By u/One_Wishbone_4439

GCE 'O' and 'N' EM Notes

Number and algebra
Positive numbers: greater than 0. eg. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

Negative numbers: less than 0. eg. −1, −2, −3, −4, −5

Prime numbers: have exactly two factors: 1 and itself. eg. 2, 3, 5, 7, 11

Composite numbers: have more than two factors. Eg. 4, 6, 8, 9, 12

➢ 1 and 0 are NOT prime numbers.

➢ 2 is the ONLY even prime number.

P
Rational numbers: Can be represented in the form of Q where Q ≠ 0.

P
Irrational numbers: Cannot be represented in the form of Q .

HCF – Highest Common Factor

➢ Look at the lowest power.

LCM – Lowest Common Multiple

➢ Look at the highest power.

Prime factorisation

➢ Only can divide by prime numbers.

Significant figures (5 rules)

➢ All non-zero digits are significant. (eg. 211.8 has 4sf)

➢ All zeros that are found between nonzero digits are significant. (eg. 20007 has 5sf)
➢ Leading zeros (to the left of the first nonzero digit) are not significant. (eg. 0.0085 has
2sf)
➢ Trailing zeros for a whole number that ends with a decimal point are significant. (eg.
320 can be 2sf or 3sf)
➢ Trailing zeros to the right of the decimal place are significant. (eg. 12.000 has 5sf)

Page 1 of 51
By u/One_Wishbone_4439

Standard form: expressed as A × 10n where A must be 1 ≤ A < 10 and n is an integer.

Common prefixes

Power of English SI prefix Symbol

10 word
12
10 trillion tera T
109 billion giga G
106 million mega M
103 thousand kilo K
-3
10 thousandth milli m
10-6 millionth micro µ
10-9 billionth nano n
-12
10 trillionth pico P
Law of indices

➢ Zero indices: a0 = 1, a ≠ 0 and a < 0

1
➢ Negative indices: a-n = n , a ≠ 0 and a < 0
a
m m
n n
➢ Rational indices: a n = √am = ( √a) , a ≤ 0
➢ Law 1: am × an = am+n, if a > 0
➢ Law 2: am ÷ an = am-n, if a > 0
➢ Law 3: (am)n = amn, if a > 0
➢ Law 4: an × bn = (a × b)n, if a, b > 0
a n
➢ Law 5: an ÷ bn = (b) , if a, b > 0

Inequality

Signs Definitions How is it represented

on a number line?
< more than
> less than
≤ more than or equal to
≥ less than or equal to

Basic Four Operations of Algebraic Fractions

a c ad + bc
➢ Addition: b + d = bd
a c ad − bc
➢ Subtraction: b − d = bd
a c ac
➢ Multiplication: × =
b d bd
a c a d
➢ Division: b ÷ d = b × c
ad
= bc

Page 2 of 51
By u/One_Wishbone_4439

➢ Conditions*

1. Addition: If A < B, then A + c < B + c

2. Subtraction: If A < B, then A − c < B − c

3. Multiplication: If A < B, then cA < cB

If A < B, then − cA > − cB

4. Division: A B
If A < B, then c < c
A B
If A < B, then >
−c −c

*Note: For multiplication and division of negative numbers, the inequality sign must flip
(shown in red).

Algebraic expression
➢ The square of sum: (a + b)2 = (a2 + 2ab + b2)
➢ The square of difference: (a - b)2 = (a2 - 2ab + b2)
➢ The difference of two squares: a2 - b2 = (a + b)(a - b)
Factorisation methods:
➢ Divide by HCF
➢ Algebraic expression
➢ Grouping
➢ Completing the square in the form of y = (x – h)2 + k where (h, k) is the turning point.
2
−b ± √b −4ac
➢ Quadratic equation: 𝑥 =
2a
➢ Cross product

Ratio
a
➢ a:b=
b

Page 3 of 51
By u/One_Wishbone_4439

Proportion
Direct proportion
y = kx
y

x
Inverse proportion
k
y =x
y

x
Map scale
➢ Length → Map : Actual = 1 : n best to change them to cm.
➢ Area → 12 : n2
Percentage
Increase/Decrease
➢ Percentage increase/decrease = Original Value × 100%

➢ Tax Relief
➢ Commission
➢ Profit/Discount
➢ Income Tax/GST (9%) *
*Note: GST is not always 9%, it changes over the years.

Page 4 of 51
By u/One_Wishbone_4439

Number pattern

General term, Tn = an + b

where

n is the term number,

a is the common difference between two consecutive terms, and

b is the starting term, which is the value of the sequence when n = 0.

