Issued under the authority of the Home Office

[Fire and Emergency Planning Directorate)

Fire Service Manual

Volume 2
Operational

Firefighting Foam

HM Fire Service Inspectorate Publications Section

London: The Stationery Office
© Crown Copyright 1998
Published with the permission of the Home Office
on behalf of the Controller of Her Majesty's Stationery Office

Applications for reproduction should be made in

writing to The Copyright Unit, Her Majesty's Stationery Office,
St. Clements House. 2-16 Colegate, Norwich. NR3 1BQ

ISBNO 11 341186 3

Cover photograph:
Northern Ireland Fire Brigade
Half-title page photograph:
Northern Ireland Fire Brigade

Printed in the United Kingdom for The Stationery Office

J67054 12/98 C50 5673
Firefightin
g Foam

Preface

This manual. Volume 2, Fire Service Operations -

Firefighting Foam, deals with the production of
foam, categories of fires and foams, application
rates and the operational use of foam. Specific
practical scenarios are also discussed.

A second manual is also to be provided under

Volume 1. Fire Service Technology. Equipment
and Media. This will deal with the technical
aspects of foam concentrates, standards and
equipment.

These books will replace:

The Manual of Firemanship Book 3. Part 3

Dear Chief Officer Letter 2/97 - Foam

Application Rates.

The Home Office is indebted to all those who have

helped in the preparation of this work, in particular:

Mr Bryan Johnson BSc;

Home Office Fire Experimental Unit:
S.D.O. M. George, Mid and West Wales
Fire Brigade;
Angus Fire Armour Ltd;
Williams Fire and Hazard Control Inc.;
Civil Aviation Authority;
British Fire Protection Association Ltd;
Cheshire Fire Brigade;
London Fire Brigade;
Fire Service College; and
Dr Tony Cash.

Home Office, September 1998

Firefighting Foam 111

Firefighting Foam

Contents
Preface iii
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
Chapter 2 Production of Finished Foam 3
2.1 General 3
2.2 Percentage Concentration 4
2.3 Aspiration 4
2.4 Foam Expansion Ratios 5

Chapter 3 Categories of Fire and Firefighting Foams 9

3.1 Classes of Fire 9
3.2 Electrical Fires 13
3.3 Types of Liquid Fuel Fire 13

Chapter 4 Recommended Minimum Application Rates 17

4.1 General 17
4.2 Fires Involving Water-immiscible Class B Liquids 17
4.3 Fires Involving Water-miscible Class B Liquids 17

Chapter 5 Operational Use of Foam on Class B Liquid Fuels 21

5.1 General 21
5.2 Low Expansion Foam 22
5.3 Medium Expansion Foam 28
5.4 High Expansion Foam 29

Chapter 6 Practical Scenarios 35

6.1 General 35
6.2 Preplanning 35
6.3 Scenarios 35

Chapter 7 Storage Tank Fires 49

7.1 Introduction 49
7.2 Common Problems With Refineries and Storage Tank Farms 49
7.3 Tank Size 50
7.4 Fire Development 50
7.5 Practical Scenarios 52

Previous page
is blank Firefighting Foam V
Chapter 8 Logistics of Dealing With Large Storage Tank Fires 65
5.1 Introduction 65
8.2 Conventional Fire Attack 65
8.3 Technical Options 74

References 87

Further Reading 87

Glossary of Terms - Firefighting Foams 89

VI Fire Service Manual

Firefighting Foam Chapter

1
Chapter 1 - Introduction

Firefighting foams have been developed primarily leads to the complete destruction of the foam
to deal with the hazards posed by liquid fuel blanket. Consequently, special firefighting foams,
fires. generally known as "alcohol resistant' foam con-
centrates, have been developed to deal with these
Water is used for most firefighting incidents, particular types of liquid.
however it is generally ineffective against fires
involving flammable liquids. This is because Some firefighting foams have also been developed
water has a density that is greater than most flam- specifically for use against class A fires.
mable liquids so, when applied, it quickly sinks
below their surfaces, often without having any The main properties of firefighting foams include:
significant effect on the fire. However, when
some burning liquids, such as heavy fuel oils and l Expansion: the amount of finished foam
crude oils, become extremely hot, any water that produced from a foam solution when it is
is applied will begin to boil. The resulting rapid passed through foam-making equipment.
expansion as the water converts to steam may
cause burning fuel to overflow its containment l Stability: the ability of the finished foam to
and the fire to spread - this event is known as a retain its liquid content and to maintain the
slop-over. Also, the water that sinks below the number, size and shape of its bubbles. In
fuel will collect in the container and. should the other words, its ability to remain intact.
container become full, this will result in the fuel
overflowing. l Fluidity: the ability of the finished foam to
be projected on to, and to flow across, the
Finished firefighting foams, on the other hand, liquid to be extinguished and/or protected.
consist of bubbles that are produced from a com-
bination of a solution of firefighting foam concen- l Contamination resistance: the ability of the
trate and water that has then been mixed with air. finished foam to resist contamination by the
These air filled bubbles form a blanket that floats liquid to which it is applied.
on the surface of flammable liquids. In so doing,
the foam suffocates the fire and can lead to the l Sealing and resealing: the ability of the
knockdown and extinction of the flames. foam blanket to reseal should breaks occur
and its ability to seal against hot and irregu-
The low density of firefighting foam blankets also lar shaped objects.
makes them useful for suppressing the release of
vapour from flammable and other liquids. Special l Knockdown and extinction: the ability of
foam concentrates are available which allow the finished foam to control and extinguish
vapour suppression of many toxic chemicals. fires.

Water-miscible liquids, such as some polar sol- l Burn-back resistance: the ability of the fin-
vents, can pose additional problems for firefight- ished foam, once formed on the fuel, to
ers. These quickly attack finished foams by stay intact when subjected to heat and/or
extracting the water they contain. This rapidly flame.

Firefighting Foam 1
The performance of firefighting foams can be It must be stressed that this Manual only gives
greatly influenced by: general information on the use of firefighting
foams. Incidents requiring the use of foam are
The type of foam-making equipment used varied and preplanning in support of an effec-
and the way it is operated and maintained. tive risk assessment at the commencement of an
incident is of the utmost importance to ensure
The type of foam concentrate used. that the correct foams, equipment and tactics
are selected and employed.
The type of fire and the fuel involved.

The tactics of foam application.

The rate at which the foam is applied.

The quality of the water used.

The length of pre-burn.

The most effective and efficient use of firefighting

foam can only be achieved after full consideration
has been given to all of the above factors.

This Volume of the Manual describes all aspects of

the operational use of firefighting foam and in par-
ticular its use against class B liquid fuel fires.
Topics covered include recommended minimum
application rates and application techniques; prac-
tical scenario considerations; and the logistics
involved in dealing with fires in storage tanks.

The section on firefighting foams in Volume 1 of

the Manual describes the technical aspects of fire-
fighting foam and discusses the types of equip-
ment typically used by the fire service to produce
it. Topics covered include the properties of foam
concentrates, finished foams and foam equipment;
application rates; and the classes of, and types of,
fire for which foam can be used. However, the
more important operational aspects included in
Volume I are also summarised in Chapters 2. 3 and
4 of this Volume. At the rear of this Volume, there
is a glossary of terms used in this Manual and
other terms that may be used in connection with
firefighting foams.

2 Fire Service Manual

Firefighting Foam Chapter

2
Chapter 2 - Production of Finished Foam

2.1 General fitted with a means of picking up foam concen-

trate at the equipment; these are known as 'self-
Finished foam is produced from three main ingre- inducing' with the mixing taking place in the
dients; foam concentrate, water and air. There are foam-making equipment itself.
usually two stages in its production. The first
stage is to mix foam concentrate with water to The second stage is the addition of air to the foam
produce a foam solution. The foam concentrate solution to make bubbles (aspiration) to produce
must be mixed into the water in the correct pro- the finished foam. The amount of air added
portions (usually expressed as a percentage) in depends on the type of equipment used. Hand-held
order to ensure optimum foam production and foam-making branches generally only mix rela-
firefighting performance. This proportioning is tively small amounts of air into the foam solution.
normally carried out by the use of inductors (or Consequently, these produce finished foam with
proportioners) or other similar equipment. This low expansion (LX) ratios, that is to say, the ratio
results in the production of a 'premix' foam solu- of the volume of the finished foam produced by the
tion. In other words, the foam concentrate and nozzle, to the volume of the foam solution used to
water have been mixed together prior to arriving produce it, is 20:1 or less. Other equipment is
at the foam-making equipment. Occasionally, pre- available which can produce medium expansion
mix solutions are produced by mixing the correct foam (MX) with expansion ratios of more than
proportions of water and foam concentrate in a 20:1 but less than 200:1, and high expansion foam
container, such as an appliance tank, prior to (HX) with expansion ratios of more than 200:1 and
pumping to the foam-making equipment. In addi- possibly in excess of 1000:1.
tion, some types of foam-making equipment are

Figure 2.1 The

production of finished
foam

Firefighting Foam 3
The following Sections describe in more detail
some of the important factors of foam production
that were introduced above.

2.2 Percentage Concentration

All foams are usually supplied as liquid concen-
trates. These must be mixed with water, to form a
foam solution, before they can be applied to fires.
They are generally supplied by manufacturers as
either 6%, 3% or 1% foam concentrates. These
have been designed to be mixed with water as
Figure 2.2 6% Foam Concentrate 94% Water
follows:

6% concentrates
6 parts foam concentrate in 94 parts water,

3% concentrates a foam solution rich in foam concentrate. Not only

3 parts foam concentrate in 97 parts water, will this result in the foam supply being depleted
very quickly and an expensive waste of foam con-
1% concentrates centrate, but it will also lead to finished foam with
1 part foam concentrate in 99 parts water. less than optimum firefighting performance, main-
ly due to the foam being too stiff to flow ade-
1% concentrate is basically six times as strong as quately. Alternatively, using 3% foam concentrate
6% concentrate, and 3% concentrate is twice as where the system is set for 1% will result in a solu-
strong as 6% concentrate. However, the firefight- tion with too little concentrate to make foam with
ing characteristics of finished foam produced from adequate firefighting performance.
1%, 3% and 6% concentrates of a particular type
of manufacturer's foam should be virtually identi- It is also very important to have compatibility of
cal. foam-making equipment and induction equipment,
and just as importantly, foam induction equipment
The lower the percentage concentration, the less must be checked regularly to ensure that it is oper-
foam concentrate that is required to make finished ating correctly and giving an accurate rate of
foam. The use of say 3% foam concentrate instead induction.
of 6% foam concentrate can result in a halving of
the amount of storage space required for the foam 2.3 Aspiration
concentrate, with similar reductions in weight and
transportation costs, while maintaining the same Once the correctly mixed foam solution has been
firefighting capability. Not all foam concentrates delivered to the end of a hose line, there are a num-
are available in the highly concentrated 1% form, ber of forms in which it can be applied to the fire.
e.g. alcohol resistant and protein based foam con- Generally, foam application is referred to as being
centrates. This is because there are technical limits either 'aspirated' or "non-aspirated":
to the maximum usage concentrations of some of
the constituents of foam concentrates. Aspirated foam is made when the foam
solution is passed through purpose designed
It is extremely important that the foam induction foam-making equipment, such as a foam-
equipment used is set to the correct percentage. If making branch. These mix in air (aspirate)
3% concentrate is induced by an induction system and then agitate the mixture sufficiently to
set for 6% concentrate, then twice the correct produce uniformly sized bubbles (finished
amount of foam concentrate will be used creating foam).

4 Fire Service Manual

 'Non-aspirated' implies that no aspiration such as wetting agents, may be formulated so that
of the foam solution has taken place. they do not foam: use of these types of additive
would result in non-aspirated application, even
Consequently, the term 'non-aspirated foam' is through purpose designed foam-making equipment.
often used incorrectly to describe the product of a
foam solution that has been passed through equip- 2.4 Foam Expansion Ratios
ment that has not been specifically designed to
produce foam, such as a water branch. However, (a) General
the use of this type of equipment will often result
in some aspiration of a foam solution. This is As mentioned previously, finished foam is usually
because air is usually entrained into the jet or spray classified as being either low. medium or high
of foam solution: expansion. The expansion, or more strictly the
expansion ratio, of a foam is the ratio of the vol-
As it leaves the branch. ume of the finished foam to the volume of the
foam solution used to produce it.
As it travels through the air due to the tur-
bulence produced by the stream. Typical firefighting foam expansion ratio ranges

When it strikes an object. This causes fur-

ther turbulence and air mixing. l Low expansion less than or equal
to 20:1
There is sufficient air entrained by these processes l Medium expansion greater than 20:1
to produce a foam of very low expansion (often but less than or
with an expansion ratio of less than 4:1). equal to 200:1
l High expansion greater than 200:1
To more accurately describe the different types of
finished foam produced, the terms 'primary' or Secondary aspirated foams generally have an
'secondary' aspirated are preferred: expansion ratio of less than 4:1.

Primary aspirated foam - finished foam (b) Equipment Used For Generating
that is produced by purpose designed foam- Different Expansion Ratio Foams
making equipment.
Primary aspirated low expansion foams are usual-
Secondary aspirated foam - finished foam ly produced by using purpose designed foam-mak-
that is produced by all other means, usually ing branches or mechanical generators.
standard water devices.
Secondary aspirated low expansion foams are usu-
Secondary aspiration will normally result in a poor ally produced by using standard water delivery
quality foam being produced, due to insufficient devices. Some purpose designed large capacity
agitation of the foam/air mixture. That is to say, the monitors have also been produced for this particu-
foam will generally have a very low expansion lar type of application (see Chapter 8, Section 3).
ratio and a very short drainage time. However,
foam blankets with short drainage times can be Medium and high expansion foams are usually pri-
advantageous if rapid film-formation on a fuel is mary aspirated through special foam-making
required (see this Chapter, Section 4c). equipment. This equipment produces foam by
spraying the foam solution on to a mesh screen or
It is highly unlikely that a foam solution can be net. Air is then blown through the net or mesh
applied operationally to a fire in such a way that no either by entrainment caused by the spray nozzle,
aspiration occurs. However, should such circum- or by an hydraulic, electric or petrol motor driven
stances occur, then this would be referred to as a fan.
non-aspirated application. Some water additives.

Firefighting Foam 5
 Figure 2.3
Diagrammatic
illustration of
expansion of different
foam types.

(c) Foam Concentrates Primary Aspirated Finished Foams

The amount that a foam solution can be aspirated Low expansion

not only depends on the equipment, but also on the Large flammable liquid fires (i.e. storage
foam concentrate that is used. For instance, syn- tanks, tank bunds)
thetic detergent (SYNDET) foam concentrates are Road traffic accidents
the only type that can be used to produce low, Flammable liquid spill fires
medium and high expansion foams; protein foam Vapour suppression
concentrates can only be used to produce low Helidecks
expansion foam and the remaining commonly used Jetties
foam concentrates (i.e. AFFF, AFFF-AR, FP, FFFP Aircraft crash rescue
and FFFP-AR), are mostly intended for use at low Portable fire extinguishers
expansion, although they can also be used to pro-
duce medium expansion foam. Medium expansion
Vapour suppression
For flammable liquid fuel fires, effective sec- Flammable liquid storage tank bunds
ondary aspirated foam can only be produced using Small cable ducts
a film-forming foam concentrate. Small fires involving flammable liquids,
such as those following road traffic
(d) Typical Uses and Properties of Low, accidents
Medium and High Expansion Transformer protection
Finished Foams
High expansion
The various expansion ratios are typically used for Knockdown and extinction in, and
the following applications: protection of, large volumes such as

6 Fire Service Manual

 warehouses, aircraft hangars, cellars, such as aircraft crash rescue. However, the foam
ships holds, mine shafts, etc. blanket tends to collapse quickly, so providing
Large cable ducts very poor security and resistance to burnback.
Vapour suppression (including cryogenic
liquids such as LNG/LPG) Secondary aspirated foam can be thrown over a
greater distance than is possible with primary aspi-
Secondary Aspirated Finished Foams rated low expansion foam. This has resulted in
equipment being designed specifically to project
Large flammable liquid fires (i.e. storage tanks, secondary aspirated foam into large storage tank
tank bunds) fires (see Chapter 5, Section 2b) (iv) and Chapter
Helidecks 8. Section 3). Manufacturers of this equipment rec-
Aircraft crash rescue ommend the use of film-forming foam concentrate
Portable fire extinguishers types for such applications. They claim that the
finished foam produced usually has an expansion
Low expansion finished foams can be projected ratio of less than 4:1.
over reasonably long distances and heights
making them suitable in many situations for use
against fires in large storage tanks.

Medium expansion finished foam can only be

projected over small distances. However, with
expansions of between 20 and 200, large quantities
of foam are produced from relatively small quanti-
ties of foam solution. This, combined with its abil-
ity to flow relatively easily, makes medium expan-
sion foam ideal for covering large areas quickly.

High expansion finished foam flows directly out

of the foam-making equipment and is not project-
ed any appreciable distance. Its coverage of large
areas can also be slow but the immense quantity of
foam produced (expansion ratios are sometimes in
excess of 1000:1) can quickly fill large enclosures.
Often, flexible ducting is required to transport the
foam to the fire. Due to its volume and lightness,
high expansion foam is more likely than low and
medium expansion foam to break up in moderate-
ly strong wind conditions (Reference 1).

The equipment used to produce secondary aspirat-

ed foam is often standard water type branches and
nozzles although there are some specifically
designed nozzles available. The foam produced in
this way is not well worked, has a very low expan-
sion ratio and short drainage time, and tends to be
very fluid. These properties, combined with the
film-forming nature of the foam concentrates used,
can result in a finished foam blanket that can
quickly knockdown and extinguish fires of some
liquid hydrocarbon fuels. This ability can make
them ideal for use in certain firefighting situations

Firefighting Foam 7
 Secondary
Aspirated
Finished Foams

Figure 2.4
Low expansion.
Typical Effective
Projection: 21 metres

Figure 2.5
Medium expansion.
Typical Effective
Projection: 14 metres

Figure 2.6
High expansion.
Minimal Projection.
(Photos: Mid and West Wales
Fire Brigade)

8 Fire Service Manual

Firefighting Foam Chapter

3
Chapter 3 - Categories of Fire and
Firefighting Foam
3.1 Classes of Fire wetting agent that reduces the surface tension of
water is claimed to greatly improve penetration to
In the UK the standard classification of fire types the seat of these types of fire. When a wetting
is defined in BS EN 2 : 1992 as follows: agent is employed, a deep seated fire is predomi-
nantly extinguished by the cooling effect of the
Class A: fires involving solid materials, usually water mix rather than by the smothering effect of
of an organic nature, in which combus- any foam that may be produced.
tion normally takes place with the for-
mation of glowing embers. Surfactant based foams display some wetting
Class B: fires involving liquids or liquefiable agent properties, but are more expensive than
solids. products sold purely for their wetting agent char-
acteristics. From time to time, a few brigades take
Class C: fires involving gases. advantage of these wetting agent properties by
Class D: fires involving metals. using AFFF not only for class B fires (see (b)
below), but also, they claim, to make better use of
Electrical fires are not included in this system of limited water supplies on Class A fires. It is
classification (see this Chapter, Section 2). claimed that the increased cost in agent is often
justified by reduced water damage to the property.
In the following Sections, the general principles of
extinguishment, particularly in relation to fire- Tests have indicated that in some circumstances
fighting foams, are reviewed for each of the above the addition of some foam concentrates to water
classes of fire. can help in reducing the seventy of a Class A fire
when compared to the use of water alone
(a) Class A fires (Reference 2). In particular, when applied by spray
to wooden crib fires, secondary aspirated AFFF,
Class A fires are those which involve solid materi- and to a slightly lesser extent, FFFP, AFFF-AR and
als usually of an organic nature such as wood, SYNDET, performed significantly better than
cloth, paper, rubber and many plastics. water. Several wetting agents were also tested but
they did not perform much better than water. These
Some manufacturers of AFFF, AFFF-AR. FFFP, results seem to indicate that wetting properties
FFFP-AR and SYNDET foams state that their may not alone quickly and effectively deal with
products may be used as wetting agents at between Class A fires involving wood. The smothering
0.1% and 3% concentration to assist in the extinc- characteristics of the foams may also be helping.
tion of class A fires. For these fires, AFFF, AFFF- (In fact, this is the principle under which American
AR, FFFP and FFFP-AR may be used at low and 'Class A' foams have been developed).
medium expansion while SYNDET foams may be
used at low. medium or high expansion. During these tests, because of the size and shape of
the fires, some areas of the cribs were not ade-
There are said to be advantages in the use of wet- quately reached by the spray. Consequently, tests
ting agents when fires become deep seated. In were also performed using jet applications of
these conditions, water can be slow to penetrate. A water, primary aspirated AFFF and secondary

Firefighting Foam 9
aspirated AFFF. There was little difference in the combustible liquids). Combustion of these occurs
firefighting performances of these indicating that entirely in the vapour that is present above the sur-
if adequate amounts of water can be applied to all face of the liquid. For firefighting purposes. Class
areas of a wood fire, it will perform just as well as B liquids can be subdivided into three categories,
a primary aspirated or secondary aspirated foam each requiring different properties from firefight-
when used in the same conditions. ing foams in order to achieve effective and effi-
cient fire control and extinction.
Medium and high expansion foam have been
advocated for indoor use on class A fires. The con- The categories are:
finement provided by the walls of buildings allows
the foam to accumulate into a thick blanket and high flash point water-immiscible Class B
also protects the foam from being torn apart by liquids;
wind. The mechanism put forward for extinguish-
ment is that the foam cuts down the movement of low flash point water-immiscible Class B
air which supports combustion. There is a cooling liquids;
effect as water from the foam evaporates, and the
steam generated will also tend to reduce the oxy- water-miscible Class B liquids;
gen level in the air surrounding the fire. If the foam
blanket is deep enough, it will exert enough down- Some high flash point liquid hydrocarbon fires,
ward pressure to enable it to refill holes opened up such as those involving fuel oils, can, under very
when the foam is destroyed by the heat from the controlled conditions, be extinguished using only
fire. Materials and structural members that would the cooling effect of water.
otherwise be exposed are shielded from heat radi-
ation by the foam. However, most low flash point hydrocarbon fires,
such as those involving petrol, cannot be extin-
Although high expansion foam can be effective, guished by water alone as the fuel cannot be low-
the main practical drawback is that firefighters ered to a temperature where the quantity of vapour
cannot be sure that the fire has been extinguished produced is too small to sustain burning. In addi-
(see Chapter 5, Section 4). It can be dangerous to tion, water is generally much denser than liquid
enter a deep foam blanket to track down the seat of hydrocarbons, consequently, when applied during
a fire since there is a chance of sudden exposure to firefighting. it immediately sinks below their sur-
heat and products of combustion. Under some faces without having any beneficial effect, in fire-
conditions, the fire can continue to burn for a con- fighting terms, on the fire. In fact, the application
siderable period at a reduced rate supported by the of water may cause the surface area of the fire to
air released from the foam as it breaks down. increase and spread to previously unaffected areas.

The use of medium expansion foam against indoor Foam is generally applied to both high and low
class A fires, such as in warehouses, could be a flash point hydrocarbon fuel fires because it pro-
more effective and efficient use of foam. It should vides a visible blanket which controls and extin-
be possible to restrict the foam application so that guishes these fires faster and more effectively than
the area of origin of the fire is kept under observa- water.
tion whilst maintaining sufficient foam flow to
force the foam onto the fire. The three categories of Class B liquids and their
firefighting characteristics are described in the fol-
(b) Class B Fires lowing Sections.

