Lecture 2

Inductance, Capacitance,
and Mutual Inductance
Introduction
 An inductor is an electrical component
that opposes any change in electrical
current.
 It is composed of a coil of wire wound
around a supporting core whose material
may be magnetic or nonmagnetic.
 The behavior of inductors is based on
phenomena associated with magnetic
fields.
Introduction
 A capacitor is an electrical component
that consists of two conductors
separated by an insulator or dielectric
material.
 The capacitor is the only device other
than a battery that can store electrical
charge.
 The behavior of capacitors is based on
phenomena associated with electric
fields.
Introduction
 When two circuits are linked by a
magnetic field they are said to be
magnetically coupled.
 In this case, the voltage induced in the
second circuit can be related to the time-
varying current in the first circuit by a
parameter known as mutual inductance.
The Inductor
 Inductance is the circuit parameter used
to describe an inductor.
 Inductance is symbolized by the letter L,
is measured in henrys (H).
 Figure 1(a) shows an inductor.
 Assigning the reference direction of the
current in the direction of the voltage
drop across the terminals of the inductor,
as shown in Figure 1(b), yields
The Inductor

(1)

Figure 1

 Note from Equation 1 that the voltage

across the terminals of an inductor is
proportional to the time rate of change of
the current in the inductor.
The Inductor
 We can make two important observations.
 First, if the current is constant, the voltage
across the ideal inductor is zero. Thus the
inductor behaves as a short circuit in the
presence of a constant, or dc, current.
 Second, current cannot change
instantaneously in an inductor; that is, the
current cannot change by a finite amount
in zero time. Equation 1 tells us that this
change would require an infinite voltage.
The Inductor
 For example, when someone opens the
switch on an inductive circuit in an actual
system, the current initially continues to
flow in the air across the switch, a
phenomenon called arcing.
 The arc across the switch prevents the
current from dropping to zero
instantaneously.
Example
 The independent current
source in the circuit
shown generates zero
current for t < 0 and a
pulse 10te-5t A, for t > 0.
 a) Sketch the current Figure 2
waveform. b) At what
instant of time is the
current maximum?
Example
 c) Express the voltage across the terminals
of the 100 mH inductor as a function of time.
 d) Sketch the voltage waveform.
 e) Are the voltage and the current at a
maximum at the same time?
 f) At what instant of time does the voltage
change polarity?
 g) Is there ever an instantaneous change in
voltage across the inductor? If so, at what
time?
Solution
 a) Figure 3 shows the current waveform.

Figure 3

d) Figure 4 shows the voltage waveform.

Solution
 e) No; the voltage is proportional to di/dt,
not i.
 f) At 0.2 s, which corresponds to the
moment when di/dt is passing through
zero and changing sign.
 g) Yes, at t = 0.

Figure 4
Current in an Inductor in Terms of
the Voltage Across the Inductor
 Equation 1 expresses the voltage across
the terminals of an inductor as a function
of the current in the inductor.
 Also desirable is the ability to express
the current as a function of the voltage.
 To find i as a function of v, we start by
multiplying both sides of Equation 1 by a
differential time dt:
Current in an Inductor in Terms of
the Voltage Across the Inductor
(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)
Current in an Inductor in Terms of
the Voltage Across the Inductor
 Equations 1 and 5 both give the
relationship between the voltage and
current at the terminals of an inductor.
 In both equations the reference direction
for the current is in the direction of the
voltage drop across the terminals.
Power and Energy in the Inductor

 The power and energy relationships for an

inductor can be derived directly from the
current and voltage relationships.
 If the current reference is in the direction of
the voltage drop across the terminals of the
inductor, the power is
p = vi (7)
 If we express the inductor voltage as a
function of the inductor current, Equation 7
becomes
Power and Energy in the Inductor

(8)

 Multiplying both sides of Equation 8 by a

differential time gives the differential
relationship dw = Li di (9)
 Both sides of Equation 9 are integrated
with the understanding that the reference
for zero energy corresponds to zero
current in the inductor. Thus
(10)
The Capacitor

 The circuit parameter of capacitance is

represented by the letter C is measured in
farads (F), and is symbolized graphically by
two short parallel conductive plates, as
shown in Figure 5(a).
 Because the farad is an extremely large
quantity of capacitance, practical capacitor
values usually lie in the Pico farad (pF) to
micro farad (μF) range.
The Capacitor

 The current is
proportional to the
rate at which the
voltage across the
capacitor varies
with time, or,
mathematically.

(11)
Figure 5
The Capacitor
 Two important observations follow from
Equation 11.
 First, voltage cannot change
instantaneously across the terminals of a
capacitor. Such a change would produce
infinite current.
 Second, if the voltage across the
terminals is constant, the capacitor
current is zero.
The Capacitor
 Equation 11 gives the capacitor current
as a function of the capacitor voltage.
 Expressing the voltage as a function of
the current is also useful.
 To do so, we multiply both sides of
Equation 11 by a differential time dt and
then integrate the resulting differentials:
The Capacitor

(12)

 In many practical applications of

Equation 12, the initial time is zero; that
is, to = 0. Thus Equation 12 becomes

(13)
The Capacitor
 We can easily derive the power and
energy relationships for the capacitor.
 From the definition of power,

(14) (15)