For example, the first five terms form a number pattern: 5, 8, 11, 14, 17

Common difference: 8 – 5 = 3

Now, the equation is 3n + b.

If n = 1, 3(1) + b = 5 → b = 5 – 3 = 2

Hence, Tn = 3n + 2.

Rate

➢ Rate is always over time (s).

Speed
Distance (m) D
➢ Speed (m/s) = Time (s) ÷
Total Distance (m) S × T
➢ Average speed = Time (s)
➢ Acceleration: It is an increase in speed over time.
➢ Deceleration: It is a decrease in speed over time.

Page 5 of 51
 By u/One_Wishbone_4439

Speed-time graphs

Speed (m/s)

Constant speed

Area under graph = distance travelled

0 t1 t2 t3 Time (s)
From the speed-time graph above,

➢ from 0 to t1, the car is increasing speed over time, meaning the car is moving quickly
➢ from t1 to t2, the car is at constant speed, meaning the speed does not change
➢ from t2 to t3, the car is decreasing speed over time, meaning the car is slowing down
➢ the distance travelled by the car can be determined by finding the area under the
graph
➢ to find acceleration and deceleration (negative acceleration) of the car, find the
gradient of the line.
➢ gradient for constant speed is always zero.

Displacement-time graphs

Displacement (m)

Stationary object

0 t1 t2 t3 Time (s)
From the displacement-time graph above,

➢ from 0 to t1, the car does not change in speed.

➢ from t1 to t2, the car does not move.
➢ from 0 to t1, the car does not change in speed.
➢ to find the speed of the car, find the gradient of the line.
➢ gradient for stationary object is always zero.

Page 6 of 51
By u/One_Wishbone_4439

Simple interest: It is an interest charge that borrowers pay lenders for a loan.
PRT
I = 100

where

P is the principal amount

R is the rate of interest

T is the number of years

Compound interest: It is the interest calculated on both the initial principal and all of the
previously accumulated interest.
r n
A = P (1 + 100)

where

A is the total amount

P is the principal amount

r is the rate of interest

n is the number of years

Exchange rate: a relative price of one currency expressed in terms of another currency.

For example, the exchange rate between Singapore Dollars (SGD) and US Dollars (USD) is
now S$1 = $0.75 USD.

If I want to purchase a bag that costs $300, how much will I need to pay in USD?
S$1 = $0.75 USD

S$300 = $0.75 × $300 = $225 USD

Hence, I need to pay $225 USD for the same bag in Singapore.
Hire purchase: It is an arrangement made while buying expensive goods.

Hire purchase = Deposit + Monthly payment

When you cannot afford to pay the item in full amount, you pay a deposit to the seller when
you first agree to buy the item. Deposit is usually a small percentage of the cash price. Then,
you pay the remaining amount in small chucks monthly. After you have fully pay including
your monthly payment, then you will get the item you want.

Taxation: It is a term for when a taxing authority, usually a government, levies or imposes a
financial obligation on its citizens or residents.

Page 7 of 51
By u/One_Wishbone_4439

Set notation

Set language Definition

A∪B union of A and B
A∩B intersection of A and B
n(A) number of elements in set A
∈ an element of
∉ not an element of
A′ complement of set A
∅ empty set
 universal set
A⊆B A is a subset of B
A⊈B A is a not a subset of B
A⊂B A is a (proper) subset of B
A⊄B A is a not a (proper) subset of B

Set: A list of elements. In simple words, sets are collection of objects such as pile of books
and bunch of keys. The collective nouns “pile” and “bunch” are sets. The words “books” and
“keys” are elements.

For example, let A be the set of the first five prime numbers.

It will be written like this: A = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11}. The curly brackets “{…}” are used to show a
set.

To find the number of elements in a set, we use this notation: n(A). For set A, the number of
elements will be 5.

Now let’s look at this Venn diagram below.


A 10

2 5
3 8 12
1
7
11
6 9
4

We can observe from the above Venn diagram that the set of elements belonging to  but not
to A is called the complementary of the set A, denoted as A′.

Page 8 of 51
By u/One_Wishbone_4439

Consider the sets B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and C = {1, 2, 3}

How can we draw a Venn diagram to represent the sets B and C such that we do not repeat the
common elements? Since all the elements are distinct, we can draw the Venn diagram as
shown below.

4 1 2

3
5

We can see that C is completely inside of B, meaning every element of C is an element of B.

Now, consider the sets B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and D = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

From this information, we can draw the set D completely inside the set B.