(i) General (ii) High Flash Point Water-immiscihle

Class B Liquids
Class B fires are those which involve flammable
liquids, liquefiable solids, oils, greases, tars, oil Water-immiscible liquids with high flash points, or
based paints and lacquers (i.e. flammable and class C petroleum liquids, are those with a flash

10 Fire Service Manual

point above 55°C such as gas oils, some diesel oils, Firefighting foams are effective on low flash point
heavy fuel oils and heavy lubricating oils. At nor- liquids because they trap the vapour at, or just
mal ambient temperatures these liquids have low above, the liquid surface. The trapped vapour then
vapour pressures and so do not generate flamma- sets up an equilibrium with the liquid which pre-
ble concentrations of vapour. vents further vapour generation. Where deep foam
blankets can be formed, such as in storage tanks
Water spray can be used to extinguish fires in high with a large ullage, this process may be assisted by
flash point liquids since the cooling effect of water the increased pressure exerted by the heavier blan-
is sufficient to reduce the generation of vapour to ket. Film-forming foams produce a thin film on the
below the concentration needed to sustain com- surface of some of these class B liquids which may
bustion. also prevent vapour escaping.

Firefighting foams are very effective against this Additional benefits of using firefighting foams on
type of fire giving very rapid control and security these liquids are that they cool the liquid surface,
against reignition. however, use of water spray can reduce the vapour generation rate, obstruct radia-
be perfectly satisfactory and far less expensive in tion from the flame to the liquid surface and reduce
many cases. the oxygen level, by the production of steam, where
the foam, flame and liquid surface meet.
The primary mechanisms by which foams extin-
guish high flash point liquid fires is by cooling the Lead, as lead tetra-ethyl (or lead tetra-methyl) has
liquid surface and cutting out back radiation from been used for more than 60 years to improve the
the flames. The smothering action of foam plays a performance (octane rating) of the hydrocarbon
relatively insignificant role. mixtures that constitute petrol. However, since
1974, health and environmental concerns have
(iii) Low Flash Point Water-immiscible
Class B Liquids

Water-immiscible liquids with low flash points, or

class A and B petroleum liquids, have flash points
below 21°C and 55°C respectively. These include
class A petroleum liquids such as aviation gaso-
line, benzene, crude oil, hexane, toluene and petrol
(including lead-free), and class B petroleum liq-
uids such as avtur jet fuel and white spirit.

Spills or pools of low flash point liquids can pro-

duce flammable vapour under normal ambient
temperatures, and flammable or explosive concen-
trations can accumulate at low level, since most of
the vapour will be heavier than air.

Water sprays are unsuccessful in extinguishing

fires in low flash point liquids because vapour gen-
eration is not sufficiently reduced by the degree of
cooling achieved. However, considerable reduc-
tions in flame height and radiation intensity can be
achieved with water spray application. Obviously,
care should be taken to ensure that the fuel does
not overflow any containment. Where the fuel is
not contained, the application of water will result Figure .3. 1 Large scale test in progress.
in further fuel and fire spread. (Photo: Fire Experimental Unit)

Firefighting Foam 11
resulted in the progressive reduction in the In recent years liquefied flammable gases have
amounts of lead in petrol. This reduction of the become an increasingly important source of fuel in
lead content has led to the use of oxygenates, for commerce and industry. Increased use brings
example ethers and alcohols, as alternative octane increased transportation of these liquids through-
improvers. Oxygenates are only used in either out the country by road, rail, and in UK coastal
leaded or lead-free fuels when the octane rating waters, which in turn increases the possibility of
cannot be achieved cost effectively by refinery accidental spillage. The product group includes
processes. LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas, usually propane
or butane) liquid ethylene and LNG (Liquefied
Large scale fire tests have been carried out in the Natural Gas, i.e. methane).
UK to establish whether lead-free petrol, conform-
ing with current British and European standards, Boiling points for these liquefied gases are low
would present any problems to the fire service and so in the event of spillage, rapid vapour pro-
using their standard low expansion foam equip- duction occurs. Due to the greater amounts of
ment and techniques (Reference 3). The results vapour produced and the low buoyancy of cold
showed that providing brigades follow the Home vapour, the dispersal of this vapour is more prob-
Office recommended minimum application rates lematical than from spilled flammable liquids such
(see Chapter 4), no problems would be expected as petrol. In still air conditions, and where the
when using good quality AFFF or FFFP against ground is sloped or channelled, this vapour can
petrol formulations permitted by current and like- travel long distances from its source. Liquefied gas
ly future standards. However, FP gave poor extinc- vapour has been known to travel 1,500 metres
tion performances against lead-free petrols con- from a spilled pool of liquid whilst retaining a con-
taining oxygenates although its burnback perfor- centration above the lower flammability limit.
mances were better than either AFFF or FFFP.
Medium and high expansion foams are suitable for
(iv) Water-miscible Class B Liquids liquefied gas spills both for fire extinguishment
and vapour suppression. The surface of the foam in
Polar solvents and hydrocarbon liquids that are contact with the liquid forms an icy slush which
soluble in water (water-miscible) can dissolve nor- insulates and protects the upper layers of foam,
mal firefighting foams. Such liquids include some and which in turn acts by reducing the evaporation
petrol/alcohol mixtures (see above), methyl and rate from the liquid. A further important advantage
ethyl alcohol, acrylonitrile, ethyl acetate, methyl is the relatively low amount of heat transmitted to
ethyl ketone, acetone, butyl alcohol, isopropyl the liquid by water draining from medium and
ether, isopropyl alcohol and many others. high expansion foams.

Water-miscible class B liquids, such as some polar Low expansion foam is not suitable since it
solvents, require the use of alcohol resistant type increases the rate of evaporation from the liquid.
foam concentrates for firefighting and for vapour For a liquefied gas spillage any reduction in the
suppression. These foams form a polymer mem- rate of evaporation of the liquid is beneficial in
brane between the water-miscible and the foam that it limits the size of the flammable (or explo-
blanket which virtually stops the destruction of the sive) cloud generated and hence reduces the possi-
foam and allows vapour suppression and cooling bility of ignition.
to continue. Alcohol resistant foam concentrates
lose effectiveness unless they are applied gently to (d) Class D Fires
the surface of polar liquids, avoiding plunging (see
Chapter 5. Section 2). Class D fires are those which involve combustible
metals such as magnesium, titanium, zirconium,
(c) Class C Fires sodium, potassium and lithium. Firefighting foams
should not be used with water reactive metals such
Class C fires are those involving gases or liquefied as sodium and potassium, nor with other water
gases. reactive chemicals such as triethyl aluminium and

12 Fire Service Manual

phosphorous pentoxide. Other metal fires are treat- B or class C fires. Firefighters often refer to spill
ed as class A fires, but in general the use of media fires, pool fires and running fires and the variations
other than foam or water is found to be more suit- in firefighting technique required to tackle each.
able. This Section describes these types of fire and how
their characteristics can affect the approach to fire-
3.2 Electrical Fires fighting.

Firefighting foams are unsuitable for use on fires These descriptions relate to ideal conditions which
involving energised electrical equipment. Other in practice are unlikely to occur exactly as
extinguishing media are available. Fires in de- described and in some situations, such as incidents
energised electrical equipment are treated as either involving aircraft, more than one of these situa-
class A or B as appropriate (see this Chapter, tions may occur simultaneously. Even so, they
Section 1). illustrate the principles involved.

3.3 Types of Liquid Fuel Fire (b) Spill Fires

(a) General Spill fires occur in unconfined areas of flammable,

or combustible liquids with an average depth of
The classes of fire discussed in the previous around 25mm or less. There is often variation in
Section have a strong bearing on the tactics and the depth of the spill due to unevenness of the sur-
techniques of using firefighting foam. However, face on which the liquid stands. Because it is
the size, shape and general appearance of a fire is unconfined, a spill fire may cover a very large
also of particular importance when tackling class area.

Figure 3.2 Foam in use following de-energising of transformer. (Note position of sand to contain spillage.)
(Photo: Northern Ireland Fire Brigade)

Firefighting Foam I 3
The main characteristic of spill fires is their rela- fast flowing characteristics. Adequate post fire
tively short burning times. If an average burn rate security is also required.
of 4mm of the depth of fuel per minute is assumed,
then most of the fuel involved in a spill fire will (d) Spreading Fires
have burnt away within 7 minutes of ignition. Such
brief burn times are, however, unlikely to occur in Spreading fires can be described as unconfined
practice. Flammable liquid may remain in a rup- spill or pool fires in which the liquid fuel is being
tured fuel container and burn for a considerable continuously supplemented by a spray, jet or
time, continuous leakage may replenish the spill or stream from a ruptured tank or equipment. The
numerous deep localised burning pools of fuel continuous supply of fuel often results in burning
may form over a large area. liquid flowing into inaccessible areas, such as
drainage systems and floor voids.
(c) Pool Fires
An early step in fighting a spreading fire is to stop
Pool fires occur in confined pools of flammable, or the flow of product to the flames whenever possi-
combustible, liquids which are deeper than 25mm ble. Water spray provides an excellent screen
but not as deep as the contents of storage tanks. A behind which to approach the fire and close leak-
pool fire may cover a large area depending on the ing valves for instance. The flow from a storage
volume of the fuel source and the area of the con- vessel can also be stopped by water displacement
fined space. It may take the form of a bunded area if there is sufficient ullage above the source of the
in a tank farm or a hollow pit or trench within leak. This method has been successful in the case
which flammable liquid has collected from a rup- of a ruptured storage tank line. Water is pumped
tured process vessel, road or rail tanker. into the tank to raise the liquid fuel above the level
of the outlet line so that water, instead of product,
The difference between pool fires and spill fires is flows from the broken line.
that pools may, depending on depth, continue to
burn for a considerable period of time. As a result, If the flammable liquid is a high flash point fuel,
firefighters are more likely to encounter a well the burn back rate of flames through the spray, jet
developed fire burning evenly over a large area, or stream of fuel leaking from the container may
rather than the more isolated, scattered fires which be less than the rate at which the fuel is discharge
are characteristic of an unconfined spill. Foam from the leak. In this situation, the discharging fuel
may also be subject to more fuel contamination if will not be on fire. Consequently, the fire can be
forceful application is used due to the depth of the extinguished with a foam blanket or water spray in
fuel. Consequently techniques, such as playing the a similar fashion to a pool fire, the only additional
foam stream against a solid surface and allowing precaution being to ensure that the level of fuel
the foam to run onto the fire, may be both desirable does not rise sufficiently to over spill the contain-
and a practical possibility if suitable surfaces are ment. Sand bagging, diversion channels and
available (see Chapter 5, Section 2). pumping out are all useful techniques to help pre-
vent breakdown of containment.
The sustained high levels of heat output may
demand more effort to be made in cooling exposed If, on the other hand, the burn back rate of flames
structures both to minimise damage during the fire through the spray, jet or stream of fuel leaking
and to prevent reignition after extinguishment. It from the container exceeds the rate at which the
should be remembered that if water is used for fuel is coming out of the container, then the dis-
cooling, it will break down any existing foam blan- charging fuel will also be on fire. It may be neces-
ket in that area, allowing any remaining flames to sary to use dry powder to extinguish fires in flow-
burn back and preventing further blanket forma- ing jets of liquid or gas in conjunction with foam
tion until the water application ceases. application to the spreading fuel. Water sprays are
effective in reducing the heat output from burning
The pool fire, therefore, requires a foam with a jets although they will break down any foam blan-
high fuel tolerance and heat resistance as well as ket already formed.

14 Fire Service Manual

(e) Running Fires
This term refers to the case when a burning liquid
is moving down a slope on a broad front. The situ-
ation is rare but extremely hazardous because of
the rapidity with which objects and people in the
path of the flow can be enveloped. It is not possi-
ble to advise any course of action other than rapid
evacuation from the oncoming flow. If monitors
and hoses are immediately available they could
provide sufficiently rapid knockdown.

On some fuels, film-forming foams are considered

particularly effective at fast knockdown, although
other foams can have similarly rapid effects.
Another technique is to lay a band of foam at the
lower end of the path of flow so that any pool that
builds up will do so beneath a foam blanket. For
this type of application fluoroprotein or film-form-
ing alcohol resistant foams might be considered
most suitable because of their stability, although
other foams would also satisfactorily perform the
task.

The main method of combating running fires is by

prevention. Firefighters must be aware of any
potential for a pool fire to breach or over spill its
containment. Firefighting efforts should be adjust-
ed to reduce such a risk, for example, minimising
the use of cooling water which could drain into the
contained pool and cause overflowing, monitoring
the integrity of containing bund walls and evacuat-
ing in advance any area which could possibly
become inundated.

(f) Other Terms

Various other terms are used for different types of

fire and explosion incident such as BLEVE (see
Glossary of Terms - Firefighting Foams, at the
rear of this Volume), vapour cloud explosion, gas
flare, etc. These have not been covered separately
since the use of firefighting foam is not directly
involved.

Firefighting Foam 15
Firefighting Foam Chapter

4
Chapter 4 - Recommended Minimum
Application Rates
4.1 General immiscible class B liquids. Also, recommended dura-
tions of foam application are included in the tables.
The application rate of a foam onto a fire is nor-
mally expressed as the amount of foam solution, in It should be noted that the figures given in Tables
litres per minute, to be applied to every square 4.1 and 4.2 relate to minimum foam solution appli-
metre of the total area to be covered with foam. cation rates and times and assumes that all of the
finished foam produced from the foam solution
The Recommended Minimum Application Rate is actually reaches the surface of the liquid on fire.
the minimum rate at which foam solution is recom- These rates should not be considered as being
mended to be applied to a fire. The rate assumes definitive; allowances must be made to compen-
that all of the foam made from the foam solution sate for losses due to circumstances such as fall out
actually reaches the surface of the burning fuel. of finished foam from the foam stream, adverse
weather conditions, breakdown of foam due to
The recommended minimum application rate flames before it reaches the fuel surface, and loss
includes a 'safety margin' to help to take into of foam due to the thermal convection currents
account factors such as: caused by the fire. For storage tank fires, these
rates need to be increased by up to 60% to account
• variations in the quality of foam for foam losses.
concentrate;
In addition, it is recommended that application
• variations in the quality of finished rates should be reviewed if. after 20-30 minutes
foam produced; application, there has been no noticeable reduction
in the intensity of the fire.
• some of the detrimental effects of
forceful application. In practice, the recommended minimum applica-
tion rates are of great importance in pre-planning
The Home Office recommended minimum appli- the resources needed for a loam attack. It has a
cation rates for use by the UK fire service for fires direct bearing on the quantity of concentrate, and
involving water-immiscible class B liquids are water required, and also should dictate the amount
given in Section 2 below. Advice is given concern- of delivery equipment, i.e. appliances, monitors,
ing the application rates for fires involving water- branches, proportioned and hoses.
miscible class B liquids in Section 3 below.
4.3 Fires Involving Water-miscible
4.2 Fires Involving Water- Class B Liquids
immiscible Class B Liquids
Application rates for water-miscible fuels vary
Tables 4.1 and 4.2 give the minimum application considerably depending on the following factors:
rates of foam solution recommended by the Home
Office for use by the UK fire service when using the type of fuel;
manual firefighting equipment to apply low and
medium expansion foam to fires involving water- the depth of fuel;

Previous page
is blank F irefighting Foam 17
Table 4.1: Home Office Recommended Minimum Application Rates of Foam Solution For the
Production of Low Expansion Foam For Use on Liquid Hydrocarbon Fuel (Class B) Fires
Foam Type Minimum Application Rate of Foam Solution Minimum Application Time
(lpm/m2) (Minutes)
Spill/Bund Tanks Tanks Tanks Spill Tanks Tanks
D<45m D>=45m D>=81m Fuel Fuel
D<81m Flashpoint Flashpoint
>40°C <=40°C/
Bund
Protein 6.5 NR NR NR 15 NR NR
Fluoroprotein 5.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 15 45 60
AFFF 4.0 6.5 7.3 8.1 15 45 60
FFFP 4.0 6.5 7.3 8.1 15 45 60
AFFF-AR 4.0 6.5 7.3 8.1 15 45 60
FFFP-AR 4.0 6.5 7.3 8.1 15 45 60

Notes to Table 4.1

< - less than <= - less than or equal to
> - More than >= - more than or equal to
D - Diameter of tank lpm/m2 - litres per minute of foam solution
per square metre of burning area of fire
m - metre NR - Not Recommended for this use

Table 4.2: Home Office Recommended Minimum Application Rates Of Foam Solution For the
Production of Medium Expansion Foam For Use on Liquid Hydrocarbon Fuel (Class B) Fires
Foam Type Minimum Application Rate of Foam Solution Minimum Application Time
(lpm/m2) (Minutes)
Spill/Bund Spill Bund
SYNDET 6.5 15 60
Fluoroprotein 5.0 15 60
AFFF 4.0 15 60
FFFP 4.0 15 60
AFFF-AR 4.0 15 60
FFFP-AR 4.0 15 60

Note to Table 4.2:

lpm/m2 - litres per minute of foam solution per square metre of burning area of fire

18 Fire Service Manual

 the type of foam;

the manufacturer of the foam;

the method of foam application.

Some of the most widely used water-miscible

liquids include:

Alcohols (e.g. Methanol, Ethanol,

Isopropanol)
Ketones (e.g. Acetone, Methyl Ethyl
Ketone)
Vinyl Acetate
Acrylonitrile

Due to the large number of water-miscible fuels in

use, and the varying firefighting performance of
different foams on each of them, information on
the recommended application rates for a particular
water-miscible risk should be obtained from the
manufacturer of the alcohol resistant foam concen-
trate to be used.

Typical recommended foam application rates for

water-miscible liquid fires range between 4 and 13
litres per minute per square metre. However, it is
recommended that the minimum application time
for a spill of water-miscible fuel should be 15 min-
utes and for tanks involving these fuels it should
be a minimum of 60 minutes.

On water-miscible liquids, application must be

such that the foam blanket is delivered gently onto
the liquid surface without submerging the foam or
agitating the liquid surface (see Chapter 5, Section
2). If some submergence and agitation is unavoid-
able, the foam blanket will be destroyed at a high
rate and much higher application rates and appli-
cation times will be required.

Firefighting Foam 1 9
Firefighting Foam Chapter

5
Chapter 5 - Operational Use of Foam
on Class B Liquid Fuels
5.1 General mean that the firefighters will be able to
stand as far away from the fire as is possible
This Chapter mostly concerns the main fire service but, also, the wind will cause the fire plume
operational use of foam, that is on class B liquid to angle away from them and so further
fuels. reduce the radiant heat being experienced by
them.
When using foam operationally, there are a num-
ber of basic, common sense procedures that need Correct Operation of Equipment: The
to be followed to help to ensure success, these are: foam-making equipment must be used
under the correct operating conditions of
Objective of Foam Application: On arrival flow and pressure. Inductors and foam-mak-
at an incident, an immediate decision needs ing branches must be matched and the cor-
to be made on whether foam needs to be rect foam concentrate for the fuel and the
used and, if so, what is the objective that is correct foam induction rate must be chosen.
hoped to be achieved by its application. For Care should be taken not to cover the air
instance, is the objective to provide a tem- inlet holes of the foam-making branch
porary break in order to attempt a rescue or because this will result in poor quality foam
close a valve, or is the objective to totally being produced.
extinguish the fire?
Gentle Foam Application: Foam applica-
Collect Sufficient Resources: Before com- tion should be as gentle as possible.
mencing foam application, ensure that Forceful application, which is applying
enough resources of foam, water, equip- foam directly to the surface of a fuel, will
ment, personnel etc. are collected together generally result in fuel contamination of the
to enable the objective of foam application foam, increased breakdown of the foam, and
to be carried out successfully. Home Office increased flame intensity and radiated heat
recommended minimum foam application from the area of application due to vigorous
rates (see Chapter 4) should, where possible, disturbance of the surface of the fuel. The
be used as the basis for calculations. If a fire overall effect will be a dramatic reduction in
is to be totally extinguished, then running the effectiveness of the foam. In addition,
out of foam concentrate during application forceful application to an existing foam
will probably result in a complete re- blanket may cause breaks which reveal the
involvement of the fire and complete underlying fuel. If complete extinction has
wastage of the resources already used. not been achieved when this occurs, then a
significant amount of burnback could result.
Wind Direction: Obviously, foam can only
be effective when it reaches the intended Continuous Foam Application: Once foam
target. Wherever possible, the foam stream application has commenced, it should con-
should be directed downwind in order to tinue without interruption until at least the
project the foam over the maximum possible objective of the foam application has been
distance. In fire situations, this will not only achieved. Interruptions in foam application

Previous page
is blank Firefighting Foam 21
 will result in wasted resources. The foam making capability should be maintained,
application should at least be maintained at resources replenished and remain ready for
the Home Office recommended minimum immediate use until all hazards have been
application rate (see Chapter 4). removed or neutralised.

