies and public officials.
Other positives adjectives to describe them include
Since it is not a specific payment for a particular service, confident, self-expressive, liberal, upbeat and receptive to
guanxi does not fit into the conventional definition of new ideas and ways of living.
bribery. Advocates of guanxi argue that the definition of
bribery is based on a Western concept of impartiality Though viewed as more liberal, some Millennials are
that is not necessarily shared by all cultures. bucking the trend. A study published March 31, 2017 by
the Council on Contemporary Families found that high
Critics contend that guanxi is similar to Western mafia school seniors increasingly believe that the man should be
practices of “today you scratch my back and tomorrow I the bread-winner in a relationship and a woman should
will scratch yours”. It is unclear whether these exchanges care for the home. "It's been a steady reversal," said study
of favors constitute a form of corruption or whether it is co- author Joanna Pepin, a doctoral candidate in sociology
a legitimate way of doing business in the Chinese market. at the University of Maryland.

M6 - Lesson 2: Millennials and Filinnials Ethical Generation Me

Challenges and Responses There is a spirited, if not tiresome, debate about whether
Millennials are self-entitled narcissists or open- minded do-
Teenagers, twenty and thirty-somethings have been gooders; surely the truth lies somewhere in- between.
dubbed the Millennial Generation, or simply Millennials. Generally, however, there does seem to be more of an
But what does it mean? And how old is too old to be a emphasis on the self than in previous generations, one
Millennial? reason why this group has been called Generation Me.
Generation Y Definition
The term Millennials generally refers to the generation of Research presented at the 2016 annual meeting of the
people born between the early 1980s and 1990s, Society for Personality and Social Psychology (SPSP) in San
according to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Some Diego found that Millennials themselves do believe that
people also include children born in the early 2000s. The they are more narcissistic that previous generations, but
they don't like it. Also, the uptick in narcissism is only educated or instruct the reader, often focusing on
very slight when compared with other generations. imparting moral, ethical, or philosophical values. These
works are intended to inspire and develop the reader’s
"We're not talking about two generations ago, people understanding of certain principles or concepts. Examples
were just completely selfless, and in this generation of didactic literature include fables, parables, and
we're trying to kill each other to watch the next season allegorical stories.
of something on Netflix," Joshua Grubbs, a doctoral Fiction is a literature in the form of prose that describes
candidate at Case Western Reserve University in Ohio. imaginary events and people.
[Millennials See Themselves As Narcissistic, Too (And It Reportorial by news characteristic
Bothers Them)] Caricature – exaggerating the objects to create a comic of
fun of the subject
Values education - is an essential element of whole-person
Some topics (ETHICS) education which aims at fostering students' positive values
and attitudes through
A meritocracy is a social system in which leadership and Theology - Theology literally means 'thinking about God'. In
advancement on individual merit, competence and practice it usually means studying the sources of Christian
integrity rather than on inherited or arbitrary factors belief like the Bible and the Creeds, and exploring the
such as wealth, birthright or social status. meaning of Christianity for today.
In a meritocracy, individuals are rewarded and given Consequentialism is the view that morality is all about
positions of authority based on their abilities, producing the right kinds of overall consequences. Here the
qualifications and achievements. This system aims to phrase “overall consequences” of an action means
create a fair and just society where people are everything the action brings about, including the action
recognized and rewarded based on their skills and itself.
contributions. Deontological is an ethical theory that uses rules to
Royalty - the rank, status, or power of a king or queen; distinguish right from wrong. Deontology is often
royal position, dignity, over sovereignty. Common associated with philosopher Immanuel Kant. Kant believed
parlance members of any family which reigns by that ethical actions follow universal moral laws, such as
hereditary right are often referred to as royalty or “Don't lie. Don't steal. Don't cheat.”
"royals". It is also customary in some circles to refer to Teleological theories in ethics derive their name from the
the extended relations of a deposed monarch and their notion of "telos" which is Greek for "end" or "goal."
descendants as a royal family. Teleological theories hold that actions are right or good
insofar as they promote or accomplish a certain end or
Monarchy - political system based upon the undivided outcome.
sovereignty or rule of a single person. The term applies Virtue defines good actions as ones that display embody
to states in which supreme authority is vested in the virtuous character traits, like courage, loyalty, or wisdom. A
monarch, an individual ruler who functions as the head virtue itself is a disposition to act, think and feel in certain
of state and who achieves his or her position through ways.
heredity. When individuals hold unjustified dislike or hostility
towards certain groups of people based on their race or
Cecile Alvarez is a notable proponent of P.E.T.A (People ethnicity. It is referred to as racial prejudice. Racial
for the Ethical Treatment of Animals) who has made prejudice involves making negative judgments or
significant contributions to play productions and stereotypes about individuals or groups solely based on
presentations aimed at reaching the masses. As an their racial background, without any valid reasons or
advocate for animal rights and ethical treatment, Alvarez evidence to support such biases. It is important to note
has played a crucial role in raising awareness and that prejudices can manifest in various forms, including
promoting P.E.T.A‟s message through theatrical racial prejudices, but it is not limited to race. Prejudice can
productions and public presentations. also be based on other facts such as gender, religion,
Pura Castrence one of the Filipino women writers, she socioeconomic status or nationality. However, in the given
was among the first to gain prominence writing in the context, where the unjustified dislike is directed towards
English language. She was named a Chevalier de Légion certain groups of people, the term “racial prejudice” is the
d'honneur by the French government. most appropriate descriptor.
Naty Rogers - Filipina actress, drama teacher, writer, Socialism is a social and economic doctrine that calls for
producer and researcher. She was best known for her public rather than private ownership or control of property
role in the 1965 film adaptation of the play A Portrait of and natural resources. According to the socialist view,
the Artist as Filipino individuals do not live or work in isolation but live in
Carmen Nakpil - Filipina journalist, author, historian and cooperation with one another.
public servant. She was a recipient of the S.E.A. Write Individualism the belief and practice that every person is
Award. (Southeast Asian Writers Award) unique and self-reliant. A belief in individualism also
implies that you believe that the government should bud
Didactic literature refers to literary works that aim to out of your individual affairs.