D
2
1 3
4 5

In conclusion, we can say that C and D are subsets of B, and we write C ⊂ B and D ⊂ B.

In addition, we can also say that C is a proper subset of B, and we write C ⊆ B.

Page 9 of 51
By u/One_Wishbone_4439

Venn Diagram Set Notation for Single Set:

Venn Diagram Set Notation for Double Sets:

Venn Diagram Set Notation for Triple Sets:

Images from https://jimmymaths.com/venn-diagram-set-notation/

Page 10 of 51
By u/One_Wishbone_4439

Matrices

Let’s look at the problem below.

The table below shows the number of students from two classes, A and B who travel to
school by three different transportation: walk, bus and cycle.

Walk (W) Bus (B) Cycle (C)

Class A 12 15 3
Class B 22 8 10

The table above can be represented by matrices.

We can represent the matrix by a letter such as M. Also, we can label the types of
transportation and class names beside the matrix as shown below.

W B C
12 15 3 Class A
M=( )
22 8 10 Class B

Matrices are read in this order: horizontal by vertical. Just like reading a coordinate: (x, y)
where x is the horizontal axis and y is the vertical axis.
3 columns

12 15 3 2 rows
M=( )
22 8 10

Since matrix M has 2 rows and 3 columns, we can say that the order of M is 2 by 3 or 2 × 3.

Equal matrices: Must have the same order and their corresponding elements are equal.

Addition and subtraction of matrices: Must have the same order when adding or
subtracting.
Addition
a b c u v w a+u b+v c+w
( ) + (x y z ) = ( )
d e f d+x e+y f+z
Subtraction
a b c u v w a − u b − v c − w
( ) − (x y z ) = ( )
d e f d − x e − y f − z

Multiplication of matrices: When a matrix A is multiplied by a scalar k, every element in A

is multiplied by k.
a b c a b c ka kb kc
If A = ( ), then kA = k( )=( )
d e f d e f kd ke kf

Page 11 of 51
By u/One_Wishbone_4439

Multiplication of two matrices: The number of columns of A must be equal to the number
of rows of B.
A × B = C
m×n n×p m×p

must be equal

How to multiply two matrices?

Let’s multiply A = 2 by 3 and B = 3 by 2 matrices.
Since the number of columns in matrix A and the number of rows in matrix B are the same,
the multiplication is possible.
−5 3
7 3 2
Given that A = ( ) and B = ( 9 −2), find C = AB.
1 4 5
6 8
The order of the product C will be 2 by 2.
Column 1 Column 2
−5 3 a11 a12
Row 1 7 3 2
( )( 9 − 2 ) = (a )
Row 2 1 4 5 21 a22
6 8
A B C

Step 1: multiply the elements in Row 1 of A and in Column 1 of B, a11 .

Column 1 Column 2
−5 3
Row 1 7 3 2 7 × (−5) + 3 × 9 + 2 × 6 a12
( )( 9 − 2 )=( )
Row 2 1 4 5 a21 a22
6 8
4 a12
=( )
a21 a22

Step 2: multiply the elements in Row 1 of A and in Column 2 of B, a12 .

Column 1 Column 2
−5 3
Row 1 7 3 2 4 7 × 3 + 3 × ( − 2) + 2 × 8
( )( 9 − 2 ) = (a )
Row 2 1 4 5 21 a22
6 8
4 31
=( )
a21 a22

Step 3: multiply the elements in Row 2 of A and in Column 1 of B, a21 .

Column 1 Column 2
−5 3 4 31
Row 1 7 3 2
( )( 9 − 2 ) = (1 × (−5) + 4 × 9 + 5 × 6 a22
)
Row 2 1 4 5
6 8
4 31
=( )
61 a22

Page 12 of 51
By u/One_Wishbone_4439

Step 4: multiply the elements in Row 2 of A and in Column 2 of B, a22 .

Column 1 Column 2
−5 3
Row 1 (7 3 2 4 31
)( 9 − 2 ) = (61 1 × 3 + 4 × (−2) + 5 × 8)
Row 2 1 4 5
6 8
4 31
=( )
61 35

4 31
Hence, the complete matrix multiplication is C = ( ).
61 35

Summary
When multiplying two matrices, always check whether both the number of columns in the
first matrix and the number of rows in the second matrix are equal. Then, if it is possible to
multiply, multiply the elements in the rows of the first matrix with the elements in the
columns of the second matrix and so on.