Edge Fires: Long after the main bulk of a Beware of Ignition of the Foam Blanket:
fire has been extinguished, flames are likely Even with a thick foam blanket in place,
to persist around the edges of the foam blan- operations involving possible ignition
ket where it meets and attempts to seal sources, such as hot cutting, should be car-
against objects, such as hot metal container ried out with great care. Fuel contamination
walls. These last flames are likely to require of foam can occur during application and
a great deal of time and foam to extinguish. the vapour from some fuels will penetrate
If stocks of foam run out at this stage, the the foam blanket. Complete involvement of
fire may burn back completely. Application the foam blanket in flame can happen with-
should continue to be as gentle as possible, in seconds if a contaminated foam blanket is
with consideration being given to using ignited - this can occur with all types of
medium expansion foam if access and foam concentrate. Foam production capabil-
equipment permit. It is often better to rein- ity must be maintained throughout any such
force the foam blanket near to persistent operations.
flames so that it flows over the area of its
own accord. Using water to cool the exter- Further discussion of these basic and other proce-
nal walls of a metal container around the dures follows with particular reference to the type
area of flame can help to reduce the rate of of finished foam (i.e. low, medium or high) being
vaporisation of the fuel, and hence the inten- used.
sity of the flames. In addition, the cooler the
metal walls of a container, the easier it will 5.2 Low Expansion Foam
be for a foam blanket to seal against them,
suffocating the remaining flames as it does (a) Primary Aspirated Foams
so.
(i) General
Maintaining the Foam Coverage: Once a
fire has been extinguished or a toxic/flam- Low expansion foam-making branches throw their
mable fuel has been covered with a foam foam over much longer distances than medium or
blanket, foam application should continue high expansion foam-making equipment. This
until a thick foam blanket has been built up. length of throw is generally enough to allow fire-
However, the foam blanket will break down fighters to tackle large, open, liquid fuel fires while
and loose its water content with time. standing at a distance from the fire where the radi-
Consequently it is important that the foam ated heat is bearable.
blanket is regularly replenished in order to
ensure continued protection from re-ignition Ideally, the application of the foam to the sur-
or vapour release. Where possible, the use face of the fuel should be as gentle as possible in
of water jets or sprays should be avoided in order to achieve the most effective performance
the vicinity of a foam blanket as these can from the foam.
also cause the foam to break down.
(ii) Forceful Application
Maintain Foam-making Capability: Even
after the fire has been extinguished (or the Forceful application of the foam, such as when
vapour from flammable and/or toxic mater- aiming a foam stream directly onto the surface of
ial has been suppressed) and a thick foam a burning fuel, causes the foam to impact heavily
blanket has been built up, a significant haz- on, and penetrate below, the surface of the fuel
ard still remains. Consequently, the foam- ('Plunging'). This leads to a considerable amount

22 Fire Service Manual

Figure 5.1 Low expansion foam-making branch in use
(Photo Mill and West Wales Fire Brigade

of mixing of the foam with fuel causing the foam gentle direct application;
to become contaminated. Inevitably, some of the
fuel within this contaminated foam will burn off, front surface indirect application;
causing the partial destruction of the foam blanket
as it does so. wall/object indirect application;

In addition, when the foam stream hits the burning finger/hand deflection application.
fuel, it causes a great deal of disturbance to the fuel
surface which results in a considerable increase in Of these, the front surface and wall/object indirect
flame intensity and hence radiant heat. This will methods are likely to produce the most gentle
cause the partial breakdown of any existing foam applications of foam to the fuel surface during nor-
blanket and also makes it very uncomfortable for mal firefighting operations. The finger/hand
the firefighters to maintain their position. deflection method is best suited for nearby appli-
cation of foam to residual flames. Each of these
(iii) Gentle Application gentle application methods is described below:

There are several gentle foam application tech- Gentle direct application involves applying
niques available which will reduce the impact foam to the surface of the fuel, with the foam-mak-
velocity of the foam stream. These are: ing branch as far away from the fire as possible,

Firefighting Foam 23
using the full trajectory of the foam stream. This small residual fires from very close range. One
reduces the impact velocity of the foam due to the drawback of this method is that it may disturb the
loss of speed of the foam stream as it travels through existing foam blanket and reveal some of the
the air and the dispersion of the foam in the stream underlying fuel.
during transit.
Suitable hand protection must be worn. This tech-
Another similar method is known as the "rain- nique is not acceptable for use with large through-
down' technique. This involves directing the foam put foam-making branches where fingers may be
stream almost vertically up into the air so that bent back by the force of the foam stream. Care
when the foam stream reaches its maximum should also be taken when using long foam-mak-
height, it breaks up and the resulting chunks of ing branches to ensure that the firefighter is not put
foam 'raindown' onto the fire. This has two poten- off balance by trying to use this technique.
tially serious drawbacks; the first is that any ther- "Blabber-mouth' foam-making branches have
mal updraft from the fire plume is likely to carry flaps that can be opened and closed at the outlet
the foam upwards and away from the surface of end of the nozzle. These deflect the foam stream in
the fuel; the second is that the technique requires much the same way as when using this method of
the foam-making branch, and the firefighter, to be foam application.
positioned relatively near to the fire.
(iv) Single Point of Application
Front surface indirect application involves
foam being rolled or pushed onto the surface of the In order to achieve a quick flame knockdown with
fuel by aiming the foam stream at a point in front the minimum of foam with a single branch, foam
of the fuel and allowing the foam to build up. With should only be applied to one point and the branch
further applications of foam to this area, a raft of should be held still. This will allow a foam raft (or
foam will begin to gently flow across the surface 'bite') to form which will then spread over the sur-
of the fuel. This method leads to very little fuel face of the fuel.
contamination of the foam.
Moving the branch will result in many smaller
Wall/object indirect application involves applications of foam which will not sufficiently
aiming the foam stream at a surface behind the fire cool the fuel locally or suppress the fire to allow an
(such as the sides of a storage tank) or at an object adequate foam blanket to form. This will lead to a
in, or to the side, of the fire. By positioning the great deal of foam destruction, and hence wastage,
branch at a suitable distance away from the object, of the finished foam.
the foam stream will have lost much of its energy
by the time it hits the object. Further energy will be When using more than one branch, a single point
lost on impact with the object with the result that of application should still be used wherever possi-
the foam will slide slowly down the object and ble.
gently onto the surface of the fuel. A raft of foam
will form which, with further application of foam However, it should be noted that foam will only
to the object, will increase in size and spread over flow over a liquid fuel a maximum distance of 30
the surface of the burning fuel. This method has metres from the edge of the foam application area
the additional advantage that it can be used to cool (see Chapter 7. Section 5b(x)). Consequently,
hot metal objects which might otherwise cause where the fire area is very large, several foam
edge sealing problems. application points, and hence branches, will be
required. In such cases, the number of application
Finger/hand deflection application involves points should be kept to the absolute minimum that
the firefighter placing his hand or fingers directly in allows the foam blanket to cover the whole of the
front of the outlet nozzle of the foam-making fire area.
branch so that the foam issues as a spray rather than
a jet; greatly reducing the impact velocity of the One method of assisting in the spreading of foam
foam. This method is most suited to extinguishing over the surface of a fuel once a bite has been

24 Fire Service Manual

achieved is by producing a swirling motion in (vii) Continued Application After Extinction
the whole surface area of the fuel. This can be
done by moving the branch or branches so that the Foam application should always continue after
stream(s) lands slightly off centre of the liquid sur- extinction in order to produce a very thick protec-
face (see Chapter 7, Section 5b) (xi)). tive foam layer. It can take less than 4 minutes for
half of the liquid content of a foam blanket to drain
(v) Assistance Required to Apply Foam out. This may not have any effect on the appear-
Accurately ance of the blanket but the loss of this amount of
water will make the blanket less resistant to burn-
Usually, when applying low expansion foam, the back, less able to seal any breaks that may occur in
firefighter at the foam-making equipment will be the blanket, more likely to allow vapour to perco-
unable to see where the foam stream is landing. late through it, and make it more susceptible to
Consequently, the firefighter may require help being blown away by wind. Consequently, it is
from someone standing to the side who can see essential that the foam blanket is replenished at
where the foam is being applied and can indicate, regular periods in order to maintain its effective-
perhaps by the use of a radio or arm signals, what ness.
movements to the foam stream the firefighter must
make in order to ensure the required application When replenishing, care should be taken to avoid
can be achieved. applying water initially to the foam blanket.
Applying water will break down the foam blanket,
(vi) Extinction of Residual Flames cause gaps in the blanket to reveal the underlying
fuel and, in some situations, may produce a static
As mentioned previously, the extinction of any discharge that could reignite the fire.
residual flames should, where possible, be by :
(viii) Precautions to Prevent Ignition of the
the use of medium expansion foam; Foam Blanket

foam applied using the finger/hand deflec- Precautions should be taken to ensure that an igni-
tion application technique; tion source does not come into contact with the
foam blanket. Rescue operations that take place
the gentle application of foam to the sur- within the foam blanket will inevitably lead to
rounding foam blanket in order to allow much disturbance of the foam blanket and further
existing foam to flow over the flames. fuel contamination. Should foam that has been
contaminated with fuel ignite, then large areas of
Some combination foam-making branches are the foam blanket are likely to become involved in
available that allow the operator to easily switch intense flames within seconds. These flames will
from low expansion to medium expansion foam, probably die down relatively quickly but leaving
these have obvious applications here. However, the upper layer of foam badly damaged. Generally,
tests carried out by the Home Office FRDG on one the shorter and more forceful the foam application,
combination 225 litre per minute foam-making the more severe any resulting fire is likely to be.
branch indicated that it produced very poor low
expansion foam which was unable to sufficiently
control a 56m2 petrol fire. Consequently, the fire- Crews should be on constant
fighter was unable to get close enough to the fire
in order to use the medium expansion capability. standby while operations take
place to ensure that adequate
Forceful application of low expansion foam to foam and firefighting cover are
residual flames should be avoided due to the like-
ly disturbance of the existing foam blanket which maintained. Should ignition occur,
may reveal larger areas of underlying fuel and pos- the response must be immediate.
sible re-ignition.

Firefighting Foam 25
Figure 5.2 Primary aspirated foam in use.
(Photo: West Midlands Fire Service)

(ix) Ignition of Fuels Due to the Static The impact of water or foam streams directly
Discharge During Foam/Water on the tank contents should also be avoided as
Application this may produce a static discharge.

There have been several reports of floating roof (b) Secondary Aspirated Foams
tank fires that may have been ignited by the dis-
charge of static electricity that had been generated (i) General
by the over-the-top application of water and/or
foam to refined hydrocarbon liquids (e.g. naphtha) At low expansion, film-forming foams (e.g. AFFF,
following the sinking of the roof. AFFF-AR, FFFP, FFFP-AR) can be applied prima-
ry aspirated, with the techniques described above,
As a precaution, if foam is to be applied to a large or they can be applied secondary aspirated. Only
hydrocarbon storage tank (greater than 500m3) film-forming foams can be applied secondary aspi-
where the roof is no longer present, and there is a rated, non film-forming foams such as P, FP and
risk of ignition of the contents of the tank, then SYNDET must not be applied in this way.
foam should be applied via the sides of the tank.
This gentle application method will allow foam to (ii) Application Techniques
flow down on to the surface of the fuel and form a
continuous raft of foam. Islands of foam that are Film-forming foams can be applied secondary
not attached to the main raft should be avoided aspirated by using standard water-delivery branch-
because these may cause a static discharge when es set to wide angle spray or fog. The use of spray
they reach the tank sides. or fog produces a relatively gentle application and.

26 Fire Service Manual

on some fuels, this will allow a film to form on the tanks. However, with this type of equipment, by
surface of the fuel. the time the foam solution has been projected to its
target, its expansion ratio can be of the order of 4:1
Application should be made directly to the surface to 6:1. Consequently, application techniques
of the burning fuel. This requires the firefighter to should, where possible, be as those given above
get very near to the fire although a suitable spray for primary aspirated foam.
pattern should provide sufficient protection from
radiant heat. The method of application generally (c) Water-miscible Fuels
recommended is to spray the secondary aspirated
foam across the burning fuel with a sweeping Only primary aspirated alcohol resistant type
action, back and forth. foams should be used to fight fires that involve
water-miscible fuels. These should be applied as
See Section (iv) below regarding the application gently as possible to the fuel surface using the
technique when using purpose designed secondary techniques described in this Chapter, Section 2.
aspirated foam making branches. Forceful application of alcohol resistant foams to
water-miscible fuels will drastically reduce their
(iii) Limitations of Use firefighting capabilities due to contamination
which will quickly break down the finished foam.
The expansion of secondary aspirated foam is very Non-alcohol resistant foams such as AFFF, FFFP,
low, generally less than 5. On some fuels fires, its FP and so on, should not be used on these types of
use can result in very quick control and extinc- fuels because the finished foam disintegrates on
tions. However, tests have indicated that secondary contact with the fuels.
aspirated film-forming foams can take up to twice
as long to extinguish a petrol spill fire as that taken (d) Large Fuel Storage Tanks
by the same film-forming foams when used prima-
ry aspirated (Reference 4). For many years, the recommended technique for
the application of foam to fully involved large
On some of the more volatile hydrocarbons storage tank fires required a number of foam-mak-
(including some blends of petrol), secondary aspi- ing monitors to be positioned around the tank, each
rated foam has limited security and burnback resis- applying foam to a small area. This technique was
tance. Consequently, it should not be used for known as 'surround and drown'.
vapour suppression. If possible, after its use to
extinguish a fire, a primary aspirated foam blanket This required long periods of foam application
should be applied to provide adequate burnback before sufficient cooling of the fuel and knock-
protection. down of the flames occurred to allow small areas of
foam to become visible on the surface of the fuel.
Secondary aspirated foam is not suitable for use on
water-miscible fuels, even when alcohol resistant This technique has now been mostly rejected in
film-forming foam concentrates are employed. favour of applying large quantities of foam to a
small area of the burning fuel surface. This pro-
vides a very high localised foam application rate
(iv) Use in Specialised Firefighting which relatively quickly results in the localised
Equipment knockdown of flames and the formation of a raft of
foam (or 'bite') in the foam application area. Once
Some purpose designed secondary aspirated foam- formed, this raft of foam gradually enlarges and
making branches have been designed for use in spreads across the surface of the fuel. The maxi-
process areas and/or for incidents involving large mum distance this will spread is 30 metres in all
storage tanks. This equipment is claimed to throw directions (see Chapter 7, Section 5b(x)) from the
foam solution over a greater distance, and up to a edge of the foam application area. Consequently,
greater height, than is possible with primary aspi- when fighting fires with large fuel surface areas,
rating equipment. This makes this type of equip- more than one main foam application point will be
ment suitable for the protection of large storage

Firefighting Foam 27
needed in order to ensure that the rafts of foam For example, MX foam has a much greater volume
formed meet and hence cover the whole of the area than low expansion foam. From the same amount
of fuel. The number of monitors this requires will of foam solution, a medium expansion foam gener-
obviously depend on their capacity but should also ator producing finished foam with an expansion
take in to account the maximum foam spread dis- ratio of 100:1 creates 10 times more finished foam
tance of 30 metres. The aim should be to use the than a low expansion foam-making branch produc-
minimum number of foam application points pos- ing foam of an expansion of 10:1. Typically, medi-
sible and, where necessary, several monitors can um expansion foam-making equipment produces
be positioned to apply foam to the same point on foam of expansions of between 50 and 100:1.
the fuel surface.
In order to make medium expansion foam, large
Once a bite has been achieved, the spread of foam quantities of air need to be mixed with the foam
across the surface of the fuel can be aided by caus- solution. This mixing takes place within the foam-
ing the fuel to slowly swirl around the tank. This making equipment and this greatly reduces the
movement can be achieved by allowing the stream speed at which the foam emerges from it.
from a monitor to land slightly off centre of the
fuel surface (see Chapter 7, Section 5b) (xi)). As a result, using medium expansion foam against
large fires can require firefighters to approach very
5.3 Medium Expansion Foam close to the flames, exposing them to dangerous
levels of radiated heat. The risk to firefighters can
(a) General be reduced by the use of floor standing medium
expansion foam generators which, once in posi-
Medium expansion foam can have relatively low tion, can be left unattended. It should be noted that
stability and poor burnback resistance and it is the hand-held medium expansion foam-making gener-
sheer volume of foam produced, combined with its ators should not be put on the ground while oper-
inherent gentle application, that makes it an effi- ating because they may suck in debris which could
cient and effective firefighting medium. block or break the internal foam-making mesh.

Figure 5..3 Medium expansion foam in use in a tank bund.

( Photo: Mill and West Wales Fire Brigade)

28 hire Service Manual

The very gentle application characteristics and high heath and brush fires. Providing there is not too
volume output of medium expansion foam makes it much wind, the foam remains in position and,
particularly useful for rapid vapour suppression of besides the direct effect of stopping flames, the
hydrocarbon liquids (and water-miscible liquids drainage helps to create a wet surface to impede
when using alcohol resistant film-forming foam any creeping fire. Application should be made not
concentrates). It can also be used to fill, up to a max- less than 5 minutes nor generally more than 60
imum height of around 3 metres, small volumes minutes before the fire front hits the barrier.
such as those found in engine test cells and trans-
former rooms. 5.4 High Expansion Foam
The most common type of concentrate used to produce (a) General
medium expansion foam is standard SYNDET.
although FP and film-forming foams may also be used. High expansion foam is produced from SYNDET
synthetic detergent concentrate. The finished foam
The Home Office recommended minimum appli- has an expan-sion ratio that can range from 200:1
cation rates for medium expansion foam are virtu- to 2000:1 although the high expansion foam gen-
ally the same as those for low expansion foam erating equipment used by the fire service normal-
when used on hydrocarbon liquid fuel fires (see ly produces finished foam of expansion ratios
Chapter 4). However, Protein foam concentrate between 300:1 and 1200:1. High expansion foam
must not be used for the production of medium can be effective in extinguishing fires in a wide
expansion foam and the limited throw of medium range of solid and liquid fuels.
expansion foam is among the reasons why it can-
not be used to fight large storage tank fires. From the same amount of foam solution, fire service
high expansion foam generating equipment can pro-
Medium expansion FPfoam has been successful in duce, in terms of volume, in excess of 10 times
controlling crude oil bund fires with long pre-burn more finished foam than medium expansion foam-
times. The disadvantage of using medium expan- making equipment and 100 times more finished
sion foams in these circumstances is that they do foam than low expansion foam-making equipment.
not release their water content quickly and there-
fore their cooling ability is limited. Other disad- The high expansion foam is very slow-flowing and
vantages of the use of medium expansion foam are is poured on to a fire rather than projected. It is
that they do not flow well, particularly in very mainly intended for use to totally 'flood' enclosed
windy conditions and their heat resistance and areas such as basements, warehouses, machinery
ability to seal against hot surfaces is also poor. spaces and ships' holds. It has also been used in
hazardous areas where it can be unsafe to send per-
(b) Application Technique sonnel, such as refrigerated rooms, mine shafts and
cable tunnels. Due to the large volume of foam
To achieve the best possible fire knockdown, produced from small amounts of foam solution,
medium expansion foam should be applied in front high expansion foam can also be used in instances
of a liquid pool fire and an initial foam raft ('bite') where there is a limited water supply and where
should be formed with little movement of the water damage needs to be kept to a minimum.
branch. Further application of foam should then be
then be used to widen the raft to allow it to spread High expansion foam can be very effective out-
over the surface of the fuel. This further applica- doors but only if the wind speed is very low.
tion of foam should be to the edges of the raft, it Outdoor uses include vapour suppression and, at
should not be to the flames in front of the raft. lower expansions of the range, e.g. 300:1 to 500:1,
in controlling fires in spillages of hydrocarbon
(c) Use as a Fire Break fuels. Obviously, due to its density and the way
that it is produced, high expansion foam can only
The Forestry Commission has experimented with be applied very gently.
the use of MX foam in laying a barrier to grass.

Firefighting Foam 29
Figure 5.4 A high expansion foam unit in operation.
(Photo: Mid and West Wales Fire Brigade

The major disadvantages of using high expansion l the foam cannot be projected and so the
foam for firefighting are: foam generating equipment must be posi-
tioned very close to fires. However, in cer-
the release of the water content of the foam tain situations, flexible ducting can be used
is very slow and therefore this provides only to transport the foam to the required appli-
limited cooling, particularly for deep seated cation area.
fires in combustible solids;
High expansion foam should not be used to
the foam does not flow well, consequently fight fires involving chemicals which gener-
the foam will be at its lowest depth at the ate enough oxygen to sustain their own
furthest point away from the generator; combustion, e.g. cellulose nitrate.

its poor flowing characteristics may also The slow release of water from the foam is benefi-
lead to large air pockets in the foam where cial when used for the vapour suppression of LPG
combustion can continue even after the and other similar liquefied gases.
compartment has apparently been complete-
ly filled, Before the production of high expansion foam
begins, as much information as possible must be
the heat resistance of the foam and its abili- obtained about any compartment that is about to be
ty to seal against hot surfaces is poor; flooded, i.e. its nature, size, layout and contents. If
the contents of the compartment are stacked or
due to large expansion ratios, high expan- placed up to or near the ceiling, it must be realised
sion foam is very light and can be blown that the foam blanket may not extinguish all of the
away by even a minor breeze and by the up- fire, and preparations must be made to attack this
draughts caused by fires; later. It must also be understood that the use of
high expansion foam will inhibit the use of any

30 Fire Service Manual

other firefighting technique and may make it more ucts of combustion of the fire could otherwise
difficult to commit firefighters into the compart- affect the volume output and stability of the foam.
ment at a later stage.
Ducting can be used on the outlet of a generator to
(b) Planning Resource Requirements enable it to operate in fresh air while effectively
transporting the foam to the required area. This
If the size of the compartment is known, it will be ducting should be kept as short as possible, with-
possible to calculate approximately how much out kinks, and any opening used must be larger in
foam concentrate will be needed to adequately fill cross-sectional area than the ducting, to cut down
it. For compartments containing combustible back-pressure and to ensure that the maximum
solids, sufficient foam should be injected to ensure possible output can be generated. Doorways,
a depth of at least 1 metre above the highest fire hatches etc. may be usable as they are, but, in some
affected object. For flammable liquids, the fill incidents, openings may have to be made or
height should be considerably more than I metre improved.
above the fuel surface.
The further high expansion foam has to travel
To calculate the fill height, the approximate foam through ducting or other areas in order to reach the
output of the particular high expansion foam gen- fire, the more breakdown of the foam that will take
erator in use will need to be known in m3/min at place. Ideally, the foam generator should be posi-
the required expansion ratio as will its consump- tioned as near to the fire as it is as safe and practi-
tion of foam concentrate in litres per minute. cal to do so. Tests have been carried out using lay-
flat polythene ducting on the outlet of a high
A simple table kept with the generator would help, expansion foam generator (Reference 5). Using an
but allowances must be made for the initial fast 8 metre length of this ducting, the volume of the
breakdown of foam that will occur due to the effects foam produced by the generator fell by more than
of heat, flame and hot objects. Holes in the com- 50%. However, even though this is a big reduction
partment walls, and the need to regularly 'top-up' in the foam volume output, even less foam is like-
the foam for a time after control of the fire has been ly to reach a fire affected area 8 metres away from
achieved, will also need to be taken into account. a foam generator if ducting is not used.

The minimum requirement should be to have suf- There are various kinds of high expansion foam
ficient high expansion foam generated to lift the ducting, but a heat-resisting type must obviously
height of the foam in the compartment by at least be used if the conditions demand it.
1 metre per minute, with total filling of the com-
partment to the required height taking no more (d) Level of Injection
than 8 minutes. Resources should be made avail-
able to 'top-up' the foam for at least a further 30 If HX foam can be injected at the floor level of the
minutes. In order to allow for the losses due to the compartment, it will not have to contend with heat-
breakdown of the foam, at least a total of twice the ed currents of air to penetrate the area. However,
amount of resources (i.e. foam concentrate and operational conditions nearly always require it to
water) required to fill the compartment to the be injected at a higher level, and this will work
required height should be made available before provided that the injection is kept going steadily.
filling commences. If high expansion foam is to be There will probably be an initial fast breakdown of
used outdoors, then further allowances will need to the finished foam but the sheer volume should
be made for foam that is likely to be blown away. soon penetrate.

(c) Positioning of High Expansion (e) Ventilation

Foam Generators
If a large volume of foam is to penetrate a com-
High expansion foam generators should always, partment, it must displace the air in that compart-
where possible, be placed in the open air, as prod- ment. Also, when the foam first attacks the fire, a

Firefighting Foam 31
considerable amount of the water in it will flash to fires in some materials may require the maintenance
steam. All this, together with the products of com- of a foam blanket for a considerable length of time
bustion, will result in a back-pressure which, if not before being completely extinguished.
ventilated, will physically prevent the injection of
more foam. (g) Entering the Compartment

All personnel entering a high expansion foam

One of the factors that should filled compartment should wear BA, and the
be assessed is where the BA procedures should be rigorously applied.
Firefighters should take in a hosereel or 45 mm
compartment can be safely hose line ready to extinguish with water any small
ventilated. Due regard should be pockets of fire still remaining, taking care that fire
does not break out behind them.
given to the risks of flashover
and backdraught when venting (h) Hazards in High Expansion Foam -
a fire (see Fire Service Manual Safety of Personnel
Volume 2 - Compartment Fires High expansion foam, even in a relatively well-
and Tactical Ventilation.) known environment, has a very claustrophobic
effect. In an unknown compartment this effect can
be heightened. Other hazards encountered are:

Should conditions be safe to do so, the best place l there is a general loss in effectiveness of
for a vent is diametrically opposite the genera- vision, hearing and sense of direction, i.e.
tors), at the highest level. To be most effective, disorientation;
low-level openings may need to be blocked and
suitable openings may need to be made at a high l penetration of light from torches and equip-
level in order to ensure that the compartment is ment is severely affected;
filled with HX foam as quickly as possible.
Opening up a ceiling or roof would be ideal, but in l audibility of speech, evacuation signals,
some cases the highest available opening may be low-pressure warning whistles and distress
several feet below the top of the compartment. To signal units is also severely restricted;
facilitate ventilation, smoke extractors could be
employed in the openings; high expansion foam l transmission of heat is reduced and the loca-
generators can be adapted for this purpose. The tion and travel of fire are therefore harder to
officer-in-charge must station crews with hand- determine. Thermal image cameras are also
controlled branches or hose-reels at all the ventila- ineffective. Damage to structural features
tion openings to cover any fire which might appear above and around may not be visible, with
there. Under no circumstances should any of this the danger of ceilings etc. collapsing onto
water be injected into the compartment, however, firefighters:
as this would break down the foam.
l the compartment may contain trapped gases
(f) Maintaining Foam Production which, with the introduction of fresh oxy-
gen, could result in backdraught conditions;
Changes in the colour of the smoke issuing from the
fire will give a good indication of whether the foam l openings, machinery, electric cables etc. will
is achieving control of the fire. As mentioned above, all be harder to discern, and progress must
there will be a degree of breakdown of the foam, therefore be even more careful than usual.
and the application of high expansion foam into the Guide lines and communications equipment
compartment should not be stopped, without good should always be fully used if firefighters
reason, until the fire is extinguished. Deep seated need to be totally immersed in HX foam.