 In the derivation of Equation 15, the

reference for zero energy corresponds to
zero voltage.
Example

 An uncharged 0.2 μF capacitor is driven

by a triangular current pulse. The current
pulse is described by
Example
 a) Derive the expressions for the
capacitor voltage, power, and energy for
each of the four time intervals needed to
describe the current.
 b) Plot i, v, p, and w versus t.
 c) Why does a voltage remain on the
capacitor after the current returns to
zero?
Solution
Solution
 Note that 5 V is the voltage on the
capacitor at the end of the preceding
interval. Then,
Solution

 b) The excitation current and the

resulting voltage, power, and energy are
plotted in Figure 6.
Solution

Figure 6
Solution
 c) Note that the power is always positive for
the duration of the current pulse, which
means that energy is continuously being
stored in the capacitor.
 When the current returns to zero, the
stored energy is trapped because the ideal
capacitor offers no means for dissipating
energy.
 Thus a voltage remains on the capacitor
after i returns to zero.
Series-Parallel Combinations
of Inductance and Capacitance
 Just as series-parallel combinations of
resistors can be reduced to a single
equivalent resistor, series-parallel
combinations of inductors or capacitors
can be reduced to a single inductor or
capacitor.
 For n inductors in series,

(16)
Series-Parallel Combinations
of Inductance and Capacitance
 For n inductors in parallel,
(17)

 For n capacitors in series,

(18)

 For n capacitors in parallel,

(19)
Mutual Inductance
 We now consider the situation in which two
circuits are linked by a magnetic field. In this
case, the voltage induced in the second
circuit can be related to the time-varying
current in the first circuit by a parameter
known as mutual inductance.
 The circuit shown in Figure 7 represents two
magnetically coupled coils.
 The self-inductances of the two coils are
 labeled L1 and L2, and the mutual inductance
is labeled M.
Mutual Inductance

Figure 7

 The double headed arrow adjacent to M

indicates the pair of coils with this value of
mutual inductance.
 This notation is needed particularly in circuits
containing more than one pair of magnetically
coupled coils.
Mutual Inductance
 The easiest way to analyze circuits containing
mutual inductance is to use mesh currents.
 The problem is to write the circuit equations
that describe the circuit in terms of the coil
currents.
 First, choose the reference direction for each
coil current. Figure 8 shows arbitrarily
selected reference currents.
 After choosing the reference directions for i1,
and i2, sum the voltages around each closed
path.
Mutual Inductance

Figure 8

 Because of the mutual inductance

M, there will be two voltages across
each coil, namely, a self-induced
voltage and a mutually induced
voltage.
Mutual Inductance
 The self induced voltage is the product
of the self-inductance of the coil and the
first derivative of the current in that coil.
 The mutually induced voltage is the
product of the mutual inductance of the
coils and the first derivative of the
current in the other coil.
 Consider the coil on the left in Figure 8
whose self-inductance has the value L1.
Mutual Inductance
 The self-induced voltage across this coil
is L1(di1/dt) and the mutually induced
voltage across this coil is M(di2/dt).
 But what about the polarities of these
two voltages?
 Using the passive sign convention, the
self-induced voltage is a voltage drop in
the direction of the current producing the
voltage.
Mutual Inductance
 But the polarity of the mutually induced
voltage depends on the way the coils are
wound in relation to the reference direction of
coil currents.
 We keep track of the polarities by a method
known as the dot convention, in which a dot
is placed on one terminal of each winding, as
shown in Figure 9. These dots carry the sign
information and allow us to draw the coils
schematically rather than showing how they
wrap around a core structure.
Mutual Inductance

Figure 9

 The rule for using the dot convention to

determine the polarity of mutually induced
voltage can be summarized as follows: When
the reference direction for a current enters the
dotted terminal of a coil, the reference polarity
of the voltage that it induces in the other coil is
positive at its dotted terminal.
Mutual Inductance
 In Figure 9, the dot convention rule
indicates that the reference polarity for
the voltage induced in coil 1 by the
current i2 is negative at the dotted
terminal of coil 1.
 This voltage (Mdi2/dt) is a voltage rise
with respect to i1. The voltage induced in
coil 2 by the current i1 is Mdi1/dt, and its
reference polarity is positive at the
dotted terminal of coil 2.
Mutual Inductance
 This voltage is a voltage rise in the
direction of i2.
 Figure 10 shows the self- and mutually
induced voltages across coils 1 and 2
along with their polarity marks.

Figure 10
Mutual Inductance

 Mesh equations for the circuit in Figure

10 are:
The Procedure for Determining
Dot Markings
 The following six steps, applied here to
Figure 11, determine a set of dot markings
1. Arbitrarily select one terminal – say, the D
terminal – of one coil and mark it with a dot.
2. Assign a current into the dotted terminal
and label it iD.
3. Use the right-hand rule to determine the
direction of the magnetic field established
by iD inside the coupled coils and label this
field ΦD.
The Procedure for Determining
Dot Markings
4. Arbitrarilypick one terminal of the second coil
– say, terminal A – and assign a current into
this terminal, showing the current as iA.
5. Use the right-hand rule to determine the
direction of the flux established by iA inside
the coupled coils and label this flux ΦA.
6. Compare the directions of the two fluxes ΦD
and ΦA. If the fluxes have the same reference
direction, place a dot on the terminal of the
second coil where the test current (iA) enters.
The Procedure for Determining
Dot Markings

Figure 11
The Procedure for Determining
Dot Markings
 In Figure 11, the fluxes ΦD and ΦA have
the same reference direction, and
therefore a dot goes on terminal A.
 If the fluxes have different reference
directions, place a dot on the terminal of
the second coil where the test current
leaves.