Page 13 of 51
By u/One_Wishbone_4439

Functions and graphs

Graphs of power functions y = axn

n = 3, a > 0, y = ax3 n = 3, a < 0, y = ax3

y y

x x
O O

n = 2, a > 0, y = ax2 n = 2, a < 0, y = ax2

y y

O
x x
O

Page 14 of 51
By u/One_Wishbone_4439

n = 1, a > 0, y = ax n = 1, a < 0, y = ax

y y

x x
O O

n = 0, a > 0, y = a n = 0, a < 0, y = a

y y

x x
O O

Page 15 of 51
By u/One_Wishbone_4439

a a
n = −1, a > 0, y = x n = −1, a < 0, y = x

y y

x x
O O

a a
n = −2, a > 0, y = x2 n = −2, a < 0, y = x2

y y

x x
O O

Page 16 of 51
By u/One_Wishbone_4439

Graphs of power functions y = kax, where a is a positive integer and a ≠ 1.

k > 0, y = kax k < 0, y = kax

y y

x x
O O

How to read a quadratic graph?

y y-intercept

3
x-intercept x-intercept

x
−3 O 1

y = − x2 − 2x + 3

line of symmetry (x = −1)

Page 17 of 51
By u/One_Wishbone_4439

Geometry and measurement

Angles

Types of angles

1. Acute angle: 0° < x < 90°

2. Right angle: 90°
3. Obtuse angle: 90° < x < 180°
4. Straight line: 180°
5. Reflex angle: 180° < x < 360°

Angle properties

Property 1: Adjacent angles on a straight line are supplementary

abbreviation: (adj. ∠s on a str. line)

b
a

∠a + ∠b = 180°

Property 2: Vertically opposite angles are equal

abbreviation: (vert. opp. ∠s)

c
a
b
d

∠a = ∠b
∠c = ∠d

Property 3: Alternate angles are equal (Letter ‘Z’)

abbreviation: (alt. ∠s, XX//XX)

A B
a

b
C D

∠a = ∠b (alt. ∠s, AB//CD)

Page 18 of 51
By u/One_Wishbone_4439

Property 4: Corresponding angles are equal (Letter ‘F’)

abbreviation: (corr. ∠s, XX//XX)
A B
a
C D
b

E
∠a = ∠b (corr. ∠s, AB//CD)

Property 5: Interior angles are supplementary (Letter ‘C’, ‘U’ or ‘N’)

abbreviation: (alt. ∠s, XX//XX)
A B
a

b
C D
∠a + ∠b = 180°

Property 6: Angles in a triangle are supplementary

abbreviation: (∠s sum of ∆) C
c

a b
A B
∠a + ∠b + ∠c = 180°

Property 7: Exterior angles

abbreviation: (ext. ∠s) B

c
a
A C D
∠a + ∠b = ∠c

Page 19 of 51
By u/One_Wishbone_4439

Perpendicular and Angle bisectors

Perpendicular bisector

Step 1: Construct an arc with point A as the

centre and with more than half of AB using a
compass. C
Step 2: Repeat step 1 with point B as the
centre.
Step 3: Label the two intersection points as A F B
C and D where the two arcs meet each other.
Step 4: Construct a straight line passing
through points C and D. D
Step 5: Label AF = FB and ∠CFB = 90°

Angle bisector

Step 1: Construct an arc with point A on AB B

and with more than half of the same line
D
using a compass. Label this point D.
Step 2: Repeat step 1 with the same point A F
but now construct another arc on AC. Label b
this point E. a
Step 3: Construct two arcs with points D A
E C
and E as their centres such that these two
new arcs intersect at point E.
Step 4: Construct a straight line passing ∠a = ∠b
through points A and E.

Page 20 of 51
By u/One_Wishbone_4439

Triangles

Right angle triangle

B

A C
∠A = 90°

Isosceles triangle
C

A B
∠A = ∠B
AC = BC

Equilateral triangle
C

60°

60° 60°
A B
∠A = ∠B = ∠C = 60°
AB = BC = AC

Scalene triangle
C

A B

All lengths are different

Page 21 of 51
By u/One_Wishbone_4439

Polygons
Regular/n-sided polygons: Both sides and interior angles (angles inside a shape) are equal.
➢ n means the number of equal sides of a regular polygon.

n=3 n=4 n=5 n=6 n=7 n=8 n=9 n = 10

Equilateral Square Pentagon Hexagon Heptagon Octagon Nonagon Decagon
triangle

Irregular polygons: All sides and interior angles are not equal.
Sum of all interior angles in a regular polygon = 180° × (n – 2)
180° × (n – 2)
One interior angle of a regular polygon = n
Interior angle + exterior angle = 180° (adj. ∠s on a str. line)
n × exterior angles = 360°

regular polygon with n sides

interior angle

interior angle
exterior angle

Page 22 of 51
By u/One_Wishbone_4439

Quadrilateral (four-sided shape) properties proofs

Quadrilateral Properties
Square ➢ Opposite sides are parallel
➢ All sides are equal
a ➢ All angles are right angles
➢ Diagonals are equal
➢ Diagonals bisects each other at right angles
➢ Interior angles are supplementary
b
(∠a + ∠b = 180°)