32 Fire Service Manual

(i) Clearing/Collapsing the Foam

The removal of HX foam from a compartment is

not easy. Tests have been carried out using various
methods (Reference 6) and, of these, the following
gave the best performance:

a high-pressure hose-reel branch;

a dry powder extinguisher;

a high expansion foam generator in suction

mode, using semi-rigid ducting.

All of these methods have disadvantages, and the

operational situation will largely determine which
method is used. A high-pressure hosereel is effi-
cient but will cause further water damage. A dry
powder extinguisher is also extremely efficient but
leaves a combined powder/water residue which
will have to be cleaned by a salvage team. A high
expansion foam generator works well, provided
that the water residue is led away by hose and the
ducting is not too long but, to clear all of a com-
partment, the ducting will have to be moved
around like a vacuum cleaner. This will be difficult
where the compartment is large or where there is
machinery, stacked goods, racks etc.

One obvious point which firefighters should

remember is that the longer the high expansion
foam is left, the easier it is to break down.
Drainage from the foam weakens the bubble walls
and, in the tests using breakdown by water, it took
less water to complete the job after a 30-minute
waiting interval than after a 15-minute interval.

Fireflghting Foam 33
Firefighting Foam Chapter

6
Chapter 6 - Practical Scenarios

6.1 General 6.2 Preplanning

In order to discuss the use of firefighting foams it For smaller scale incidents, much preplanning has
is necessary to consider practical examples. been performed by the UK fire service over many
years. The results of this work underpin the Fire
In this Section, information is given on how typical Service Manuals, the basic and more advanced
fires may develop in a variety of practical situations, training courses and the selection of equipment
and how the fire service could respond using vari- that is carried on brigade appliances.
ous firefighting foams, equipment and techniques.
Formalised preplanning is usually carried out for
In practice, no two fires are exactly the same and larger incidents where the following factors need
so any generalised description is bound to be a to be fully considered and arrangements put in
simplification. The descriptions that follow each place before the event occurs:
start with a summary of some of the difficulties
involved with each type of fire. The second part of • risk assessment;
the scenario is a brief description of a typical fire
and how it might be fought, particularly by the use • supply lines of material/equipment;
of firefighting foam.
• fresh resources of personnel;
No allowance has been made in these scenarios for
back-up or reserve capacity in the event of the first • clear decision making on the fire ground;
response not succeeding. Also, no direct reference
is made to the number of firefighters required. The • communications with third parties.
number of appliances which attend will generally
determine the personnel available. The numbers of It can be very useful to use formalised preplanning
appliances mentioned are those needed for direct for medium and small scale incidents, both as a
fire attack. If additional personnel are required, training aid for firefighters and as a means of high-
further appliances would be in attendance, but lighting any deficiencies in existing methods,
these would not form part of the equipment needs equipment and information.
for the fire attack.
6.3 Scenarios
Identifying typical scenarios is a first step in pre-
planning for a fire attack. The main difference is The fire scenarios below set out the conditions
that the fire preplan is concerned with more which could exist for a particular type of fire inci-
detailed logistics and provides a sufficiently high dent, and indicate how it could be assumed to devel-
level of response to cope with unforeseen difficul- op. The effectiveness of the fire service response is
ties and developments. discussed, particularly in relation to the foam-
making materials, equipment and tactics required.
Before discussing the scenarios in more detail
there are several general points on preplanning These scenarios are idealised cases and it is
which should be mentioned. appreciated that the timing, aims and problems

Previous page
is blank Firefighting Foam 35
associated with each real fire incident will vary cubic metres, and they spread rapidly over a flat
considerably. The use of these scenarios is to surface. Then a total area of 1520 square metres
indicate the likely quantities of foam, water and could be covered to a depth of 25mm (a spill, see
equipment needed for direct fire attack. Chapter 3, Section 3b).

In practice, greater resources are often committed Using the Home Office recommended minimum
because of the uncertainty of how serious the inci- foam application rate for film-forming foams of 4
dent may become, to provide a ready reserve capac- lpm/m2 for fifteen minutes duration, a total of
ity and to provide indirect support or relief to the 91,200 litres of foam solution would be needed at
main fire attack team. It is left to each individual a foam solution flow rate of 6080 litres per minute.
brigade to interpret how the objectives would be This would require 2,736 litres of 3% film-form-
achieved given their own mix of equipment, materi- ing foam concentrate and more than 88,000 litres
als, philosophy, logistics, and personnel policies. of water.

(a) Road Tanker Crashes In terms of equipment, this would require the
equivalent of fourteen 450 lpm foam-making
A wide variety of flammable liquids and toxic branches and inductors, and approximately four
chemicals is transported by road throughout the pumping appliances to supply the branches.
UK on urban and rural roads and motorways.
Lorries can typically carry 38m-1 of flammable liq- From a practical viewpoint, it would be difficult to
uid cargo. A number of incidents have occurred deploy this amount of equipment rapidly. Even if
where the contents of road tankers have been dis- hydrants were available, the time for laying hose
charged onto the road and the resulting fire has would be considerable. In addition, assuming a
caused loss of life. fuel burning rate of around 4mm per minute, the
fire would have burnt itself out in just over 7 min-
When a road tanker is damaged in an accident it is utes if no firefighting took place.
unlikely to discharge all its contents at once onto
the roadway. More usually, liquid will steadily In taking a more practical view, there are many
leak from breaks in the tank pipe-work or in the other factors that could be taken into considera-
vessel itself. Frequently, not all the contents are tion. Road surfaces are rarely flat. The road cam-
discharged, and a substantial volume may remain ber will tend to direct spillage into a more restrict-
inside the vessel. Spillage of flammable liquid ed area. Kerbs, banks and surface irregularities
may catch fire immediately or there can be a delay will tend to limit the spread of liquid, whilst rain-
while the flammable vapour spreads far enough to water drains will carry some away (with possible
contact a source of ignition. serious consequences of sewer fires and explo-
sions). In addition, tankers are generally compart-
Consequently, there are a wide variety of fires that mentalised and it would be highly unusual,
may face firefighters when they attend a road although not unknown, for all of the compartments
tanker crash. These can range from an extended to be breached.
spill fire, to a spreading fire, a running fire, a tank
fire, or a combination of them all. Perhaps, because of these factors the foam require-
ment for first response could be reduced to 25% of
In order to make an estimate of the foam resources the "worst case" i.e. 684 litres of 3% film-forming
that should be available on fire appliances, a num- foam concentrate, 22,116 litres of water and a foam
ber of factors will need to be evaluated, but initial- solution flowrate of 1520 litres per minute. This
ly it is important to set the upper limit of what would require four 450 litre per minute foam-mak-
might be required by establishing a possible ing branches and one pumping appliance. However,
"worst case". experience and likely local conditions would need
to be taken fully into account in setting such guid-
A "worst case" would be to assume that all of the ance for the first response capability, second and
contents of a road tanker are spilt, say a total of 38 subsequent responses and back up resources.

36 Fire Service Manual

To illustrate some of the factors that could be taken Supply of backup foam stocks and rapid access to
into account, the following three cases, involving further water supplies would need to be provided
tanker crashes, are considered. urgently since, in a multiple pile-up, secondary
spills and fire are probable. The water supply prob-
(i) Motorway Tanker Crash lem is eased by the availability of hydrants on
some motorways.
A tanker crash on a motorway may involve high
speeds, high impact energy and therefore a rapid (ii) Rural Tanker Crash
liquid discharge over a relatively flat surface. It is
normal practice in some brigades to dispatch a first A rural tanker crash is likely to lead to a less exten-
response team of four appliances to such incidents. sive spill. Roads are narrower, more cambered and
The main objective in fighting fires following a often flanked by banks or ditches. In these cases
motorway tanker crash is to control and extinguish the brigade is more likely to be called upon to tack-
fire around exposed vehicles prior to attempting le a number of smaller isolated fires in accumula-
the rescue of trapped or stranded motorists. For tions of liquid, particularly since with longer
such incidents, there are arguments for more than response times shallow spills will have been
the 25% foam provision discussed above, howev- burned off. There would be some justification for
er, the emphasis should be on very rapid deploy- less than 25% of the calculated foam supply figure,
ment of the first attack. although water supplies are likely to be a major

Figure 6.1 A rural road incident.

Photo: Warwickshire Fire and Rescue Service)

Firefighting Foam 37
Figure 6.1 An urban tanker incident.
( Photo: Surrey Fire and Rescue Service)

problem, and additional water carrying capacity which will have sufficient resources to meet the
may be considered necessary. demand. Other complications which need to be
considered in preplanning are:
(iii) Urban Tanker Crash
local evacuation from the area could be
An urban location for a tanker crash involves a fur- affected by a vapour cloud accumulation;
ther set of considerations. Water will be readily
available, brigade response time rapid and flam- traffic control;
mable liquid leakage rates generally lower because
of reduced impact speeds. However, there is a notifying of water authority and local media
severe risk of secondary fires being started which of explosion potential in sewers;
may become life threatening. Whilst there are
fewer physical factors calling for a large foam flushing and venting of sewers;
attack, the exposure of human life can be severe
and there may be more need than in rural areas for LEL (Lower Explosive Limit) measure-
use of conventional water branches to extinguish ment.
secondary fires.
If the foam supplied with the first response is not
There should be far less difficulty in an urban area best suited to the flammable liquid involved then
in obtaining a strong and rapid backup response reserve stocks of a more compatible foam could be

38 Fire Serv ice Manual

called up. In the meantime it is common practice to a possibility of multiple secondary class A fires,
tackle the fire with whatever foam is available, and particularly where the rail track is elevated above
this must obviously continue to be brigade policy surrounding property or where buildings look
as it could take a considerable time for the alterna- down upon the track. In rural areas there can be
tive foam to arrive. severe problems of access and it may require time
to lay on adequate water supplies.
(b) Rail Tanker Crash
In the case of a single rail tanker car spilling its
As with road transport, many flammable liquids contents rapidly over a flat surface, the area which
and toxic chemicals are transported by rail through could be covered to a spill depth of 25mm is
urban and rural areas of the country. There are two 4.000m2 for a 100m-3 tanker and 1800m2 for a
types of rail tanker car generally used. A two axle 45m3 tanker. Using the Home Office minimum
car of approximately 45m1 (45,000 litres) capacity, recommended application rates (see Chapter 4) of
and a bogie car of approximately l00m3(100,000 4 lpm/m2 for film-forming foam concentrates over
litre) capacity. Diesel locomotives can haul up to the minimum application time for a spill fire of 15
1,500 tonnes, and trains of two axle cars could minutes gives a foam solution demand of 16,000
comprise of as many as 22 cars. lpm for the larger tanker and 7,200 lpm for the
smaller.
The potential exists for a major incident arising
from a rail crash. A wide range of risks are For the larger tanker, this would require total
involved which require a variety of equipment and resources of 240,000 litres of foam solution, con-
flexibility of approach from the fire service. sisting of 7,200 litres of 39c film-forming foam
concentrate and 232,800 litres of water, nine
pumping appliances and thirty six 450 lpm branch-
If LPG or similar liquefied gases es or nine 1,800 lpm monitors.
are being transported there is a For the smaller tanker the equivalent requirements
risk of a BLEVE. Depending on would be 108,000 litres of foam solution consist-
the result of an operational risk ing of 3,240 litres of 3% foam concentrate and
104,760 litres of water, four appliances, and 16
assessment at such an incident, branches or four monitors.
it may be considered that a
policy of evacuation of a wide From a practical viewpoint, assuming a fuel burn-
ing rate of around 4mm per minute, the fire would
area may be the only safe burn itself out in just over 7 minutes if no fire-
course of action. fighting took place. However, the surface around a
rail crash is likely to be very uneven leading to a
series of pool fires which will last longer than a
spill fire but may require the same amount of foam
Even with ordinary flammable and combustible delivery equipment because of their physical sepa-
liquids, exposed tanks can rupture suddenly and ration.
violently. If a passenger train is involved, there is
the possibility of a major rescue operation in par- If it is assumed that because of the unevenness of
allel with firefighting activities. the surface of the ground, the area of the burning
liquid is reduced to a quarter of that for a spill, and
The speeds at which trains travel and their large that a foam application duration of 30 minutes
momentum means that when a crash occurs, strong would be required because of the deeper accumu-
forces can be brought to bear on the tankers, giv- lations of liquid, then a practical estimate of first
ing a high chance of major damage to the structure response capability is 50% of the figures calculat-
and rapid discharge of the contents. In urban areas ed above.
the potential life exposure can be high and there is

Firefighting Foam 39
 Figure 6.3
Rail incident involving
petroleum tanker
trucks.
(Photo: Humberside Fire
Brigade)

There are many chances of complications with a ation, maintaining supplies of foam concentrate
rail tanker crash, and caution would lead most fire and repositioning equipment. For such incidents it
brigades to mobilise a considerably larger first is common to mobilise more appliances than
response and rapidly arrange for support to be pro- required for operational use to ensure adequate
vided. numbers of personnel are available.

Tactics for such an incident require considerable (c) Aircraft Crash

flexibility. Water supplies may be restricted in the
early stages, and the best use of limited quantities Generally at aircraft incidents on airports or airfields
of water is to lay a foam blanket beneath exposed the Local Authority Fire Brigade augment the airport
vehicles. FP or an alcohol resistant foam would be fire service. The attendance time for the airport fire
preferable because of their good heat resistance service to any incident that occurs anywhere on their
and stability. Water will be required for class A airfield is normally less than two minutes although
fires either in the surrounding area or in the interi- regulations state it must be less than 3 minutes. The
or of passenger coaches. Water monitors may also airport fire service will have emergency plans for
be needed for cooling exposed tanks, particularly most eventualities and it is likely that they will have
if they are exposed to a flare fire. A further tank been put into action well before the arrival of the
rupture must be expected and tactics set out with Local Authority Fire Brigade.
rapid redeployment or retreat in mind. Care would
need to be exercised to ensure that any foam blan- In addition, the airport fire service must attend
ket in the area is not broken down and that liquid incidents up to 1000 metres from the runway
fuel, especially if already burning, is not spread threshold but, for incidents further afield, they may
over a wider area by the application of water. attend in a reduced capacity, depending on the dis-
tance from the airport.
In major incidents, such as a rail tanker crash, the
availability of personnel may be a more critical In an off-airport crash incident, a situation could
factor than equipment. Firefighters are needed for arise where say a Boeing 747 crashes, after take-
hose laying to water sources, rescue, relief, evacu- off, several miles from an airport. Such an aircraft

40 Fire Service Manual

Figure 6.4
Aircraft crash on
approach to airport.
(Photo: Warwickshire hire and
Rescue Service)

could be virtually fully laden with Jet Al (aviation In these circumstances, there is a risk of fire from
kerosene) which amounts to about 136m3 (136,000 free fuel flowing out of broken fuel tanks and fuel
litres). lines. This fuel should be immediately covered
with a thick layer of foam. Frequent replenishment
If ignition takes place, it is possible that much of of the foam blanket would be required in order to
the spill would have burned or drained away with- ensure continued protection. At all times, foam
in 10 to 20 minutes of the incident and probably by application should be as gentle as possible in order
the time the first Local Authority Fire Brigade to minimise fuel contamination of the foam. Even
appliances arrived at the scene of the incident. The when a suitable foam blanket has been applied,
initial crash/rescue teams to arrive might have to sufficient firefighting equipment should be
control and extinguish a large number of wide- deployed, with firefighters in constant attendance,
spread class A fires and class B pool fires whilst in case a fire breaks out within or around the foam
assisting any survivors from the incident or from blanket (see Chapter 5, Section 2(a) (viii)).
involved buildings, vehicles etc. In addition, flam-
mable vapours would be given off from any Should a large fire break out. then a mass applica-
unburnt fuel for several hours after the incident tion of foam would be required in order to sup-
and this, too, would need to be dealt with. press the fire. Given the limited resources likely to
Problems of adequate water supply and access are be available, the main objective of the attack
likely to hamper any large scale firefighting exer- should be to keep the fire away from any survivors
cise and therefore it is unlikely that large amounts and rescue personnel without obstructing their
of foam concentrate would be required. escape route.

Not all aircraft crashes will result in fire. There Foam branches should be positioned as closely as
have been occasions where aircraft have crash possible to the fuselage, the initial discharge being
landed at low speed and from low altitude. In such directed so that the foam drives the fire outwards
situations, the aircraft may have broken into sever- and away from the wreckage. If possible, fire
al large parts without bursting into flames. It is should be kept at least 15 metres away from an
possible that there could be many survivors. intact fuselage.

Firefighting Foam 41
Great caution should be used when applying foam In the first instance, attempts should be made to
near to wreckage as there is a risk of flushing fuel isolate the flow of oil to the fire. It may be neces-
under or into the fuselage where it can present a sary to lay a blanket of sea water compatible low
far more serious hazard. Similar care should be expansion alcohol resistant film-forming or fluo-
taken to avoid the possibility of a water jet dis- roprotein foam to help to protect firefighters from
turbing any foam blanket already laid on a liquid deck level fires and provide water fog sprays to
fuel surface. cool and protect as they enter enclosed spaces.
Any means of venting the enclosed space by
In addition, there may be areas where firefighting means of ducts, louvers, dampers or hatches
foam will not penetrate and so other suitable should be carried out with the assistance of the
extinguishants such as CO2 and dry powder ships chief engineer.
should be made available. The use of these back-
up agents should be confined to spreading and To achieve safe entry into a ship and perform a fire
running liquid fuel fires, the inhibition of search is a challenging and hazardous operation
enclosed spaces such as wing voids, or to deal even for skilled firefighters. In addition to the
with special fires such as in engine nacelles or usual problems of using breathing apparatus in
undercarriage assemblies. dark confined spaces, layers of hot gas may be
encountered beneath deck levels, or thermal up-
(d) Marine Fires drafts from shafts. Progress is inevitably slow and
the steel work is likely to be very hot in places.
The UK fire service is not responsible for combat- Reserve crews will probably be required and pro-
ing fires offshore in UK territorial waters. tracted working should be expected.
However, any fire brigade with coastal boundaries
may exercise its power under the Fire Services Act If low expansion foam does not reduce the level of
1947 (as amended by the Merchant Shipping and the fire sufficiently to gain entry, or if access is dif-
Maritime Security Act 1997, Section 3), to attend ficult, it may be necessary to use medium or high
fires at sea outside its areas particularly where expansion foam to control the fire and to cool heat-
human life was endangered. The following Section ed steel plates to prevent damage to hoses and to
looks at three examples of marine fires where fire- prevent reignition. In addition, cooling may be
fighting foams may be used. required to prevent heat transmission starting fires
in the cargo or other areas of the ship. Foam induc-
(i) Engine Room tion must take place at deck level and, if the fire is
on the lower decks of a large ship, it may be nec-
The example chosen is from a 2,000 tonne coastal essary to reduce pumping pressure.
tanker, although it is quite possible that fire
brigades could be called to attend fires in any size The logistics of mounting a medium expansion
of vessel from a yacht up to a ultra large crude car- foam attack involve considerable quantities of
rier (ULCC) of 400,000 tonnes or more. The prin- foam concentrate and there may be difficulties
ciples of operation are similar for all steel con- in providing this if the ship is at sea in rough
struction vessels, but the complexity of the entry weather.
route, access to the engine room and size of the
room itself would vary considerably. When discharged into an area with many hot metal
surfaces, the initial foam application will be large-
A fire could occur from an oil fuel pipe breakage ly destroyed. The resulting cooling effect is useful,
in the machinery space, with oil leaking onto the but steam generation can be a further hazard to
engine room deck and being ignited as a result of firefighters. For this reason, the foam requirements
contact with hot metal surfaces. If the on board calculated in the following example are probably
suppression systems (e.g. CO2 or inert gas sys- far lower than those needed in practice
tems) and first aid firefighting fail to extinguish
the fire, then the fire service will be asked to Assuming a 10m x 10m engine compartment is to
attend. be filled with a 2m depth of medium expansion

42 Fire Service Manual

foam, the material and equipment and foam called, this is probably as a result of the equipment
requirements would be: being out of service or of it being inadequate for
the purpose.
200m3 of medium expansion foam;
Deck fires are more likely to be intense during
Assuming the use of 450 lpm MX foam- pumped loading and unloading operations, in
making branches, with an output of 19.5m3 which case back-up support should be available
of finished foam per minute; from the adjacent jetty. However, various cleaning
and transfer activities take place at sea and may
200m3 would require one branch for approx- give rise to a running/spill oil fire.
imately 10 minutes or two branches for
approximately 5 minutes; The firefighters arriving on the scene must
quickly assess the area of deck that could be
the foam solution requirement for two affected by the spill and appropriate quantities
branches is 2 x 450 lpm x 5 minutes = of foam concentrate and branches should be
4,500; requested. If the fire is large and spillage of
flowing oil extends into the sea, assistance
at 3% concentration, 4.500 x 3% = 135 litres from firefighting tugs may be required.
of 3% foam concentrate is required; Communications and co-ordination should be
maintained between the fire service, coast guard
this is equivalent to 7 x 20 litre drums of 3% and the ship's master.
foam concentrate.
Low expansion foam, either a salt water compati-
More foam concentrate and foam solution than ble film-forming or FP foam would be suitable at
that calculated above would be required to allow the Home Office recommended minimum applica-
for foam burn off and for continued application. tion rates and minimum application times for spill
The extra allowance for foam burn off is substan- fires. However, in reality, conditions at sea are
tial but varies with the length of pre-burn and the likely to result in higher application rates, applica-
mass of steel exposed. tion times and hence greater quantities of foam
concentrate being required.
Estimates of up to three times the initial calculated
application quantity could be used to allow for Under normal conditions, water is available direct
burn off and a further three times the initial esti- from the ships hydrant system although booster
mate for continued application after fire extin- pumps may be necessary in some cases.
guishment. However, in an area where the struc-
ture has a high thermal capacity, such as an engine If possible, attempts should be made to shut off the
room, even this may not be enough. Allowing for flow of oil to the spill. Water fog sprays and low
foam burn off and continued application in such a expansion foam streams may be necessary to
situation could result in as much as 10 times the ensure firefighters are protected whilst they reach
amount of foam concentrate calculated above the necessary isolating valves.
being required. That is 1,350 litres of 3% foam
concentrate, the equivalent of 68 drums. In addition, it may be necessary to close hatches
and ventilation louvers to prevent burning oil from
(ii) Deck Fire entering further into the ship.