Rectangle ➢ Opposite sides are parallel

➢ Opposite sides are equal
a ➢ All angles are right angles
➢ Diagonals are equal
➢ Diagonals bisects each other at right angles
➢ Interior angles are supplementary
b
(∠a + ∠b = 180°)

Rhombus ➢ Opposite sides are parallel

➢ Opposite angles are equal
a ➢ All sides are equal
➢ Diagonals bisects each other at right angles
➢ Interior angles are supplementary
(∠a + ∠b = 180°)
b

Parallelogram ➢ Opposite sides are parallel

➢ Opposite sides are equal
a ➢ Diagonals bisects each other at right angles
➢ Interior angles are supplementary
(∠a + ∠b = 180°)

Kite ➢ Two pairs of adjacent sides are equal

➢ Diagonals are perpendicular
➢ One diagonal (vertical) bisects the other
diagonal (horizontal)
➢ One diagonal (vertical) bisects a pair of
opposite angles

Page 23 of 51
By u/One_Wishbone_4439

Trapezium ➢ One pair of parallel lines

➢ Interior angles are supplementary
a (∠a + ∠b = 180°)

Page 24 of 51
By u/One_Wishbone_4439

Area and perimeter

Shape Area Perimeter

Square
l

l2 4l
l

Rectangle
l
b lb 2(1 + b)

Triangle

1
a c bh
h 2
(only for right angle
triangles)
b a+b+c
1
ab sin C
2
a h (only for non-right angle
c triangles)

Circle

r
r πr2 2πr or πd

Page 25 of 51
By u/One_Wishbone_4439

Trapezium
a
r
1
(a + b)h
c 2 a+b+c+d
d h
r r r

b
r
Rhombus

h bh 4b
b
r

Parallelogram

bh 2(a + b)
h a
r r

Sector
θ θ
×πr2 360°
×2πr + 2r
360°
where θ is in degrees where θ is in degrees
r

𝜃 1 2
r θ rθ + 2r
r 2
where θ is in radians where θ is in radians

Page 26 of 51
 By u/One_Wishbone_4439

Volume and total surface area

Solid Volume Total surface area

Cube

x x3 6x2

x
x
Cuboid

h lbh 2(lb) + 2(lh) + 2(bh)

r
b
l
Cylinder

πr2 h 2πr2 + 2πrh

Prism

base area × h area of all flat surfaces

h
r
base area

Page 27 of 51
 By u/One_Wishbone_4439

Cone

l 1 πrl
h πr2 h ,
3
where l = √r2 + h2
r

Cone frustum

L
H 1 2 1 πrl − πRL
R l πr h − 3 πR2 H
h 3
where L = √R2 + H2
r

Pyramid

h l
r 1 base area + all triangular flat
× base area × h
3 faces

base area

Pyramid frustum

L
H A3
h 1 1 A1 + A2 + all A3
r × A1 × h − × A2 × H
3 3

l
A2
A1

Page 28 of 51
 By u/One_Wishbone_4439

Sphere

r
4 3 4πr2
πr
r 3

Hemisphere

r
2 3 3πr2
πr
r 3

Pythagoras’ Theorem
B

c
b

A a C
a2 + b2 = c2

Trigonometry ratios

Opposite (O)

x
Adjacent (A)

O
SOH → sin x = H

A
CAH → cos x = H

O
TOA → tan x = A

Page 29 of 51
By u/One_Wishbone_4439

Further trigonometry
sin a sin b sin c A B C
➢ Sine rule: A = B = C or sin a = sin b = sin c
➢ Use when either two angles and one opposite side or one opposite angle and two sides
are given.

opposite side
two angles

OR
opposite side

side

opposite angles
➢ Cosine rule: a2 = b2 + c2 – 2bc cos A
➢ Use when either all three sides or two sides and one ‘corner’ angle are given.

all three sides

OR

side side
s s

‘corner’ angle
Conversion of radians and degrees

2π rad = 360° 360° = 2π rad

π rad = 180° or 180° = π rad

180° π
1 rad = π 1° = 180° rad

Page 30 of 51
By u/One_Wishbone_4439

Right angles in solids

Cuboid

Right angle triangle-based prism

Square-based pyramid

Page 31 of 51
By u/One_Wishbone_4439

Bearing

North (N)

West (W) East (E)

South (S)

Bearing is always in 3-digit number. eg. 060°, 150°.

The bearing of B from A is 100°.

N
100°
A

When they say, ‘from A’, start the clockwise direction at point A.

Page 32 of 51
 By u/One_Wishbone_4439

Congruence and similarity

Congruence Tests for triangles

Side – side – side A P
SSS Congruence Test
➢ AB = PQ
➢ AC = PR
➢ BC = QR

B Q
C R
∴ ∆ABC ≡ ∆PQR (SSS Congruence Test)
Side – angle – side R
SAS Congruence Test
➢ AB = PQ A
➢ ∠BAC = ∠QPR
➢ AC = PR

B C P Q

∴ ∆ABC ≡ ∆PQR (SAS Congruence Test) ``

Angle – side – angle
ASA Congruence Test A R
➢ ∠ABC = ∠PQR `
➢ AB = PQ
➢ ∠BAC = ∠QPR Q
C

B P

∴ ∆ABC ≡ ∆PQR (ASA Congruence Test)

Angle – angle – side
AAS Congruence Test Q
A P
➢ ∠ABC = ∠PQR
➢ ∠BCA = ∠QRP
➢ AC = PR

B C R
∴ ∆ABC ≡ ∆PQR (AAS Congruence Test)

Page 33 of 51
 By u/One_Wishbone_4439

Right angle – hypotenuse – side C

RHS Congruence Test
➢ ∠ABC = ∠PQR = 90°
➢ AC = PR
P
➢ AB = PQ

∴ ∆ABC ≡ ∆PQR (RHS Congruence Test) A B R Q

Page 34 of 51
 By u/One_Wishbone_4439

Similarity Tests for triangles

Angle – angle
P
AA Similarity Test A
➢ ∠BAC = ∠QPR
➢ ∠ABC = ∠PQR

B Q
C
R
∴ ∆ABC and ∆PQR are similar. (AA Similarity Test)
Side – side – side
P
SSS Similarity Test
➢ Ratio of corresponding sides are equal.
PQ QR PR A km
= =
AB BC AC m kn
n R
C
kl
l
∴ ∆ABC and ∆PQR are similar. (SSS Similarity Test) B Q
Side – angle – side P
SAS Similarity Test
➢ Ratio of corresponding sides are equal, and A
‘corner’ angles are equal.
PQ QR
➢ AB = BC and ∠ABC = ∠PQR
kn
n

B l C Q kl R
∴ ∆ABC and ∆PQR are similar. (SAS Similarity Test)

Area and volumes of similar figures and solids

If X and Y are two similar solids, then

l
➢ ratio of their corresponding lengths is l1 ,
2
A1 l 2
➢ ratio of their corresponding areas, A = (l1 ) ,
2 2 l2
and
l1
V l 3
ratio of their corresponding volumes, V1 = (l1 ) .
2 2
A2
A1

X Y

Page 35 of 51
By u/One_Wishbone_4439

Vectors: a quantity that has magnitude and direction and that is commonly represented by a
directed line segment.

Let’s say point A has coordinates (2, −3). It can be represented as a column vector in the
x
form of ( ). This is how it’s written:
y

2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OA = ( )
−3

where
O is the starting point, and

A is the ending point.

Column vector: a vector whose components are listed in a single column.

2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OA = ( ) is a positive column vector. This means that a point starts to move 2 units to the
−3

right (positive x-axis) from the origin, O and 3 units down (negative y-axis) to point A. The
line connecting from the origin to point A is called the displacement (distance travelled).
2 units
O y

3 units x
O

A (2, −3)
2 −2
The negative column vector is ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AO = − ( ) = ( ). This means that the point travels the
−3 3
opposite direction. Instead of going South-East direction, the point travelled North-West
direction. Now, the new coordinates of point A is (−2, 3).

A (−2, 3)

3 units

2 units O

Page 36 of 51
By u/One_Wishbone_4439

OA = √22 − ( − 3)2
We can use Pythagoras’ Theorem to find the magnitude of vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

= 5 units.
x
The magnitude of a column vector a = ( ) is given by |a| = √x2 − y2 .
y

Equal vectors: If two vectors a and b are the same, both vectors travel at the same direction
and have the same magnitude.