In the case of a similar sized coastal tanker, this Once sufficient foam stocks and branches have
example considers a deck fire originating from an arrived, a concentrated low expansion foam attack
oil leak in the deck pipe work system. Tankers nor- can be mounted from a safe distance gradually lay-
mally carry their own on board foam systems to ing foam onto the edge of the spill, working back
cover the deck area. These are normally operated to the source of the fire.
by the crew, however, if the fire service have been

Firefighting Foam 43
Additional water hoses may be required to cool hot tanks after extinguishment of the fire on the liquid
steel surfaces to prevent re-ignition and possible surface. Unless extinguished or dislodged, these
spread of fire to the stored cargo. However, care deposits can fall back into the cargo and cause
should be taken to ensure that foam blankets are reignition hours after the first extinguishment.
not broken down and that liquid fuels, and liquid
fuel fires, are not spread by cooling water. (e) Terminals - Jetties

(iii) Cargo Tank Fires The UK fire service is responsible for controlling
and extinguishing fires on oil and gas terminal jet-
If a cargo tank fire has developed after a collision ties. Where jetties are sited in remote areas, fire
with a similar coastal tanker carrying fuel oil and brigade response times may be high. On arrival,
the assistance of the local fire services has been firefighters will often be faced with restricted
requested by the ship's master, the firefighters access and the need to carry equipment along jet-
must initially assess the requirements for foam ties to reach the remote loading sections. In more
concentrate, branches and equipment. populous river estuary sites, there is the potential
for exposure to the surrounding community, par-
Where burning oil is spilling from a ruptured tank ticularly from burning oil slicks on the water or
into the sea, it may be necessary for the firefight- burning vessels drifting from their moorings.
ers to call for the assistance of firefighting tugs.
The quantities of foam concentrate required All of these factors make the provision of adequate
depend on the area of the cargo tank and here fixed fire protection facilities on jetties a high pri-
advice is required from the ship's master. Further ority.
quantities of foam concentrate would also be
required for the spill fire. Low expansion foam, The majority of jetties should be equipped with the
either a sea water compatible film-forming or FP following:
foam, would be suitable at the Home Office rec-
ommended minimum application rates and mini- Fire pumps providing fresh or sea water to
mum application times for spill fires or for tank the jetty hydrants and monitors.
fires (see Chapter 4). depending on the depth of
fuel and the size of the cargo tanks. In estimating Multi outlet hydrants with hose connections
the quantity of foam needed in the cargo tank, along the jetty approach way.
further allowance should be made for burn off
and re-application. This may involve up to four Hose, branches, monitors, inductors and
times the calculated amount of foam for each of foam concentrate.
burn off and re-application.
Water monitors, adjustable or remotely
Once sufficient stocks of foam and branches have operated, which are fitted with jet/fog noz-
arrived, the foam attack should be concentrated at zles. These may be arranged to provide a
a safe distance from the windward side on each water curtain between the jetty and the ship,
tank until the fire is controlled. If the up-draught or for cooling the ship loading manifold area
from the seat of the fire is too high for the foam or the jetty head area.
streams to penetrate, other entrances should be
found to apply the foam blanket. Multi outlet hydrants along the jetty deck,
together with adapters for international
When the lank fire has been extinguished, the shore-ship connections.
foam application should be continued until the sur-
rounding steel plates are sufficiently cool so as not Open water spray nozzles installed at the
to reignite the remaining oil. ship side of the loading facility at various
elevations.
Glowing char embers often remain adhering to the
upper walls and roof on the inside of oil cargo

44 Fire Service Manual

 Foam monitors positioned at such an eleva- buildings, it is possible that damage to the sup-
tion that the jetty deck and the ship's deck porting structure and fire spread to the remainder
are covered at all elevations. The loam mon- of the building could occur. In a high rise
itors should be adjustable and may be fitted building, fire spread, structural damage or smoke
with either hydraulic or electronic remote logging could have particularly serious conse-
controls. quences.

There should also be space at the jetty External foam inlets are usually used to deliver
approach for firefighting appliances and low or medium expansion foam into the room and
bulk foam vehicles. ventilation panels should be removed to clear
smoke logging. At this stage it may be possible to
If a fire occurs at a loading station on an oil termi- enter the boiler room and isolate the source of any
nal, the fixed equipment should be operated to fuel leak.
maximum effect. This is to ensure that personnel
can be evacuated quickly and safely and that the When used in conjunction with a single hose inlet,
jetty is protected from exposure to the fire. one 450 lpm MX branch would produce approxi-
mately 15m3/min of finished foam (this figure
With this degree of fixed protection, the need for allows for a reduction in the expansion of the foam
intervention by the fire service with large amounts of due to the restricting effect of the foam inlet).
equipment is greatly reduced. A first attendance of
two fire appliances should be able to supplement the For a boiler room fire, a 2m foam blanket should
fixed systems in the event of minor sections failing be produced. To achieve this in a boiler room of
to function. However, the equipment handling prob- floor area l00m2 would require the following foam
lems may require considerable resources of person- resources:
nel and the response should take this into account.
The considerable potential for serious loss should Total amount of finished foam required
mean that a strong second response backed up by
firefighting tugs is provided. In the event of vessel = Height of room x floor area
impact on the jetty it may be necessary to isolate sec- = 2m x 100m2
tions of the fixed fire protection system so that the
undamaged portion near to the shore can remain in = 200m-3
operation.
Total foam application time
Isolated sections of jetty may well be dealt with by
fire boats. = Total amount of finished foam
Branch output per minute
(f) Boiler Rooms
= 200m3
Oil-fired boiler rooms in commercial and industri- 15m3/min
al properties are a specific example of where fire
brigades use firefighting foams on a routine basis. = 13 minutes 20 seconds
Most boilers in the UK are equipped with auto-
matic shut-off valves on the fuel supply line at the Total amount of foam solution required
point of entry to the boiler house. When the fire
brigade arrives at the scene of a boiler room fire, it = Branch flow x Total foam application
is often difficult or dangerous to gain access and time
determine the extent of the potential fire. = 450 lpm x 13 minutes 20 seconds

The risk exists of an oil tank rupture leading to a = 6,000 litres

major fire and possibly a boiler explosion. Since
boiler houses are usually at the lower levels of

Firefighting Foam 45
 Total amount of 3% foam concentrate there has been no research into determining
required suitable application rates;

= Total foam solution x Foam concentration up to 3 times the theoretical quantity may be
100 needed for re-application and for burn off in
= 6.000 litres x 3_ warehouse fires.
100
= 180 litres (h) Vapour Suppression
Total amount of water required This example illustrates the use of firefighting
foams in vapour suppression. In the event of a
= Total foam solution collision between an LPG road tanker and other
- Total foam concentrate road vehicles, damage to the tank could result in
= 6.000 litres discharge of the contents onto the road. When the
- 180 litres fire services are alerted to this type of situation, the
seriousness of an LPG spill is recognised and a
= 5,820 litres series of emergency planning procedures are set in
motion.
No allowance has been made in the above figures
for burn off or for any necessary re-application. Several appliances are sent to the scene of the inci-
dent and their approach is made from up-wind of
(g) Warehouses the crash. After the leak is isolated, it is estimated
that the spill could extend to about 2,000m2 and it
Medium expansion foam can be effective in com- is calculated that 4 high expansion foam generators
bating low-level storage warehouse fires, particu- each producing 133m-Vmin of finished foam at 7
larly where a mixture of storage is involved pro- bar from 225 lpm of foam solution, could cover the
ducing a class A fire with possible involvement of spill, with an average blanket thickness of around 2
class B liquid fuels. metres, in approximately 8 minutes. This would
require approximately 108 litres of SYNDET foam
The potential advantages of using medium expan- concentrate when used at 1.5% concentration.
sion foam in such situations are:
The above calculations represent the absolute min-
visibility can be retained - unlike when imum application that could be expected for such
using high expansion foam; an incident. No allowances have been made for re-
application during a prolonged incident or for
it provides greater volumes of extinguishing replacing foam blown away from the spill by wind.
agent than low expansion foam and possibly Due to the poor flow characteristics of high expan-
represents a better use of resources. sion foam, problems may also be experienced in
covering areas of the spill furthest away from the
The main disadvantages are: foam generators.

the foam cannot be projected as easily as Simultaneously to blanketing the spill with high
low expansion foam giving problems in expansion foam, vapour dispersion/control mea-
delivery to the seat of the fire, especially in sures should be taken as follows:
large warehouses;
The vapour cloud already formed would be
it is unsuited to fires involving materials visible as a white fog due to condensed mois-
stored above 2m high; ture. However, this is not necessarily the limit
of the gas cloud. To effectively monitor the
cloud location, explosiometers are required.

it may not be effective on deep seated fires;

46 Fire Service Manual

Possible movement of the gas cloud should
be anticipated and the area of the probable
path evacuated and sources of ignition elim-
inated.

Dense curtains of water can be used to direct

the gas cloud away from ignition sources
that cannot be eliminated. Monitors, fan
sprays and branches set in fixed positions
will enable firefighters to retreat from
potentially dangerous situations where they
might be exposed to the gas cloud.

Once the gas cloud has dispersed to the

extent that its concentration is below the
lower explosive limit (LEL) a search should
be made of any low lying areas to disperse
other possible pockets of accumulated gas.

Firefighting Foam 47
Firefighting Foam Chapter

7
Chapter 7 - Storage Tank Fires

7.1 Introduction
In this Chapter, the use of conventional fire service
equipment to tackle storage tank fires is discussed.

Areas covered include fire development, the par-

ticular problems that can be posed by these fires,
the facilities available at refinery and storage tank
farms, the logistical problems that can occur due to
the large amount of conventional equipment and Figure 7. 1 lank well alight. Paint scorched on adjacent
tank (Photo: Essex Fire and Rescue Service)
supplies needed to fight these fires and the fire-
fighting tactics that could be used. These aspects
are illustrated in several fire scenarios. As with the
scenarios described in Chapter 6. these are ide-
alised cases and it is appreciated that the timing,
aims and problems associated with real fires will
vary considerably from incident to incident.

Whilst the fire scenarios are primarily concerned

with the tactics, equipment and materials needed
to tackle storage tank fires, there would also be a
need for personnel to conduct support operations.
Figure 7.2 hire subsiding. Cooling in progress.
This would be provided by firefighters whose
(Photo: Essex Fire and Rescue Service)
appliances would not be directly involved in the
fire attack. The support operations are not consid-
ered in these scenarios.

7.2 Common Problems With

Refineries and Storage Tank
Farms
By far the most common problems with refineries
and storage tank farms are as follows:

• vehicular access, movement and parking; Figure 7.3 Fire extinguished. Foaming continued to ensure
security of foam blanket. (Photo:Essex Fire and Rescue Service)
• space for hose distribution;
• suitable locations for the deployment of
performance limitation of existing equip-
delivery equipment;
ment, particularly the maximum range and
• inadequate water supplies; height of monitor foam streams.

Previous page
is blank Firefighting Foam 49
Access to and around storage tank bunds is often of around 9m diameter can have hand-held branch
by means of a 3-4m wide road near to the outer lines as a primary means of protection and tanks
base of the bund wall and in many cases this must up to a limit of approximately 20m diameter can
meet the simultaneous needs of monitor placement rely on portable foam monitors. If this equipment
and operation, and appliance movement, parking is not available, or if tanks are greater than 20m in
and operation. diameter, then fixed systems are recommended as
the primary means of fire protection.
Deployment of monitors should ideally be on, or
better still outside, the bund wall. This is not always In general, those who have had experience in fight-
possible as the walls may be too far from the tank. ing tank fires agree with the standards in that con-
ventional equipment can be used successfully in
The predetermined marshalling area for the "over-the-top" applications to tanks with diameters
pumps, foam supplies and foam induction equip- of up to 20m (an over-the-top application refers to
ment should be as close as possible to the fire foam that has been projected over the sides of a stor-
ground without putting either personnel or equip- age tank and on to the surface of the fuel). In addi-
ment at risk from the fire or potential spread of the tion, many experienced firefighters maintain that
fire. Every effort should be made to avoid com- conventional equipment can be used successfully
mitting personnel and equipment inside the bund for fighting fires in tanks of up to 45m in diameter;
although this may sometimes be necessary (see above 45m diameter, they believe that conventional
this Chapter, Section 5 (b) (x)). equipment cannot be successful. In addition, the
logistics of using conventional equipment for these
One of the major difficulties created by the often larger fires are said to be far too difficult. However,
inadequate number of hydrant outlets available there are even significant problems involved in
and the distance between them is the need for an tackling fires in tanks between 18m and 45m.
excessive number of hose lengths when using stan-
dard firefighting equipment. (c) Tank Height

7.3 Tank Size The height of storage tanks can pose severe prob-
lems when using conventional equipment. Many
(a) General foam monitors are unable to project foam over
tank walls in normal circumstances. In addition,
Storage tanks for flammable and combustible liq- when the distance of the bund wall from the tank
uids in excess of 91m diameter and 27m high are sides is taken into account, often in the order of 50
used in the UK. Tanks in the range 45m to 91m metres, the limited throw of conventional foam
diameter tend to be predominantly of the floating equipment can pose even more problems.
roof design although some fixed roof tanks of over
45m diameter do exist. The 27m high tanks are of 7.4 Fire Development
older design and can generally be found in con-
gested refineries and depots that are in traditional (a) Ignition
industrial areas such as along the North Thames
Estuary. Where space is available, tank heights can The first phase of any tank fire is ignition and
be as low as 15m development to the stage where the tank surface is
fully involved in fire. Ignition can occur from
(b) Tank Diameter many different sources, for example, lightning
strikes, static electricity or burning embers from
The effect of increased tank diameter on the flare stacks.
severity of storage tank fires is well recognised in
standards. Standards for tank installations give (b) Fire Plume
guidelines intended to show when fixed firefight-
ing protection measures should be considered. The fire plume from a fully involved tank fire can
These standards consider that tanks up to a limit be several hundreds of metres in height. The

50 Fire Service Manual

rapidly rising flame and smoke can radiate heat to view, for the fire to be extinguished. In addition,
the surroundings and draw fresh air in at the base further losses may occur if other nearby tanks are
creating, in some cases, strong artificial winds at damaged or even ignited by the radiant heat due to
ground level. In some circumstances, these the spacing between tanks being inadequate or due
incoming winds can help to cool the area around a to unfavourable wind conditions. The environmen-
burning tank making working conditions more tal impact of a major storage tank fire is consider-
bearable. able. Concerns of air pollution alone could build
up public pressure against a policy of "let it burn".
Local wind conditions can incline the angle of the
column so that it closely approaches, or in some The liquid fuel contained within a tank will be
cases impinges directly upon, nearby structures consumed at a burn rate which will vary according
including other storage tanks. If the tank on fire is to the type of fuel and the conditions (e.g. wind
partially empty, then the exposed ullage may begin strength, air temperature, surface area of fire) but a
to distort and collapse inwards towards the surface rate of 4mm of liquid depth per minute is often
of the burning liquid. This process may happen quoted as an average for hydrocarbons such as
suddenly, or may develop over a period of hours, petrol. For crude oils, burning rates have been esti-
leading to a situation where the wall of the tank mated to be as low as 0.2 mm per minute and as
can be scrolled over and touching the surface of high as 15mm per minute depending on the type of
the burning liquid. This is a further complication crude.
for firefighters since the scrolled wall can shield a
large area of burning liquid from direct foam In the case of single boiling point liquids, the sur-
attack. face temperature of the liquid will never rise above
the boiling point of the liquid no matter how much
(c) Fuel heat is generated by the fire. Evaporation from the
surface cools the liquid and hence the greater the
Crude oil, unrefined products and mixtures of heat absorbed by the liquid surface the faster liquid
flammable liquids, can be more difficult to extin- vaporises, and the more intense is the fire.
guish in storage tank fires compared with single
boiling point liquids. The presence of volatile With flammable liquid mixtures, such as crude oils
"light ends" in these types of fuel tends to cause and partially refined products, there may be very
disruption to any foam blanket that has already hot layers of high boiling point residue at or near
been applied. If the foam blanket is not sufficient- the surface, or even crusts of coke may form on the
ly deep, vapour can permeate the foam and ignite burning surface.
so greatly reducing its resistance to heat and
flames. Foams that "pick-up" fuel when applied Water-miscible fuels require higher application
(i.e. where the foam blanket mixes and becomes rates due to their destructive effects on foams.
contaminated with fuel) can also cause a similar Alcohol resistant type foams should always be
breakdown of the foam blanket. used for these types of applications.

The Home Office recommended minimum appli- Problems are experienced with fully involved
cation times (see Chapter 4) are longer for appli- cryogenic storage tank fires such as ethylene, LPG
cations to fuels that have a flash point below 40°C, or other similar liquefied gases. To apply water or
this is a consequence of their increased volatility. low expansion foam to the liquid surface would
cause it to warm up which in turn would increase
Flammable liquid tank fires will eventually burn to the evaporation rate and intensify the fire. High
extinction although this is likely to take many expansion foam can be applied to pool fires of
hours or even days. However, severe problems can these fuels when held in retention bunds, however,
occur during this time due to slop-overs and boil- this is not the case for tank fires because this type
overs (see this Chapter, Section 5 (b) (xiii)). Also, of foam cannot be projected any appreciable dis-
the cost of the product in the tank involved in the tance. There is generally little alternative in these
fire can make it desirable, from an owners point of cases other than to pump out as much of the tank

Firefighting Foam 5 1
contents as possible, cool the tank to avoid col- it is assumed that cooling of the adjacent
lapse and allow the fuel to burn out under control. storage tank is required for a total of 4 hours
to allow enough time for resources to be col-
7.5 Practical Scenarios lected and the fire to be fought. Tank cool-
ing continues during the firefighting period.
(a) Example of Resources Required For
A Storage Tank Fire From this information, the following can be calcu-
lated:
The figures quoted below are based on a fire inci-
dent involving a 45m diameter by 15m high crude Firefighting Foam and Water Requirements
oil storage tank with nearby storage tanks that
would require water cooling. The following Surface area of the top of the tank
assumptions are made in order to demonstrate the
size of the logistic problem when using conven- = πr2 (where π = 3.142 and r = tank radius)
tional equipment:
= 3.142 x (22.5m)2
a 3% alcohol resistant film-forming foam is
applied at the Home Office recommended = 1,591 m2
minimum application rate of 7.3 litres/
min/m2 for a period of 60 minutes. This = approximately 1,6(K) m2 tank surface
application rate assumes that all of the area
foam produced is being projected onto,
and reaching, the surface of the fire. This Total quantity of foam solution required
application rate, water requirements,
foam concentrate requirements and = application rate x application time x tank
hence the number of pumps, monitors top surface area
and associated equipment, may all need
to be increased by up to 60% to take into = 7.3 lpm/m2 x 60 minutes x 1,600 m2
account foam that does not reach the fire
due to losses caused by the effects of foam = 700,800 litres
stream fall-out, wind, thermal up-
draughts etc. (see Chapter 4, Section 2); = approximately 701,000 litres of foam
solution
hydrants available at 80m intervals with
4 x 70mm outlets; Total amount of foam concentrate
required
it has been assumed that the hose layout will
be idealised, i.e. the minimum number of = Total foam solution x foam concentration
hose lengths needed to cover the distances 100
involved have been used; = 701.000 litres x 3
100
exposure protection to an adjacent storage = 21,030 litres
tank of similar size to be at the maximum
rate of 10.2 litres/min/m2 (see this Chapter. = approximately 21,100 litres of
Section 5 (b) (ii) for discussion of cooling foam concentrate
rates for adjacent tanks - 2 litres/min/m2 (more than 1050 drums, each
may be more appropriate), the storage tank containing 20 litres)
is approximately 1 tank diameter away from
the burning tank;

52 Fire Service Manual

 Total amount of water required for foam The figures above are for a 60 minute foam appli-
production cation period and a 4 hour water cooling period.
During the firefighting period, assuming that cool-
= Total amount of foam solution ing of the adjacent tank continues, the water flows
- Total amount of foam concentrate required would be approximately 11,500 lpm for
foam production and approximately 13,000 lpm
= 701,000 litres-21,100 litres for cooling the adjacent tank making a total of
24,500 1pm. In addition, the 3% film-forming
= 679,900 litres foam concentrate supply would be approximately
360 litres per minute making the total amount of
= approximately 680,000 litres of water liquid required during the firefighting phase of this
for foam making incident nearly 25.000 lpm.

Cooling Water Requirements For To supply this would require the following exam-
Adjacent Storage Tank ples of firefighting equipment:

Total surface area of adjacent tank Monitors = 14

(each 1900 1pm. 7 foam monitors,
= area of tank top + area of tank sides 7 water monitors)

= 1.600 m2 + (tank height x tank Pumps = 14

circumference) (one per monitor, each pump 2250 1pm)

= 1,600 m2 + (I5m x (2 x π x r)) Hydrant outlets = 28

(where π = 3.142 and r = tank radius 22.5m) (2 per monitor)

= 1,600 m2 + 2121 m2 Lengths of 70mm = 104 (2.6 km)

hose (each 25m)
= 3.712 m2
For the foam attack, 7 monitors would be fed from
= approximately 3,800 m2 total surface 4 hydrants using 14 outlets and an estimated mini-
area of adjacent tank mum of 24 lengths of 70mm hose to supply the
pumps and 28 from pumps to monitors.
Total cooling water required for adjacent
tank For the cooling water, 7 monitors would be fed
from 4 hydrants using 14 outlets and an estimated
= 1/3* x total area of tank x water minimum of 24 lengths of 70mm hose to supply
application rate x cooling time the pumps and 28 from pumps to monitors.

= 1/3 x 3.800 m2 x 10.2 lpm/m2 x 240 Table 7.1 contains information on the minimum
minutes total volumes of 3% and 6% foam concentrates
that are required for tanks of diameter 15m. 30m
= 3,100,800 litres and 45m when using the Home Office recom-
mended minimum application rates.
- approximately 3,101,000 litres of
cooling water The following Sections discuss typical tank fire
scenarios, the decision areas and the techniques
(*l/3 is assumed to be the proportion of the that could be used to deal with them.
surface area of the tank subject to direct
heat radiation from the fire, see this
Chapter, Section 5 (b) (iii))

Fire fighting Foam 53

Table 7.1: Storage Tank Fires - Approximate Total Foam Concentrate Requirements
For 60 Minutes Foam Application
Approximate Total Foam Concentrate
Requirements For 60 Minutes Application (litres)
Tank Surface Recommended FP AFFF FFFP AFFF-AR FFFP-AR
Diameter Area of Usage
Top of Concentration
Tank
(m) (m2) (%)

15 180 3% 2,600 2,200 2,200 2,200 2,200

6% 5,200 4,300 4,300 4,300 4,300
30 710 3% 10,300 8,400 8,400 8,400 8,400
6% 20,500 16,700 16,700 16,700 16,700
45 1,600 3% 26,000 21,100 21,100 21,100 21,100
6% 51,900 42,100 42,100 42,100 42,100

Notes to Table 7.1 :

1. The application rates that have been used to produce this table are the Home Office
recommended minimum (see Chapter 4).
2. All foam application times are the Home Office recommended minimum of 60 minutes
for storage tank fires (see Chapter 4).
3. No allowance has been made for foam concentrate requirements for increased foam application
rate during firefighting due to losses or for continued application after extinction. Losses could add
as much as 60% to each of the above foam concentrate requirements (see Chapter 4).
4. All figures are approximate.

(b) Techniques and Decision Areas necessary if the tank begins to buckle. Excessive
When Tackling Storage Tank Fires buckling could result in the rim curling inwards,
touching the fuel surface and preventing an even-
(i) General tual foam blanket spreading over the entire liquid
surface. Cooling water should be sprayed as even-
The following Sections outline some of the possi- ly as possible around the rim. This will help to
ble complications that can occur when fighting avoid uneven cooling which may cause even more
storage tank fires and the decision areas that need distortion of the tank rim.
to be considered. Ideally, many of these problem
areas would have been considered and decisions Cooling of the ullage of the involved tank is nec-
made in the preplanning that should have taken essary during the foam attack to help reduce the
place in anticipation of storage tank incidents temperature of the metal surface against which the
occurring. Information is also given on special foam is attempting to seal.
techniques that could assist firefighting operations
when using foam to extinguish storage tank fires. Oscillating water monitors will provide a wider
area of cooling water coverage around the ullage
(ii) Cooling the Involved Tank of the burning tank than is possible with fixed
monitors. They are preferred in instances where
It is only worthwhile cooling the ullage area of the cooling needs to be carried out from within the
tank involved in fire (i.e. the area of the tank edge bund because they can be left unattended.
above the level of the burning fuel). This may be

54 Fire Service Manual

Care should always be taken to ensure that cooling order to minimise these problems, the aim of cool-
water does not enter the tank because this will ing water application should be to only apply
break down the foam blanket and may speed the enough to generate steam from hot surfaces and
onset of slop-overs and boil-overs (see Section not to totally flood the adjacent tank and bund
(xiii) below). area.

(iii) Cooling an Exposed Tank The area of an adjacent tank that requires cooling
due to exposure to heat and flame is often estimat-
NFPA (US National Fire Protection Association) ed at between 25% and 50% of the tanks total sur-
recommend a water cooling rate for direct flame face area depending on its separation from the
impingement of exposed adjacent LPG pressure burning tank. For instance, for adjacent tanks at
vessels of 10.2 lpm/m2 when using fixed protec- only 1 diameter spacing, an estimate of 1/3 of the
tion water spray systems. tank surface requiring cooling is reasonable. For
tanks that have closer separations, more of the sur-
Generally, the NFPA cooling requirement is also face area of the exposed tank would require to be
often used as a guide for the use of portable moni- cooled.
tors in tank cooling applications and has been used
in the calculations in this Chapter and in Chapter The quantities of water that can be successfully
8. However, this water cooling rate is considered delivered by portable monitor nozzles to adjacent
by many experienced firefighters and petrochemi- tanks will vary depending on wind speed, wind
cal organisations to be excessive for the protection direction, nozzle type, pressure, distance of throw,
of atmospheric hydrocarbon storage tanks where monitor position and so on. In addition, portable
they are more likely to be subject only to radiated monitors tend to deliver water in a less even pat-
heat. They see this as diverting resources of organ- tern than fixed spray nozzles. However, it is possi-
isational time, equipment and water from a possi- ble to direct portable monitors more precisely
ble foam attack, and contributing to difficult towards the areas of adjacent tanks most affected
ground conditions in the area surrounding the fire. by the heat and flame of a burning tank.
If tank spacing is adequate, cooling can normally Alternatively, oscillating water monitors will pro-
be kept to a minimum and resources should be vide a wide and even area of cooling water.
concentrated on making a successful foam attack
even if cooling water requirements are cut back in Obviously, the amount of water and equipment
the process. However, cooling of pressurised and required for cooling can increase dramatically if a
exposed atmospheric tanks cannot be neglected, tank fire boils over. In this situation, not only are
particularly during prolonged pre-burn periods flames likely to get nearer to, or even engulf tanks
whilst a foam attack is being organised. within the same bund, but the heat from the flames
may also begin to affect tanks in other, adjacent
Experienced firefighters suggest that a water cool- bunds.
ing application rate of 2 Ipm/m2 of the surface area
exposed to radiated heat is adequate for this purpose Pressurised tanks, such as butane spheres should
and is a more realistic figure for use in preplanning be cooled to avoid excessive operation of the safe-
water requirements. Atmospheric tanks beyond 1.5 ty relief valve and to maintain a temperature mar-
times the diameter of the tank on fire may not gin in case of a later boil-over. Many pressurised
require cooling unless the fire plume is blown tanks have fire protection cladding or fixed spray
towards them. However, if water sprayed onto adja- protection systems. This should be confirmed with
cent tanks immediately turns ('flashes') to steam, the refinery management to ensure that the most
then cooling should commence immediately. appropriate cooling action is taken.

The use of too much cooling water for adjacent It is useful if a fire protection engineer is available
tanks can lead to supply flow and pressure prob- with a radiation calculation software programme
lems for the foam attack, overloading of drainage to make estimates of incident radiation and advise
systems and can lead to unwanted fuel spread. In on cooling.

Firefighting Foam 55
Apart from pressurised vessels, all cooling water those earlier, in Section 5(a), show that for a 45m
can be switched to the foam attack if necessary in diameter by 15m high crude oil storage tank the
order to achieve the required application rate. following are required as a minimum during a 60
minute foam attack and simultaneous cooling of an
(iv) Water Supply adjacent tank:

The total volume of water used for cooling can be 14 pumping appliances (each 2,250 Ipm)
far in excess of that required for the foam attack
due to the longer duration that can be involved in 14 monitors (each 1,900 Ipm, 7 water,
waiting for resources to arrive. Where there is a 7 foam)
need for extended periods of cooling, it is usually
necessary to complement or replenish any on-site 104 lengths of hose (70mm, 25m)
water supply system with a water relay from an
estuary, lake or other natural "'unlimited" water 21,100 litres of 3% concentrate
source.
7 foam dams
In some cases, the on-site fire pumps and mains
capacities at UK refineries are sufficient to meet 7 inductor systems for foam monitors
these high demands and in others they are not. The
most common deficiency seems to be the under- It is assumed that cooling water is applied to the
sizing of fire mains in storage tank farm areas adjacent tank at a rate of 10.2 lpm/m2 over one
which are often remote from the fire pumps. third of the surface area of that tank (2 lpm/m2 may
Hydrant mains should be capable of supplying the be a more appropriate rate, see this Chapter
maximum flowrates required at a residual pressure Section 5 (b) (iii) for further information). The cal-
in excess of 2 bars with a single section of main culations do not include the equipment and water
out of service in the hydraulically least favourable necessary to cool the ullage of the burning tank. It
position. should also be noted that the application rate (7.3
litres/minute/m2), water requirements, foam con-
In some areas, fire brigade pre-planning exercises centrate requirements and hence the number of
have highlighted deficiencies in supply which pumps, monitors and associated equipment, may
have been remedied by plant/refinery manage- all need to be increased by up to 60% to take into
ment. Fire hydrants should ideally be of the above account foam that does not reach the fire due to
ground type with four gated 70mm outlets and a losses caused by thermal up-draughts etc. (see
single 100mm, 125mm or 150mm outlet. In addi- Chapter 4, Section 2).
tion, the fire main should ideally be below ground,
with below ground isolation valves, to provide Ideally, it should be possible to assemble and
blast protection. Some UK refineries have large deploy this equipment with the required firefight-
capacity transportable pumps, with capacities of ing teams within 2 hours of the alarm. In practice,
up to 23,000 lpm, which can be used to supple- the logistical problems probably make 4 hours a
ment any short falls from the fire main. more realistic target. The foam attack should not
be started until the full range of equipment and
Brigades should try to ensure that, on at least a materials required is available on site. There are
yearly basis, all plant/refinery mains are thorough- many cases where resources have been wasted on
ly flushed through and all outlets are checked for premature piecemeal efforts.
correct operation.
(vi) Foam Types
(v) Marshalling Equipment and Materials
A review of the various types of foam concentrates
A pre-plan should be available showing the quan- available, and the characteristics and properties of
tity of firefighters, equipment and materials neces- finished foams are discussed in Volume 1.
sary to mount a foam attack. Calculations such as

56 Fire Service Manual

Ideally, primary aspirated foams for tank fire must be stressed that these methods will only give
application should be used at an expansion ratio of an indication of the formation of hot layers, they
6:1 or more and should give a 25% drainage time may not be uniform in cross-section and may only
in excess of 2 minutes in order to have effective be formed in the centre of the tank giving little or
heat resistance properties. no indication at the outer edges, (see also sub- sec-
tion xiii below)
FP foams exhibit good heat resistance properties,
such as edge sealing and burn back resistance but (viii) Circulation
are less effective at lower expansions than AFFF,
AFFF-AR, FFFP and FFFP-AR. If a hot layer is advancing down to the level where
it may encounter water, it can be useful to attempt
The AFFF and FFFP group of products only form breakage or dispersion by means of tank stirrers (if
aqueous films on certain hydrocarbon fuels. In fitted) or by injection of cold product, inert gas, air
large tank fire situations, the types of fuel stored or other fluid. However, the possible need for cir-
and the way in which they burn, generally prevents culation will not arise until an advancing hot layer
these foams from forming films on the surface of has been formed which is likely to be several hours
the fuel although the ability of these foams to read- after ignition.
ily flow across the fuel surface can produce quick-
er flame knockdown. Circulation will disrupt the surface of the burning
fuel. Consequently, in order to allow a foam blan-
FP. FFFP and FFFP-AR foams tend to form crusts ket to be formed and to spread evenly and quickly
where the foam blanket is directly exposed to heat. across the surface of the fuel, circulation should be
This reduces their ability to flow and may produce stopped prior to the application of foam.
sealing problems at the tank edges.
Base injection of foam will also induce circulation
AFFF and FFFP foams drain much quicker than to some degree.
the alcohol resistant versions of these and FP
foams; this can be seen as both an advantage and a (ix) Pump out/Pump in
disadvantage. This faster drainage is believed to
contribute to rapid flame knockdown but may also The argument for pumping out product is both that
reduce the protection offered by the foam blanket. the financial loss is reduced to some extent and
As a result, constant replenishment of the foam that the tank will burnout in a shorter time. If there
blanket will be required during the fire as will fre- is no possibility of mounting a foam attack, this is
quent re-application after extinguishment to assist a reasonable objective. There is a risk however that
in preventing reignition. For fuels such as crude the tank rim will curl in when liquid levels are low-
oils, faster draining foams may help to cool the ered, impeding any eventual foam attack.
fuel quicker but are also more likely to cause slop- However, if there is confidence in the chance of
overs and boil-overs. the success of a foam attack, it can be argued that
pumping product into the tank is a useful means of
(vii) Temperature Monitoring preventing the tank from curling over.

For tanks containing burning crude and heavy oils, (x) Mounting a Foam Attack
it is important to monitor the progress of any hot
layer formation. This can give an early warning of Resources should not be wasted by "trying a little
potential boil-over (see Section (xiii) below). A foam to see what happens". A foam attack should
rough indication is provided by peeling paint on only be mounted when sufficient resources are
the tank side or by the steam generated when the available to maintain it at the required application
tank side is wetted. More accurate indications can rate continuously for at least 60 minutes. Stopping
be obtained by the use of thermal image cameras foam application before the fire has been com-
or from heat sensitive paint if it has been applied pletely extinguished will probably lead to a rapid
in a vertical line down the tank side. However, it burnback and destruction of the whole of the foam

Firefighting Foam 57
blanket with a complete waste of the resources It has been estimated that foam, when applied to
already committed. the surface of a burning hydrocarbon liquid, can
spread from the edges of its landing area a maxi-
Care should always be taken when fighting tank mum distance of 30m although a maximum of
fires to ensure that there is sufficient ullage in the 25m may be a better approximation to use opera-
tank to contain prolonged applications of firefight- tionally. Obviously, the spreading distance
ing liquid. Pumping out some of the contents of the depends on the type of foam used. The more fluid
tank may need to be considered (see this Chapter, foams, such as the film-forming types, are more
Section 5 (b) (ix)). likely to spread over these distances than the stiffer
P and FP foams. Tactics which produce a circular
When applying foam to a storage tank fire, the movement in the foam blanket on the surface of a
stream from the monitors should be aimed at the foam blanket have also been reported as assisting
darkened area just above the rim of the tank, and in foam spread (see this Chapter, Section 5 (b) (xi)
below the flames in the fire plume, where air is below).
being sucked in to the fire. This will help to
ensure that the foam is applied directly to the A substantial bite should be obtained within the
surface of the fuel and not taken up by the ther- first 20 to 30 minutes of a foam attack. If the attack
mal updraft of the fire as may be the case if the has not succeeded or made significant progress by
foam were applied directly in to the fire plume. this time (i.e. a bite has not been formed) then
If possible, the rear of the foam landing area there are probably other factors mitigating against
should be positioned within 25 metres of the the firefighters and the attack should be reassessed.
back edge of the tank. In any case, the momen- In particular, application rates and tactics should
tum of the foam stream as it strikes the burning be reviewed. If necessary, the foam application
fuel will push the foam blanket towards this should be stopped in order for further resources to
direction. All of this will assist in forming a bite be gathered together before attempting a further
which will be supplemented once foam spreads foam attack. The resources used during this initial
to, and begins to build up from, the back edge of 20 to 30 minute attack will also need to be
the tank. Cooling of the ullage at the rear of the replaced.
tank will assist in quickening the formation of a
foam blanket here. The only equipment permitted within the bund
should be ground monitors where no other safer
On larger storage tanks, foam monitors may need position will allow their streams to reach the tank.
to be positioned to have overlapping foam landing It is important that firefighters are not allowed to
areas in order to ensure that a high enough local remain in the bund due to the risks from boil-
application rate is achieved in order to form a overs, slop-overs or a split in the tank.
'bite' (see Chapter 5. Section 2 (a) (iv)) and that all
areas of the fuel surface can be covered by the If possible, monitors in the bund should be mount-
flowing foam. The most difficult area of the tank ed above ground level so that any liquid collecting
to extinguish will be the area at the front of the in the bund does not affect their operation.
tank, nearest to the monitors. Due to the long fuel
burning time in this area, the tank rim will be (xi) Special Firefighting Techniques
extremely hot and cooling of the ullage here will
help the foam blanket to form a seal. However, it Two techniques are strongly suggested by those
is likely that by the time the edge of the foam blan- who have fought large tank fires. Firstly, the value
ket has flowed against, and across, the burning fuel of using water spray above the foam blanket to
to reach the tank sides in this area, it will have seri- cool the fire plume and take away some of the back
ously degraded and will not be immediately capa- radiation. If monitors run out of foam they should
ble of forming a seal. Consequently, further foam be raised to contribute to plume cooling. The water
application is required in order for a fresher wall of will largely evaporate in the plume and experience
foam to be pushed in to that area to make a final shows that, at the right elevation, this tactic does
seal. not disrupt the build-up of the foam blanket.

58 Fire Service Manual

Secondly, it is said that the foam blanket can be duce a proportional increase in jet range because
spread over the surface more rapidly if a slow of air resistance factors. They may also lead to a
swirling motion is imparted by placing one of the break up of the jet at the monitor which may result
monitors to land slightly off centre of the liquid in a lessening of the throw.
surface. This technique is advocated in conjunc-
tion with any foam. Reducing the Distance From Pump to
Monitor
(xii) Increasing the Range of Foam Monitors
Pressure drops through the hose used to connect
The ability to tackle storage tank fires depends to pumps to monitors can greatly reduce the pressure
a large extent on the elevation and range of the at the monitor and hence reduce its throw.
foam monitors available. Manufacturers literature Reducing the length of these hose runs will reduce
is often very short of this type of information and these pressure drops as will increasing the hose
the use of different elevations and operating con- diameter.
ditions makes comparisons very difficult. Pre-pur-
chase trials of monitors on the type and size of tank Higher Capacity Monitors
to be protected are often the only sensible means
of ensuring that their performance is adequate. Manufacturers quote improvements in range with
These trials should also take into account the vari- increasingly higher capacity nozzles. For instance,
ations in heights and distances of the monitors in one manufacturer quotes a range of 50m and a
relation to the tank due to the surrounding bund maximum height of 18m for a 1.820 litre per
walls. The possibility of being able to use these minute nozzle and a 54m range and 22m height for
monitors under various on-site wind speed and a 2,700 litre per minute. Both are of the same
direction conditions should also be considered. design with a recommended operating pressure of
7 bar.
Factors that can increase the monitor range and
trajectory height include: Minimal Obstructions in Nozzle
Waterways
• Reducing the Expansion Ratio
of the Foam Some foam-making monitors include baffles and
gauzes to increase the amount of air mixing of the
For large storage tank fires, expansion ratios of 4 to foam solution that takes place. This can signifi-
6 are preferred for AFFF and AFFF-AR. One of the cantly reduce the throw of these monitors although
benefits of these low expansions is the increased more consistent quality finished foam is produced.
throw that can be achieved. The preferred expan-
sion range for fluoroprotein foams is 6 to 8. Changing Foam Induction Method

Lower expansion ratios are also believed to assist In-line venturi inductors generally cause pressure
foam in penetrating the thermal updrafts produced drops of at least 30% and are sometimes in the
by large tank fires; foams with higher expansion region of 40 to 50%. The pressure drops can be
ratios are more likely to be carried away up in to greater than this, and the inductors may fail to
the fire plume. pick-up foam concentrate, if the inductors are not
correctly matched to the monitors. There are other
• Increasing the Pump Pressure methods of foam induction available that cause
much smaller losses in pressure in the delivery line
Increasing the pump pressure leads to a higher to the monitors (see Volume 1).
pressure at the monitor and hence a longer throw.
Generally, fire service low pressure pumps are • Elevation of Monitors
operated at around 7 bar but they can be safely
operated at up to 10 bar if extra throw is required. Elevating monitors above ground level can obvi-
However, increased pumping pressures do not pro- ously assist in applying foam over tank walls.

Firefighting Foam 59
Whilst elevated platforms and cranes can achieve stressed that these methods will only give an indi-
the best means of doing this, significant advantages cation of hot layer formation, the zone may not be
can be gained by mounting monitors on bunds or uniform in cross-section and may only be formed
bund extensions. A 3m high bund can make at least in the centre of the tank giving little or no indica-
a 10% improvement on the height of the jet trajec- tion at the outer edges.
tory. However, elevating monitors may cause fur-
ther throw problems due to head pressure drops. In Once the hot layer reaches water further down the
some cases, such as with venturi type in line induc- tank, a steam explosion can occur where the water
tors, these pressure drops may prevent the induc- flashes to steam and the volume of the water
tion system from operating correctly. expands by approximately 1700:1. This violently
propels the burning liquid above it upwards and
(xiii) Boil-overs, Slop-overs and Froth-overs outwards from the tank.

If there is water in a fuel storage tank, either in the It has been estimated that a steam explosion can
form of a stratified layer of moisture (crude oils propel the contents of a tank to a height of
may contain up to 5% by volume of water) or, as 10 times the diameter of the tank. Incidents have
is often the case, up to a metre or so of water in the occurred where the tank contents have been
base, or even trapped higher up in a pocket creat- estimated to have been projected to heights of up
ed by a sunken floating roof, then there exists the to 300m.
possibility of sudden violent steam generation. The
resultant rapid expansion as the water is converted The presence of steam in the ejected oil can
into steam can result in the phenomenon known as increase its volume temporarily by several multi-
boil-over, i.e. the burning contents of the tank will ples to form a "froth" allowing rapid spread of up
be thrown out. This may occur after a tank fire has to 7 tank diameters away from the tank. It is likely
been extinguished with the risk continuing until all that this ejected oil would How over the contain-
of the contents of the tank have been cooled to ment bunds of the tank.
below 100°C.
Boil-overs can occur with very little warning and
Boil-overs are very large events, during which sub- their far reaching effects should be taken in to
stantial quantities of flammable liquid, possibly account when positioning personnel and equip-
even the full contents, are ejected from an open tank ment. During 1982, a storage tank fire in Venezuela
and onto the surrounding area. The radiated heat burned for 6 hours before boiling over and killing
produced during a boil-over is extremely intense. more than 150 people; 40 of them firefighters.

Boil-overs only happen after long pre-burn periods It is not uncommon during the initial stages of a
in wide range flashpoint fuels such as crude oil. boil-over for the tank to be lifted off its founda-
They occur when a hot layer of residue forms at tions and for product to flow from the base of the
the top of the tank and, due to its density, sinks tank. The product may then continue to leak after
below the un-burnt contents of the tank. This hot the boil-over has subsided.
layer can be at temperatures ranging between
approximately I50°C and 300°C. The hot layer is Typical signs of an impending boil-over are:
not even and may have deeper waves travelling
down from it. The rate at which the hot layer trav- • small amounts of burning product being
els down the tank varies depending on the type of ejected front the tank;
crude product but can range from 0.075m to 1.25m
per hour. For most crude oils, the rate of travel • an increase in the intensity and the height of
down the tank is generally between 0.3m and 0.6m flames in the tank;
per hour. Thermal image cameras can be used to
track the progress of travel of a hot layer, as can • a 'frying' sound coming from the tank;
observing where water is flashing to steam off the
sides of a burning tank. However, it must be • a lightening of the smoke.

60 Fire Service Manual

Slop-overs occur when some burning liquids, such occur up to six hours after extinction had been
as heavy fuel oils or crude oils, become extremely achieved.
hot, any applied water may begin to boil on contact
with the fuel, the resulting rapid expansion as it Further cooling water may also be needed to cool
converts to steam may cause burning fuel to over- the external surfaces of the tank and hence help to
flow its containment and the fire to spread. cool the contents of the tank although this is not a
particularly efficient use of resources. Continued
Froth-overs are where a non burning flammable cooling of the ullage area of the tank will help the
liquid overflows from a tank due to the thermal foam blanket to maintain a seal against the edge of
expansion of the liquid or violent boiling on top of, the tank.
and within, the upper layers of the liquid due to the
presence of small quantities of water. This boiling (c) Floating Roof Storage Tank Fire
may produce a sufficient increase in the volume of Scenario
the flammable liquid for a froth-over to occur.
Froth-overs will generally only occur in wide This description is of a scenario which develops in
flashpoint range products, such as heavy crude oils to a fully involved tank fire in a 45m diameter
and bitumen type products. crude oil storage tank sharing a bund with a second
crude oil tank of similar size, 45m (1 tank diame-
Boil-overs, slop-overs and froth-overs can all ter) distant from the first tank.
result in hot, often burning, fuel being ejected from
a storage tank and into the surrounding bund. It is likely that a floating roof storage tank fire
Consequently, all deployment must be carried out would start by a source of ignition (a lightning
with the need in mind for a sudden evacuation of strike or burning ember for example) setting fire to
firefighters (and if possible of appliances and other the rim seal area.
equipment) if a boil-over, slop-over, froth-over or
a split tank should occur. Not only is there a risk Floating roof storage tanks catch fire less often
from the heat radiation from any burning fuel but than fixed roof tanks with a flammable vapour
also from the wave of expelled liquid which could space, but there have been a considerable number
flow over the bund walls. of such fires world-wide, and a larger number still
of rim seal fires most of which are usually extin-
(xiv) Continued Application After Extinction guished before they become more serious.

After extinction of the fire, foam application The alarm would be raised normally by visual
should continue in order to keep the foam blanket sighting of smoke, which could involve a consid-
intact and to help to cool the contents of the tank. erable delay at a remote unattended tank farm.
Some floating roof tanks are equipped with auto-
Crude oil that has been burning for several hours matic rim seal firefighting systems, others with
will be very hot and will bubble through the foam various detection systems.
blanket after extinction and pose a very severe
reignition risk. Continuous application of foam Once the alarm was raised the plant fire brigade
will help to maintain the foam blanket. In addition, would respond and the local fire brigade would
liquid draining from the foam blanket will cool the respond in support. At this stage, it may not be
crude down to reduce bubbling and prevent reigni- immediately apparent from ground level whether
tion. Foam application made need to continue for the fire is confined to the rim seal area or involves
two to three hours after extinction to ensure that the full fuel surface. Obviously, the extent of the
the incident is fully under control. It should be incident must be determined immediately on
noted that during this phase, boil-overs may occur. arrival.