Addition of vectors

Triangle Law of Vector Addition

a+b
b

A a B

From the diagram above, we write the addition of vectors like this:

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + BC
AB ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = AC
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = a + b

Subtraction of vectors

Triangle Law of Vector Subtraction

Vectors a and b start from the same point.

a−b b−a
a a

b b
starting point starting point
a: end point a: start point
b: start point b: end point

Page 37 of 51
By u/One_Wishbone_4439

Scalar multiple of a vector

y

6
b
5 a

3 b
2

x
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

We observe that a = b + b = 2b.

2b is a scalar multiply of b.

In general,

if a and b are parallel vectors, then a = kb where k ≠ 0.

This also means that

x kx
if a = ( ), then ka = ( ) and |ka| = |k||a| for any real number k.
y ky

Collinear vectors: Vectors are parallel to each other, have the same gradient and the points all
lie on a straight line.

For example, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

PQ = 2a + 3b and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
QR = 4a + 6b. Show that points P, Q and R are collinear.

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
PQ = 2a + 3b and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
QR = 4a + 6b

= 2(2a + 3b)

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
= 2PQ

Since ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and point Q is the common point, then points P, Q and R are collinear. (shown)
QR = 2PQ

Page 38 of 51
 By u/One_Wishbone_4439

Ratio of the area of three types of triangles

Similar triangles
P

Q R

S T
A1 l 2
= ( 1)
A2 l2

Area of ∆PQR QR 2
= ( ST )
Area of ∆PST

PQ 2
= ( PS )

PR 2
= (PT )

Triangles with common heights

Q R S
1
Area of ∆PQR 2×b1 ×h
=
Area of ∆PQS 1×b ×h
2 2

1
2
×QR×h
= 1
2
×QS×h

QR
= QS

Page 39 of 51
By u/One_Wishbone_4439

Overlapping triangles
P Q

S R
Area of ∆RST Area of ∆RST Area of ∆PSR
= ×
Area of ∆PQR Area of ∆PSR Area of ∆PQR

∆PSR is the common triangle between the two ratios of areas.

Page 40 of 51
By u/One_Wishbone_4439

Coordinate Cartesian plane: Consists of horizontal x-axis and vertical y-axis.

y

Second quadrant First quadrant

x
O

Third quadrant Fourth quadrant

(x1, y1)
y1

(x2, y2)
y2
x
O x1 x2
f(x) = y

General equation of a straight line: y = mx + c

where

m is gradient (rise/run),

c is the y-intercept,
y is the function, and

x is the points of the function y.

2
Length of a line from points (x2, y2) to (x1, y1): √(x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )

y −y
Gradient of line from points (x2, y2) to (x1, y1): x2 − x1 (rise/run)
2 1

Page 41 of 51
By u/One_Wishbone_4439

Facts about circles

radius
minor sector

centre

chord
minor sector

arc

➢ Centre: A point in the middle of the circle.

➢ Diameter: A line that touches two points on the circumference of a circle and
passing through the centre.
➢ Radius: A line that touches from the centre to one point on the circumference of a
circle. It is also half the length of a diameter.
➢ Minor sector: A small fraction that make up a circle including a centre and two
radii.
➢ Minor segment: A small fraction that make up a circle including a chord and an
arc.
➢ Chord: A line that touches two points on the circumference without passing
through the centre.
➢ Tangent: A line that touches the circle at only one point and is perpendicular to
the diameter.

Page 42 of 51
 By u/One_Wishbone_4439

Symmetric properties of circle

Perpendicular properties Equal length properties

Properties Property 1: Perpendicular Bisector of Chord Property 2: Equal Chords
of chords (abbreviation: ⟂ bisector of chord) (abbreviation: equal chords)
C

O O
D

A M B A M B

(i) OM ⟂ AB means OM bisects (i) Equal chords are equidistant from

chord AB. the centre of the circle, if AB =
(ii) The perpendicular bisector of a CD, then OP = OQ.
chord will pass through the (ii) If two chords are equidistant
centre of the centre of the circle. from the centre of the circle, then
they are equal (in length), if
OM = ON, then AB = CD.

Properties Property 3: Tangent Perpendicular to Radius Property 4: Tangents from External Point
of (abbreviation: tangent ⟂ radius) (abbreviation: tangents from ext. pt.)
tangents
B

O
O P

A M B A
The tangent to a circle is perpendicular to its (i) Tangents from an external point
radius at the point in contact, AB ⟂ OM. are equal.
(ii) OP bisects ∠APB and ∠AOB.