Re-ignition may also occur from falling pieces of The options then depend on the equipment avail-
glowing coke that may have formed on any over- able. If rim seal foam pourers are provided these
hanging metal work. This has been known to should be used. Some installations provide for a

Firefighting Foam 61
supplementary foam hose to be attached to the (d) Fixed Roof Storage Tank Scenario
foam pourer system so that the firefighters can in
fill any gaps in the foam coverage from the pour- A fully involved fire in a fixed roof storage tank is
ers by manual application from the wind girder. in many ways similar to the floating roof storage
tank case in that deployment of large resources are
Cases are quoted of rim seal fires being extin- required.
guished by foam hoses dragged up the external
tank stairway and by large dry powder extinguish- The first difference lies in the lead up to a fully
ers being used from the wind girder. involved fire. The vapour space above the liquid
can contain a flammable gas/air mixture when an
This last practice appears both uncertain and dan- atmospheric tank has been partially emptied.
gerous. The range of dry powder extinguishers is Faulty conservation vents or flame arrestors cou-
limited and, if the floating roof is low, it is unlike- pled with an ignition source, or simply a lightning
ly that they would be effective at the distances strike, can cause an explosion in the vapour space.
involved. Furthermore, with an exhaustible In some cases the roof is blown clear of the tank,
resource such as an extinguisher it is possible that splitting at the weak roof-to-shell seam, in other
it will run out whilst the firefighter is distant from cases a gash in the roof-to-shell seam allows the
the access stairway. If the rim seal fire should then explosion to vent leaving a narrow aperture for fire
burn back he could be cut off from the only means to escape and firefighting media to enter.
of escape without any firefighting resource to
assist him. In terms of fixed equipment, top pourers are use-
ful if serviceable but tend to become damaged in
The dangers of vapours on the roof should also any initial explosion. For these types of incidents,
be taken into consideration. base injection systems come into their own. There
is not the same internal obstruction as with a par-
tially submerged floating roof, and foam injected
However, combined dry powder/water (or sec- into the product inlet line or directly into the tank
ondary aspirated foam) hand-held branches are can generally rise through non water-miscible
available. These enable dry powder to be fired contents and spread to a certain extent over the
down the centre of the water/foam stream when surface. With larger tanks of a diameter in the
required, increasing the reach of the dry powder by order of 45m, there is still a need for over-the-top
3 or 4 times to around 12 metres. This equipment manual application of foam to support the base
may be suitable for this type of application injection. For water-miscible or waterlogged tank
although suitable large dry powder extinguishers contents, it may be necessary to rely entirely on
would need to be positioned relatively near to the over-the-top application, although semi-subsur-
branch (often within 30 metres). In addition, the face base injection (floating hose) systems may be
problems in dragging two hoselines (one appropriate.
water/foam, one dry powder) up an external tank
stairway would need to be considered. Whilst FP foam is effective on smaller diameter
tanks, there is some question about its ability to
The progress of a fire from the rim seal stage can spread over the greater distances required in tack-
be quite rapid or it may develop very slowly. If ling larger tank fires. This is of particular concern
floating pontoon sections are not fully air tight, here because in cases where only restricted aper-
these may contain an explosive mixture of gas and tures are available for foam application, there is lit-
air. An explosion in a pontoon section could rapid- tle that can be done by manipulation of the jets and
ly sink or tilt the roof exposing the crude oil sur- their landing area to aid foam spread, and the
face to the spread of flame. spreading characteristics of the foam may become
a critical factor in determining how large a fire can
Once the tank becomes fully involved, the full be extinguished. Even with film-forming foam
scale emergency plan should be brought into concentrates, the absolute maximum spreading
action. distance from the edge of the foam landing area is

62 Fire Service Manual

estimated to be in the region of 30 metres although (e) Storage Tank Bund Fire Scenario
a maximum of 25 metres is more likely.
This example considers a fire in a bund area sur-
Firefighting through a restricted aperture also rounding two, 45m diameter petrol tanks, each
means a greater heat radiation hazard for fire- 15m high. If the separation distance is one diame-
fighters. The fire plume on leaving the tank can ter between the tanks, then the minimum bund
be deflected by 60° or more from the vertical by dimension would be 170m long by 80m wide. This
the size and position of the aperture. Monitor would give a bund area of 13.60()m2 reduced to
teams will need to be positioned in the same tank 12,000m- after deducting the area of the unaffect-
quadrant as the fire plume is directed in order to ed tank, or effectively 11,500m: allowing for a 45°
aim jets through the aperture. Special care should slope on the face of the bund walls.
be taken that crews are well protected against
sudden increases in heat radiation. One method To provide the recommended 110% retention
used on certain specialist nozzles is to have the capacity of the largest tanks' contents, the height
facility to switch a stream from jet to wide-angle of the bund would be 2.2m giving a total bund vol-
spray with a quarter turn of a control handle. This ume of 25,300m3 compared with the maximum
may reduce radiation sufficiently to allow teams 23,000m3 capacity of one of the tanks.
to hold their position during a brief flare, or to
cover their retreat in a more prolonged surge in Bund fires are very often limited in area and con-
fire activity. stitute spreading/running/spill fires. In these cases
the response is generally to lay foam and use water
Fire teams tackling tank fires through apertures spray to allow access to isolation valves and to cut
also have little choice in their position relative to off the spreading/running fire element. The spill
the wind, and adverse wind conditions could make area is then calculated and a foam attack is mount-
most useful positions for ground monitors unus- ed when sufficient firefighters, material and equip-
able. In these cases it may be possible to deploy ment are available to provide 4 to 6.5 litres/min/m2
hydraulic platforms and transportable foam towers (depending on the foam concentrate in use) and
to discharge foam over the aperture lip to augment sustain application for 60 minutes (see Chapter 4).
foam from monitors. Tank cooling during the mobilisation period
should be avoided if possible since the run-off
In the case of hydrocarbon liquids with a Hash water will tend to spread the burning liquid over a
point above the storage temperature, tests have larger area. However, if the tank contents are low,
shown that the fire can be extinguished, or at least and there is direct flame impingement, cooling
its intensity reduced, by rapidly rolling colder liq- may be necessary.
uid from the lower part of the tank to displace the
heated top surface. The most practical way of An area for particular attention in such small scale
achieving this is to inject air into the bottom of the bund fires is any gas or liquid lines within the bund
tank. As the air rises in the tank, it pushes colder area which may be exposed to fire. If not fire
liquid to the surface. With refined high flash point proofed, they will require protection with prefer-
products the heated surface layer has very limited ably a local foam blanket, or less desirably, with
depth regardless of the length of burning, and air water spray.
agitation is one way of extinguishing the fire. In
the case of high flash point crude oil the agitation In some bunds, small retention walls are provided
must be done before the heat wave has penetrated to assist in controlling limited spills. For example,
too deeply into the surface of the oil. in cryogenic storage tank bunds the valve area is
often provided with a small bund-within-a-bund
Low flash point products on the other hand cannot which drains to a small catchment pit in the corner
be extinguished by cooling alone. However, air of the main bund.
agitation will reduce the intensity of the fire and
will assist other forms of extinguishing such as Fully involved bund fires following a major
foam or dry powder. spillage are rare, but do occur, particularly as a

Firefighting Foam 63
result of boil-over, and sometimes following a ter- practical difficulty, and alternative techniques are
rorist, or military attack. In these cases, the risk of discussed later.
rupture of the second tank is the major concern. If
bund drainage facilities are adequate, it may be If difficulties are encountered in projecting the
possible to cool this tank with water spray whilst foam to the centre of the bund, then a longer
the foam attack is being prepared. When sufficient duration of supply may be needed. Thus the
resources have been assembled to mount a foam dimensions, shape and access to a bund must also
attack, the area around the un-ruptured tank should be considered.
be tackled first. Tank walls can be used as back-
plates to break the jet momentum and run foam Further information and guidance will be found in
onto the liquid surface whilst a blanket is simulta- Fire Service Manual, Volume 2, Fire Service
neously built up from the bund wall outwards. Operations - Petrochemicals.

To mount a 60 minute foam attack on the bund

described above using 4 lpm/m2 of a film-forming
foam would require:

Foam solution requirement per minute

- 4 lpm/m2 x 12,000m2 surface area of bund

= 48,000 Ipm

Total foam solution requirement

= 48,000 lpm x 60 minutes

= 2,880,000 litres

3% foam concentrate requirement

= 2,880,000 litres x 0.03

= 86,400 litres

This would require equipment to the extent of at

least:

22 x 2250 1pm pumps;

in excess of 400 lengths of hose (10km);

a water supply capable of providing

48,000 lpm at 6 to 7 bars.

The likely shortage of hydrant outlets would

necessitate more hose lengths per pump than in the
floating roof tank fire case (above). No allowance
has been made in these quantities for replenishing
the foam blanket. Parking and layout of 70mm
hose on this scale becomes a considerable

64 Fire Service Manual

Firefighting Foam Chapter

8
Chapter 8 - Logisitics of Dealing With
Large Storage Tank Fires
8.1 Introduction total quantity of foam concentrate required
for 60 minute foam attack;
In Chapter 7, information was given on the practi-
cal aspects of dealing with storage tank fires when number of monitors required;
using conventional fire service equipment.
Particular reference was made to fighting fires in number of fire service pumps required;
tanks of up to 45m in diameter.
number of hydrants required;
This Section examines, in more detail, the resources
and logistics involved in a typical deployment of lengths of 70mm hose required.
conventional fire service equipment to deal with
storage tanks of 45m and beyond in diameter. This The main items of conventional fire service equip-
is followed by a discussion of other, larger equip- ment assumed to be available are:
ment, that is available and the reduction in logistical
problems that the use of these can bring. 1,900 Ipm monitors;

8.2 Conventional Fire Attack 2,250 lpm pumping appliances;

(a) General 70mm hose in 25m lengths;

The logistical problems of using conventional fire venturi type in-line inductors.
service equipment to tackle large tank fires are sig-
nificant. Although some brigades and petrochemi- It should be noted that the deployment of equip-
cal plants possess specialist equipment to deal with ment shown in the tables is theoretical and approx-
these types of fire, in many instances, only stan- imate, they are based on the Home Office recom-
dard fire service equipment is available. mended minimum application rates (see Chapter
4) and do not represent practical experience. There
This Section highlights the difficulties faced when are few instances where storage tank fires of diam-
using conventional equipment to fight flammable eter 45m to 90m have been successfully extin-
liquid storage tank fires of 45, 60, 75 and 90 metre guished. Those claimed have been achieved with
in diameter. Tables 8.1 to 8.11 provide the follow- the use of specialist equipment (see this Chapter,
ing estimates for each of these tank sizes: Section 3).

quantity of water required per minute for The tables should be used purely as a means of
foam attack and for cooling; comparing the practicalities of conventional
deployment as against use of specialist equipment,
quantity of foam concentrate required per rather than as a model for strategic planning. It
minute; should be noted that 1,900 lpm monitors may not
have sufficient range to project foam in to tanks of
total water usage for a 60 minute foam attack this size.
and 4 hours of water cooling of adjacent tanks;

Firefighting Foam 65
The tables do not take account of the number of configuration allows space at the corners of bunds
firefighters required to deploy equipment. For for vehicles and fire appliances to stand during
large fire incidents, many more personnel may be operations, whilst leaving bund roadways clear.
required than would be provided with the mini- Road widths are assumed to be 1 0 m to permit both
mum number of appliances shown. Relief crews hose laying and vehicle passage at the same time.
may be required, and many firefighters may be Bund extensions are assumed to be in place, 10m
deployed in establishing a chain of foam concen- wide and projecting halfway towards the tank.
trate supply, or in setting up hose runs to draw suc- These extensions would provide a safe vantage
tion from natural water courses. It is recognised point to place monitors during a foam attack and
that these firefighters will be transported in fire an escape route if necessary. In practice, the facil-
appliances, but these appliances would not neces- ities available would probably fall well short of
sarily form part of the attack team. this, and additional fire brigade equipment would
be required to compensate.
It is also assumed that firefighting depends entire-
ly on over-the-top projection of foam by fire Hydrant spacing is taken as 80m, each hydrant
brigade monitors. There are cases where fixed sys- being equipped with four 70mm outlets. Tables 8.6
tems around the tank rim or for base injection of and 8.10 show the derivation of the lengths of hose
foam will be available and could be used to advan- required.
tage, but such provision is by no means certain.
Even if these fixed installations are available, they It has been assumed that water supplies in the
may have been incorrectly maintained or may have hydrant main are at sufficient pressure. The
been damaged during the incident thus making hydrant main should be capable of providing the
them inoperative. full foam and cooling water demand at a residual
pressure of not less than 2 bar to ensure a reliable
The other assumptions made when producing supply to the pumps.
these tables are discussed below.
(d) Limitations of Conventional
(b) Cooling Water Fire Attack

The NFPA recommended cooling rate of 10.2 One of the main limitations of using conventional
lpm/m2 (see Chapter 7, Section 5 (b) (iii) for dis- equipment for fighting large storage tank fires is
cussion of cooling rates; a rate of 2 Ipm/m2 may be the range and trajectory height that can be achieved
more appropriate) has been used in the calcula- by foam monitors. Methods of increasing these are
tions presented in Tables 8.1 to 8.11 in order to discussed in Chapter 7, Section 5 and include:
represent a 'worse case" situation in terms of cool-
ing water resources needed. Water can also be use- Reducing the expansion ratio of the foam.
fully used to cool the external ullage of the tank on
fire during foam application (see Chapter 7, Increasing the pump pressure.
Section 5 (b) (ii)). The water requirement for this
additional cooling has not been specifically includ- Reducing the distance from pump to moni-
ed in the calculations presented in Tables 8.1 to tor.
8.11 but should be more than covered by the
resource requirements calculated from the 10.2 Larger capacity monitors.
lpm/m2 cooling water application rate.
Changing foam induction method.
(c) Bund, Hydrants and Hose
Elevation of monitors.
In order to give an indication of the quantities of
hose required, it has been necessary to make some Tables 8.1 and 8.2 show that even under
idealised assumptions about the tank, bund and favourable conditions very large quantities of con-
mains layout. It has been assumed that the bund ventional equipment are required.

66 Fire Service Manual

The problems of fire ground organisation can
become extreme with insufficient room to lay
hose, park appliances, and operate monitors. When
the traffic movement requirements of keeping
foam dams replenished with concentrate are added
and the number of personnel required is taken into
account, the logistics can become impractical at
tank farms where space is restricted.

This situation can itself be dangerous to those

involved in a rapid retreat from, for example, a
boil-over or a slop-over, or where there is a need to
re-deploy firefighters and equipment due to a
change in wind direction. In addition, when failure
of hoses, pumps, proportioners or monitors occurs,
space is required to remove the equipment
concerned and replace it.

The organisation of resources for a major incident

involving a large tank fire is a very complex task
in itself. Sources of foam concentrate must be
identified and transported to the fireground,
replacement fire crews, messing, first aid, and
control of the public are a few of the ancillary
activities which require organisation.

The conclusion that it is intended should be drawn

from this Section is that any ways that can be
found to reduce the quantities of equipment
required to tackle large tank fires is well worth-
while.

The logistical problems and lack

of flexibility which would occur
from the use of conventional fire
brigade equipment against large
tank fires show that this
approach is unlikely to succeed
and could be dangerous to those
involved.

Firefighting Foam 67
Table 8.1: Large Storage Tank Fires, Conventional Deployment
Summary of Foam Attack and Cooling Water Requirements

Tank Diameter ( 1 5 m high) 45m 60m 75m 90m

Water For Cooling (1pm) 13,300 20,400 27,600 36,800

Water For Foam Attack (1pm) 11,400 20,600 31,900 50,300

Total Water Usage (litres) 3,880,000 6,140,000 8,550,000 11,860,000

60 Minute Foam Attack. 4 Hours Cooling
Adjacent Tank

3% Foam Concentrate (1pm) 360 640 990 1,600

Total Concentrate Usage (litres) 60 Minute 21,100 38.200 59,200 93.400

Foam Attack

Foam Solution (1pm) 11,700 21,200 32,900 51900

Total Foam Solution Usage (litres) 710,000 1,280,000 1.980,000 3,120,000

60 Minute Foam Attack

Foam Monitors (each 1900 1pm) 7 12 18 28

Water Cooling Monitors (each 1900 1pm) 7 11 15 20
Pumps (one per monitor) 14 23 33 48
Hydrant Outlets (2 per pump) 28 46 66 96
Number of 25m Lengths of 70mm Hose 96 168 260 464
Total Length of 70mm hose (km) 2.4 4.2 6.5 11.6

Notes to Table 8.1:

a. The water cooling rate of the adjacent tank used for these calculations is 10.2 lpm/m 2 of 1/3rd of the tank surface
area. This rale could he reduced to 2 lpm/m 2 (see Chapter 7. Section 5b) ( i i i ) ) .
b. The foam application rales used for these calculations are the Home Office recommended minimum application
rates (see Chapter 4). The calculations assume 3% alcohol resistant film-forming foam concentrate is being used.
c. No allowance has been made for any additional foam concentrate requirements as a result of an increased foam
application rate during firefighting due to losses, or for continued application after extinction. Losses could add as
much as 60% to these requirements with associated increases in foam attack water and equipment (see Chapter 4).
d. All numbers are approximate.

68 Fire Service Manual

Table 8.2: Large Storage Tank Fires, Conventional Deployment
Summary of Resource Requirements For 60 Minute Foam Attack

Tank Diameter (15m high) 45m 60m 75m 90m

Water For Foam Attack (lpm) 11,400 20,600 31,900 50,300
3% Foam Concentrate (lpm) 360 640 990 1,600
Foam Solution (1pm) 11,700 21,200 32,900 51,900
Total Water (litres) 681,000 1,240,000 1,920,000 3,020,000
Total 3% Foam Concentrate (litres) 21,100 38,200 59,200 93,400
Total Foam Solution (litres) 710,000 1,280,000 1,980,000 3,120,000
Foam Monitors (each 1900 1pm) 7 12 18 28
Pumps (one per monitor) 7 12 18 28
Hydrant Outlets (2 per pump) 14 24 36 56
Hydrants (4 outlets per hydrant) 4 6 9 14
Lengths of 70mm Hose (each 25m) 48 88 148 288

Notes to Table 8.2:

a. The foam application rales used for these calculations are the Home Office recommended minimum application
rales (see Chapter 4). The calculations assume 3% alcohol resistant film-forming foam concentrate is being used.
b. No allowance has been made for any additional foam concentrate requirements as a result of an increased foam
application rale during firefighting due to losses, or for continued application after extinction. Losses could add as
much as 60% to these requirements with associated increases in foam attack water and equipment (see Chapter 4).
c. All numbers are approximate.

Table 8.3: Large Storage Tank Fires, Conventional Deployment

Foam Solution and 3%/6% Foam Concentrate Requirements Per Minute
Tank Surface Foam Solution 3% Foam 6% Foam
Diameter Area Concentrate Concentrate
of Top
of Tank
(lpm) (1pm) (lpm)
FP Film- FP Film- FP Film-
(m) (m2) forming forming forming
45 1,600 14,400 11,700 440 360 870 710
60 2,900 26,100 21,200 780 640 1,600 1,300
75 4,500 40,500 32,900 1,300 990 2,400 2,000
90 6,400 64,000 51,900 2,000 1,600 3,900 3,200

Notes to Table 8.3:

a. The foam application rates used for these calculations are the Home Office recommended minimum application
rates (see Chapter 4).
b. No allowance has been made for any additional foam concentrate or foam solution requirements as a result of an
increased foam application rate during firefighting due to losses, or for continued application after extinction.
Losses could add as much as 60% to these requirements (see Chapter 4).
c. All numbers are approximate.

Firefighting Foam 69
Table 8.4: Large Storage Tank Fires, Conventional Deployment
Total 3%/6% Foam Concentrate Requirements For a 60 Minute Foam Attack

Tank Surface Area 3% Foam 6% Foam

Diameter of Top of Tank Concentrate Concentrate
(litres) (litres)
FP Film- FP Film-
(m) (m2) forming forming
45 1,600 26,000 21,100 51,900 42,100
60 2,900 47,000 38,200 94,000 76,300
75 4,500 72,900 59,200 146,000 119,000
90 6,400 116,000 93,400 231,000 187,000

Notes to Table 8.4:

a. The foam application rales used for these calculations are the Home Office recommended minimum application
rates (see Chapter 4).
b. No allowance has been made for any additional foam concentrate requirements as a result of an increased foam
application rate during firefighting due to losses, or for continued application after extinction. Losses could add
as much as 60% to foam concentrate requirements with associated increases in foam attack water and equipment
(see Chapter 4).
c. All numbers are approximate.

Table 8.5: Large Storage Tank Fires, Conventional Deployment

Water Requirements For a 60 Minute Foam Attack

Tank Surface Area Water Total Volume of Water

Diameter of Top of Tank
lpm) (litres)
FP Film- FP Film-
2
(m) (m ) forming forming
45 1,600 14,000 11,400 839,000 680,000
60 2,900 25,400 20,600 1,520,000 1,240,000
75 4,500 39,300 31,900 2,360,000 1,920,000
90 6,400 62,100 50,300 3,730,000 3,020,000

Notes to Table 8.5:

a. The foam application rates used for these calculations are the Home Office recommended minimum application
rates (see Chapter 4).
b. No allowance has been made for any additional foam concentrate requirements ax a result of an increased foam
application rate during firefighting due to losses, or for continued application after extinction. Losses could add
as much as 60% to these requirements with associated increases in foam attack water (see Chapter 4).
c. All numbers are approximate.

70 Fire Service Manual

Table 8.6: Large Storage Tank Fires, Conventional Deployment
70mm Hose Requirements For a Foam Attack - Hydrants to Pumps

Tank Surface No. of No. of No. of Distance No. of No. of Total Total
Diameter Area Pumps Hydrant Hydrants From Hose 25m No. of Length
of Top Outlets Needed Hydrants Runs Lengths Lengths of Hose
of Tank Needed (4 outlets to Pumps for Each Required of 25m
per Distance Hose
(m) (m 2 ) hydrant) (km)
45 1,600 7 14 4 2<25m 8 8 20 0.5
2<50m 6 12
60 2,900 12 24 6 2<25m 8 8 40 1
4<50m 16 32
75 4,450 18 36 9 2<25m 8 8 76 2.3
6<50m 24 48
l<125m 4 20
90 6,400 28 56 14 2<25 m 8 8 176 4.9
6<50m 24 48
6<125m 24 120

Notes to Table 8.6:

a. 6<125m means six hydrants are located less than 125m from the pump that they supply.
b. No allowance has been made for any additional equipment requirements as a result of an increased foam applica-
tion rate during firefighting due to losses, or for continued application after extinction. Losses could add as much
as 60% to the foam concentrate requirements with associated increases in foam attack water and equipment (see
Chapter 4).
c. All numbers are approximate.