Page 43 of 51
 By u/One_Wishbone_4439

Angle properties of circle

Property 1: Angle at Centre

(abbreviation: ∠ at centre = 2 ∠ at circumference)
P

A B
OR

P
O

A B
∠AOB = 2 ∠APB

OR

A B
P

reflex ∠AOB = 2 ∠APB

An angle at the centre of the circle is twice that of any angle that lies at the circumference by the
same arc.

Page 44 of 51
 By u/One_Wishbone_4439

Property 2: Angle in Semicircle

(abbreviation: rt. ∠ in semicircle)

A O B

∠APB = 90°

An angle in a semicircle is always a right angle, provided there is a diameter, AOB.

Property 3: Angles in Same segment

(abbreviation: ∠s in same segment) Q

B
A

∠QPB = ∠QAB
∠PQA = ∠PBA

Note: Just remember it looks like a shape of a ‘butterfly’ or a ‘ribbon’. Angles in the same
segment are equal. All four sides must lie on the circumference of a circle.

Page 45 of 51
By u/One_Wishbone_4439

Property 4: Angles in Opposite Segments

(abbreviation: ∠s in opp. segments)
P

Q
O

∠APQ + ∠ABQ = 180°

∠BAP + ∠BQP = 180°

The angles facing opposite each other sum up to 180°.

Page 46 of 51
By u/One_Wishbone_4439

Statistic and probability

Pictogram/picture graph

A ☼☼☼☼☼
B ☼☼☼
C ☼☼☼☼☼☼
D ☼☼☼☼☼☼☼☼☼☼
Key: ☼ represents one like

Bar graph

14
12
12
Number of students

10 9

8 7

6
4
4

0
A B C D
Types of shirt

Line graph

Page 47 of 51
By u/One_Wishbone_4439

Pie Chart

Tally and frequency tables

Height (h cm) Tally Frequency

140 < h < 150 |||| 4
150 < h < 160 |||| |||| |||| 15
160 < h <170 |||| |||| |||| |||| | 21
170 < h < 180 |||| |||| |||| |||| |||| 38
|||| |||| |||
180 < h < 190 |||| |||| || 12

Histogram

50 46

40

30 27
Frequency
21
20 18

10 8

0
60 80 100 120 140 160
Mass (m g)

Page 48 of 51
 By u/One_Wishbone_4439

Dot diagram

0 1 2 3 4 5

Stem-leaf-stem diagram

Boys Girls

5 4 3 4 1 2 2 5

7 3 1 1 5 0 1 2 2 6
9 8 3 3 2 6 4 5
3
2 0 7 0

Key: 3 | 4 represents 43 kg Key: 4 | 1 represents 41 kg

Cumulative frequency graph

100

Upper quartile (75th percentile)

75
Cumulative frequency
Median (50th percentile)
50
Lower quartile (25th
percentile)
25

Page 49 of 51
By u/One_Wishbone_4439

Box-and-whisker diagram

Lower quartile Upper quartile

Lowest range Median Highest range

Mean: It is the average of a set of data. It is calculated by dividing the total by the number of
∑ fx
data. x̅= ∑f

Median: It is the middle position of a series of data.

Mode: It is about most frequency or is the value that happens the most.

Interquartile range: It is a measure of how the middle 50% of the data are spread around the
median. It is an appropriate measure of the spread of distribution when there are outliners.

Standard deviation: It is a measure of how the data are spread around the mean. It is an
appropriate measure of the spread of distribution when there are no outliners.

∑ x2
s.d. = √ n − x̅ 2

When the standard deviation or the interquartile range of A is higher than B, it means that
A is less consistent than B.

Page 50 of 51
By u/One_Wishbone_4439

Probability: It is simply how likely something or an event will happen.

1
For example, if we say that the likelihood of getting a head after tossing a coin once is 2,
1 1
meaning the chances of getting a tail will also be 1 – 2 = 2 or 50%.

number of outcomes
P(x) = total number of events

The probability of events that unlikely to happen, P′(x) = 1 – P(x).

Tree diagram: It helps to visualize the outcomes and how high or low the chances are.

Now, if there are 10 balls in a bag, and a red ball is chosen at random once, with replacement.
Given that there are 3 balls in the bag, what will be the possibility of getting a red ball?
3
P(red) = 10

However, if a red ball is chosen at random twice, without replacement, what will be the
probability of getting a red ball?
We draw a tree diagram for this problem.

Let R be red and NR be not red.

First ball Second ball Outcome

2 R
RR
9
R NR
3
R
10 NR R
7
9 NR
NR NR
1 R
3
7 NR
10

6 2
= NR
9 3

3 2 6 1
Hence, the probability of getting a red ball twice will be 10 × 9 = 90 = 15

Page 51 of 51