Firefighting Foam II
Table 8.7: Large Storage Tank Fires, Conventional Deployment 70mm Hose Requirements For a
Foam Attack - Pumps to Monitors And Total For Foam Attack

Tank Surface No. of No. of Length No. of 25m Total No Total Hose.
Diameter Area of Monitors Hose Runs of Runs Lengths of 25m Length From
Top of Needed Needed Required lengths Hydrants
Tank From to Pumps
Hydrants to Monitors
to Pumps
to Monitors
(m) (m 2 ) (km)
45 1,600 7 14 <50m 28 48 1.2
60 2,900 12 24 <50m 48 88 2.2
75 4,500 18 36 <50m 72 148 3.7
90 6,400 28 56 <50m 112 288 7.2

Notes to Table 8.7:

a. <50m means less than 50 metres.
b. No allowance has been made for any additional equipment requirements as a result of an increased foam applica-
tion rate during firefighting due to losses, or for continued application after extinction. Losses could add as much
as 60% to the foam concentrate requirements with associated increases in foam attack water and equipment (see
Chapter 4).
c. All numbers are approximate.

Table 8.8: Large Storage Tank Fires, Conventional Deployment

Summary of Resource Requirements for the Cooling Water of an Adjacent Tank

Diameter of Tank to be Cooled 45m 45m 45m 60m 75m 90m

Height of Tank to be Cooled 15m 20m 25m 15m 15m 15m
Water For Cooling (lpm) 13,300 15,300 18,400 20,400 27,600 36,800
Total Water Required For 4 3,200,000 3,680,000 4,420,000 4,900,000 6,630,000 8,840,000
Hours Cooling (litres)
Water Monitors (each 1900 1pm) 7 9 10 11 15 20
Pumps (one per monitor) 7 9 10 11 15 20
Hydrant Outlets (2 per pump) 14 18 20 22 30 40
Hydrants (4 outlets per hydrant) 4 5 5 6 8 10

Notes to Table 8.8:

a. The water cooling rate of the adjacent lank used for these calculations is 10.2 lpm/m2 of 1/3rd of the lank surface
area. This rate could be reduced to 2lpm/m 2 (see Chapter 7, Section 5 b) (iii)) .
b. All numbers are approximate.

12. Fire Service Manual

Table 8.9: Large Storage Tank Fires, Conventional Deployment
Cooling Water Requirements For Adjacent Tank - Calculation

Tank Surface Tank Surface Total 1/3 of 1/3 Tank Total Water
Diameter Area Height Area of Surface Total Tank Surface For 4 hours
of Top the Tank Area of Surface Area x Cooling of
of Tank Sides Tank Area 10.2 lpm/m 2 Adjacent Tank
(m) (m 2 ) (m) (m2) (m2) (m 2 ) lpm) (litres)
45 1,600 15 2,200 3,800 1,300 13,300 3,200,000
45 1,600 20 2,900 4,500 1,500 15,300 3,680,000
45 1,600 25 3,600 5,200 1,800 18,400 4,420,000
60 2,900 15 2,900 5,800 2,000 20,400 4,900,000
75 4,500 15 3,600 8,100 2,700 27,600 6,630,000
90 6,400 15 4,300 10,700 3,600 36,800 8,840,000

Note to Table 8.9:

a. The water cooling rule of the adjacent tank used for these calculations is 10.2 lpm/m2 of 1/3rd of the tank surface
area. This rate could he reduced to 2 lpm/m2 (see Chapter 7, Section 5b) (iii)) .
b. All numbers are approximate.

Table 8.10: Large Storage Tank Fires, Conventional Deployment

70mm Hose Requirements For Cooling of Adjacent Tank - Hydrants to Pumps
Tank Tank No. of No of No. of Distance No. of No. of Total No. Total
Diameter Height Pumps Hydrant Hydrants From Hose 25m Lengths length
Outlets Needed Hydrants Runs Lengths of 25m of Hose
Needed (4 outlets to Pumps for Each Required Hose
per hydrant) Distance
(m) (m) (km)
45 15 7 14 4 2<25m 8 8 20 0.5
2<50m 6 12
45 20 8 16 4 2<25m 8 8 24 0.6
2<50m 8 16
45 25 10 20 5 2<25m 8 8 32 0.8
3<50m 12 24
60 15 11 22 6 2<25m 8 8 36 0.9
4<50m 14 28
75 15 15 30 8 2<25m 8 8 52 1.3
6<50m 22 44
90 15 20 40 10 2<25m 8 8 96 2.4
6<50m 24 48
2<125m 8 40

Notes to Table 8.10:

a. 2<125m means two hydrants are located less than 125m front the pump that they supply
b. All numbers are approximate.

Firefighting Foam 73
Table 8.11: Large Storage Tank Fires, Conventional Deployment
70mm Hose Requirements For Cooling of Adjacent Tank - Pumps to Monitors and Total
Required For Cooling
Tank Tank No. of Total No. Length of Total No. Overall Overall
Diameter Height Water of Hose Each Run of 25m Total No. Total
Monitors Runs Lengths of Lengths Length of
Needed From of Hose of Hose Hose
(each 1900 Pumps to Required Required Required
lpm) Monitors From For For
Pumps to Cooling Cooling
Monitors
(m) (m) (km)
45 15 7 14 average 50m 28 48 1.2
45 20 8 16 average 50m 32 56 1.4
45 25 10 20 average 50m 40 72 1.8
60 15 II 22 average 50m 44 80 2.0
75 15 15 30 average 50m 60 1 12 2.8
90 15 20 40 average 50m 80 176 4.4

Note to Table 8. I I :
a. All numbers are approximate.

8.3 Technical Options The advantages in the use of large capacity nozzles
are:
(a) General
• Larger nozzles have a longer range than
This Section looks at some of the specialist equip- smaller nozzles when used at the same oper-
ment and facilities that can be used to tackle large ating pressure.
scale tank fires. Their use would reduce many of
the problems highlighted in the previous Section • The larger jets are more resilient to the heat
concerning the use of conventional fire service and updraft effects involved when penetrat-
equipment to tackle these fires. However, before ing the fire plume of a burning storage tank.
modifying facilities and employing such equip-
ment, there is a need for thorough assessments to • The localised application of a large q u a n t i t y
be made in order to q u a n t i f y advantages and dis- of finished foam when using larger monitors
advantages and to evaluate the performance char- makes it easier to achieve a "bite" on the fire
acteristics of equipment in realistic operating con- than when using smaller monitors.
ditions.
• Smaller numbers of monitors are required.
(b) Large Nozzles
• They can be readily used w i t h large diame-
Several large capacity nozzles are available. These ter hose.
range in capacity with the biggest in the order of
50.000 litres of foam solution per m i n u t e . Table • They have been claimed to have been used
8.12 provides some manufacturers performance successfully against large tank fires.
information for these larger nozzles.

74 Fire Service Manual

Table 8.12: Large capacity LX foam nozzles: performance data
Nozzle Nozzle Flow Max. Foam Expansion Ratio/Foam Type
Pressure (lpm) Horiz. Coverage
(bar) Range at Landing
(metre) Point
A 7 8,000 80 4-6:1/AFFF-AR
7 16,000 90 -
8 18,000 100 -
8 23,000 100 18m x 36m
B 8 23,000 95 4-6:1/AFFF-AR
8 30,000 110 -
9 38,000 135 21m x 46m
C 7-8 15,000 100 4-6:1/AFFF-AR
23,000 107 -
30,000 110 20m x 40m
38,000 119 21m x 46m
45,000 122 55m x 24m
53,000 131 -
D 6 - 75 5-6:1/FP
8. 15,000 85 -
10 - 95 -
E 6 — 90 FP
8 40,000 110 -
10 47,800 125 -

Notes to Table. 8.12:

The information given in this table has been provided by manufacturers. Distances given
are for foam throw in wind free conditions and at different elevations.

The disadvantages are: because of internal obstructions in the bore

designed to produce improved foam work-
• Some of them, especially the very large ing.
capacity nozzles, can only be used for very • Technical information on some of the moni-
lew specialised tasks i.e. fighting large lank tors is sparse, particularly regarding range,
fires. trajectory, foam ground pattern, feathering
• There is a high cost involved in both buying (fallout from the stream) etc.
this equipment and t r a i n i n g firefighters to
use it. (c) Large Pumps
• They are heavy and d i f f i c u l t to manoeuvre,
although the larger ones are mounted on Larger sized pumps, such as those on 4.500 litre
purpose designed trailers or on appliances. per m i n u t e pumping appliances or skid mounted
• Some large monitor designs have shorter pumps of s i m i l a r or larger capacity, have many
ranges than would be expected, primarily advantages. These i n c l u d e a reduction in the

Firefighting Foam 75
number of crews required for a foam attack, (e) Bund Architecture
reducing the amount of space required for appli-
ances, and reducing the logistical complexities Typical storage tank bunds in the UK consist of 3m
discussed above. Pump sizes could be selected to high sloping sided earth banks. Access to and
match the capacity of the supply requirements of around storage tank bunds is often by means of a
some of the smaller monitors (e.g. one pump per 3-4m wide road near to the outer base of the bund
monitor or one pump per two monitors). Such wall. L i t t l e or no provision is generally made for
pumps would provide the opportunity to use large vehicle marshalling or hose runs. The following
sizes of suction hose, as well as large delivery are suggestions for features of designs which could
hose. be considered for new constructions or refurbish-
ment of existing facilities:
The obvious disadvantages of using larger pumps
are similar to those of using large monitors and • Marshalling points for fire appliances.
include in particular cost, specialist use and addi-
tional training requirements. • 10m wide roadways to allow hose runs and
vehicles to pass.
Vehicle mounted or trailer mounted pumps w i t h
capacities in excess of 23.000 litres per m i n u t e are • Bund extension piers. Where it is d i f f i c u l t to
available. project foam over tank walls from the sur-
rounding bund wall, such extensions would
(d) Large Hose provide a suitable platform for monitors by
reducing the range and increasing the eleva-
Use of large diameter hose is considered vital to tion above the bund floor. In addition, there
enable control and f l e x i b i l i t y on the fireground. is a considerable degree of safety for fire-
One 150mm diameter suction hose and one fighters in being able to tend and train mon-
150mm diameter discharge hose is more than suf- itors outside of the bunded area. In the event
ficient to supply a single 3,800 l i t r e per m i n u t e of a boil-over, froth-over or slop-over their
monitor, compared with four 70mm hoses. In elevation would provide additional time to
addition, hose laying vehicles should be consid- effect an escape, and they would be on a
ered to rapidly deploy and retrieve hose lengths. paved exit route where vehicles could be
Where long runs of hose are required, as may readily used.
well be the case w i t h storage tank fires, the time
saved in deployment by such a vehicle, at speeds • Concrete faced bund walls to prevent ero-
of up to 30 mph if necessary, can be of crucial sion by weather and by water from burst
importance. hoses etc. Special care should be taken in
bund maintenance to ensure no points of
Where possible, large diameter suction hose weakness develop (for example around
should be connected directly, or via a junction pipework that penetrates the bund walls).
coupling, into the large diameter outlet at a site When a bund is full of liquid, any leakage
hydrant. Where these do not exist, 4 to I adapter can lead to rapid erosion and loss of con-
heads (sometimes referred to as phantom pumper tainment.
collecting breechings) can be fabricated to enable
70mm outlets to be coupled to 150mm suction • For liquefied gases, lower diversion walls
hose. can be provided w i t h i n the main bund to
channel small spills to a catchment pit away
150mm diameter lay flat delivery hose is widely from the tank and close to the main bund
available and sizes in excess of 250mm are in pro- wall for ease of extinguishment.
duction for specialist applications. It should be
remembered that the couplings are the most expen- • Facilities for drainage of bunds should be
sive part of large diameter hoses and so hose provided under the control of an isolation
lengths should be chosen with care. valve.

76 Fire Service Manual

(f) Fixed Equipment
• Mounting the monitor/nozzle on an elevat-
The role of fixed fire protection is of great impor- ing platform.
tance in m i n i m i s i n g the extent of manual firefight-
ing required. For floating roof tanks, top pourers • Fixing the monitor/nozzle to the jib of a
are usually designed for rim seal protection only crane.
and are likely to be damaged in f u l l y involved tank
fires. Similarly, with fixed roof tanks, top pourers Care must be taken in the case of the elevating
are often damaged during the ignition phase. platform as the jet reaction may affect the stability
of the unit.
Subsurface injection systems are not normally
damaged during tank fires. These can be particu- In all methods of elevating equipment, some
larly useful for fixed roof tank fires where there is method of remote control would be a distinct
no obstruction in the form of a sunken roof struc- advantage.
ture. However, the extent of spread from sub-sur-
face injection is limited, probably to less than 30m (h) Implications of Use of Specialist
in any one direction, so for larger tanks, over-the- Equipment
top application is still essential to achieve extin-
guishment. The use of both base injection systems Tables 8.13 to 8.19 show the development of the
and over-the-top application can be the most effec- logistics of firefighting with specialist equipment
tive combination available for large tank fires. in direct comparison to the use of conventional
equipment.
In determining the requirements of equipment and
materials for manual firefighting, no account should There is no immediately obvious saving in the
be taken of fixed protection since it can be out of quantities of water or concentrate required but the
service when required and cannot be regarded as a percentage savings in foam equipment compared
common protection feature on storage tanks. with conventional deployment are as follows:

For tanks over 45m diameter, which present a con- 3,800 lpm 7,600 lpm 15,000 lpm
siderable challenge to any manual system of foam Monitors Monitors Monitors
application, it is recommended that fixed base and Pumps and Pumps and Pumps
injection systems should be provided.
Monitors 43-50% 71-75% 82-86%
(g) Elevated Equipment Pumps 43-50% 71-75% 82-86%
By elevating monitors it may be possible to direct Hose
the foam to the required point on the fuel surface lengths 71-75% 87-91 % 83-90%
which could be particularly useful as a method of
assisting the foam to flow the whole way across
the burning fuel in a tank by: In addition, the transportation of foam concentrate
can be greatly simplified by the use of far fewer
• Advancing the foam landing zone as the large foam concentrate containers (i.e. foam dams,
foam front progresses. foam tankers, bulk containers etc.).

• Directing the foam stream at the foam blan- The numbers of firefighters involved directly in
ket near the side of the tank to encourage a the foam attack can be reduced along with the
circular movement. reduction in equipment, with a corresponding
lower requirement for standby crews and logistic
Foam delivery equipment can be elevated by: support. It is far easier to re-deploy the loam
attack when needed since less items of equipment
• Purpose made foam towers. need to be moved. There is also a better chance of

77
e x t i n g u i s h i n g the fire when using specialist equip-
ment because deployment can be achieved earlier
and because large nozzles should be more effec-
tive in penetrating the fire plume and getting a
"bite'" on the fire.

Although not illustrated here, the application of

cooling water can also be simplified by the use of
large suction hose, large pumps and large delivery
hose to distribution headers. However, smaller
water monitors, such as those with a 1,900 litre per
minute capacity, would s t i l l be useful for cooling
because a smaller number of larger monitors may
distribute the water less evenly, and there are not
the same problems with monitor range when pro-
jecting water.

It can be expected that the use of specialist equip-

ment would increase the sizes of storage tank fires
that could be successfully tackled and e x t i n -
guished. For fires in tanks of less than 45m, it
would greatly s i m p l i f y the logistics and the
process of extinguishment. For larger storage
tanks, it may be possible to extinguish fires that are
beyond the capabilities of present equipment.

78 Fire Service Manual

Table 8.13: Large Storage Tank Fires, Specialist Equipment Deployment -
Summary of Resource Requirements For 60 minute Foam Attack
Tank Diameter (15m high) 45m 60m 75m 90m
Water For Foam Attack (lpm) 11,400 20,600 31,900 50,300
3% Foam Concentrate (1pm) 360 640 990 1,600
Foam Solution (1pm) 11,700 21,200 32,900 51,900
Total Water (litres) 681,000 1,240,000 1,920,000 3,020,000
Total 3% Foam Concentrate (litres) 21,100 38,200 59,200 93,400
Total Foam Solution (litres) 710,000 1,280,000 1,980,000 3,120,000
Foam Monitors (each 1,900 1pm) 7 12 18 28
Pumps (one per monitor) 7 12 18 28
Hydrant Outlets (2 per pump) 14 24 36 56
Hydrants (4 outlets per hydrant) 4 6 9 14
Lengths of 70mm Hose (each 25m) 48 88 148 288
Foam Monitors (each 3,800 1pm) 4 6 9 14
Pumps (3,800 lpm, one per monitor) 4 6 9 14
Hydrant Outlets (1 x 150mm per pump) 4 6 9 14
Hydrants (each 1 x 150mm outlet) 4 6 9 14
Lengths of 150mm Hose (each 25m) 14 22 37 72
Foam Monitors (each 7,600 lpm) 2 3 5 7
Pumps (7,600 1pm, one per monitor) 2 3 5 7
Hydrant Outlets (1 x 150mm per pump) 2 3 5 7
Hydrants (each 1 x 150mm outlet) 2 3 5 7
Lengths of 150mm Hose (each 25m) 6 10 18 26
Foam Monitors (each 15,000 1pm) 1 2 3 4
Pumps (15,000 1pm, one per monitor) 1 2 3 4
Hydrant Outlets (2 x 150mm per pump) 2 4 6 8
Hydrants (each 1 x 150mm outlet) 2 4 6 8
Lengths of 150mm Hose (each 25m) 6 14 22 30

Notes to Table 8.13:

a. The foam application rates used for these calculations are the Home Office recommended minimum application
rales (see Chapter 4).
b. No allowance has been made for any additional foam concentrate requirements as a result of an increased foam
application rate during f i r e f i g h t i n g due to losses, or for continued application after extinction. Losses could add
as much as 60% to the foam concentrate requirements with associated increases in foam attack water and equip-
ment (see Chapter 4).
c. A/I numbers are approximate.

Firefighting Foam 79
Table 8.14: Large Storage Tank Fires, Specialist Equipment Deployment - 150mm Hose
Requirements For a Foam Attack - Hydrants to Pumps, Pumps and Monitors 3,800 lpm
Tank Surface No. of No. of No. of Distance No. of No. of Total No. Total
Diameter Area of Foam Hydrant Hydrants From Hose 25m Hose of Length
Top of Monitors/ Outlets Needed Hydrants Runs Lengths Lengths of Hose
Tank Pumps Needed ( 1 outlet to Pumps for Each Required of
Needed per Distance (150mm 25m Hose
(each hydrant) Diameter)
3,800
lpm)
(m) (m 2 ) (km)
45 1,600 4 4 4 2<25m 2 2 6 0.2
2<50m 2 4
60 2,900 6 6 6 2<25m 2 2 10 0.3
4<50m 4 8
75 4.500 9 9 9 2<25m 2 2 19 0.5
6<50m 6 12
1<125m 1 5
90 6,400 14 14 14 2<25 m 2 2 44 I.I
6<50m 6 12
6<l25m 6 30

Notes to Table 8.14:

a. The number of monitors required has been calculated by dividing the foam solution rale requirement for film-
forming foam (see Table 8.13) by the capacity of the foam monitors (3,800 l p m )
b. 6<l25m means six hydrants are located less than 125m from the pump that they supply.
c. No allowance has been made for any additional foam concentrate requirements as a result of an increased foam
application rate during firefighting due to losses, or for continued application after extinction. Losses could add
as much as 6()'/( to the foam concentrate requirements with associated increases in foam attack water and equip-
ment (see Chapter 4).
d. All numbers are approximate.

80 Fire Service Manual

Table 8.15: Large Storage Tank Fires, Specialist Equipment Deployment - 150mm Hose Requirements For a
Foam Attack - Pumps to Monitors, Pumps and Monitors 3,800 lpm

Tank Surface No. of No. of Length No. of Total No. Total Hose
Diameter Area of Monitors Hose of Runs 25m Hose of 25m Length
Top of Needed Runs Lengths lengths From
Tank (each Needed Required From Hydrants
3,800 (150mm Hydrants to Pumps
lpm) Diameter) to Pumps to Monitors
to Monitors
(m) (m2) (km)
45 1,600 4 4 <50m 8 14 0.4
60 2,900 6 6 <50m 12 22 0.6
75 4,500 9 9 <50m 18 37 1.0
90 6,400 14 14 <50m 28 72 1.8

Notes to Table 8.15:

a. <50m means less titan 50 metres.
b. No allowance has been made for any additional foam concentrate requirements as a result of an increased foam
application rate during firefighting due to losses, or for continued application after extinction. Losses could add
as much as 60% to the foam concentrate reqnirements with associated increases in foam attack water and equip-
ment (see Chapter 4).
c. All numbers are approximate.

Firefighting Foam 8
Table 8.16: Large Storage Tank Fires, Specialist Equipment Deployment - 150mm Hose
Requirements For a Foam Attack - Hydrants to Pumps, Pumps and Monitors 7,600 lpm
Tank Surface No. of No. of No. of Distance No. of No. of Total No. Total
Diameter Area of Foam Hydrant Hydrants From Hose 25m Hose of Length
Top of Monitors Outlets Needed Hydrants Runs Lengths Lengths of Hose
Tank /Pumps Needed (1 outlet to Pumps for Required of 25m
Needed per Each (150mm Hose
(each hydrant) Distance Diameter)
7,600
1pm)
(m) (m 2 ) (km)
45 1,600 2 2 2 2<25m 2 2 2 0.1
60 2,900 3 3 3 2<25m 2 2 4 0.1
l<50m 1 2
75 4,500 5 5 5 2<25m 2 2 8 0.2
3<50m 3 6
90 6,400 7 7 7 2<25 m 2 2 12 0.3
5<50m 5 10

Notes to Table 8.16:

a. The number of monitors required has been calculated by dividing the foam solution rate requirement for f i l m -
forming foam (see Table 8.13) by the capacity of the foam monitors (7,600 l p m )
b. 2<25m means two hydrants are located less than 25m from the pump that they supply.
c. No allowance has been made for any additional foam concentrate requirements as a result of an increased
foam application rate during firefighting due to losses, or for continued application after extinction. Losses
could add as much as 60% to the foam concentrate requirements with associated increases in foam attack
water and equipment (see Chapter 4).
d. All numbers are approximate.

82 Fire Service Manual

Table 8.17: Large Storage Tank Fires, Specialist Equipment Deployment - 150mm Hose
Requirements For a Foam Attack - Pumps to Monitors, Pumps and Monitors 7,600 lpm
Tank Surface No. of No. of Length No. of Total No. Total Hose
Diameter Area of Monitors Hose Runs of Runs 25m Hose of 25m Length
Top of Needed Needed Lengths lengths From
Tank (each Required From Hydrants
7,600 (150mm Hydrants to Pumps
1pm) Diameter) to Pumps to Monitors
to Monitors
(m) (m2) (km)
45 1,600 2 2 <50m 4 6 0.2
60 2,900 3 3 <50m 6 10 0.3
75 4,500 5 5 <50m 10 18 0.5
90 6,400 7 7 <50m 14 26 0.7

Notes to Table 8.17:

<50m means less than 50 metres.

No allowance lias been made for any additional foam concentrate requirements as a result of an increased foam
application rate during firefighting due to losses, or for continued application after extinction. Losses could add
as much ax 60% to the foam concentrate requirements with associated increases in foam attack water and equip-
ment (see Chapter 4).
All numbers are approximate.

Firefighting Foam 83
Table 8.18: Large Storage Tank Fires, Specialist Equipment Deployment - 150mm Hose
Requirements For a Foam Attack - Hydrants to Pumps, Pumps and Monitors 15,000 lpm
Tank Surface No. of No. of No. of Distance No. of No. of Total No. Total
Diameter Area of Foam Hydrant Hydrants From Hose 25m Hose of Length
Top of Monitors Outlets Needed Hydrants Runs Lengths Lengths of Hose
Tank /Pumps Needed (1 outlet to Pumps for Each Required of 25m
Needed per Distance (150mm Hose
(each hydrant) Diameter)
15,000
1pm)
(m) (m2) (km)
45 1,600 1 2 2 2<25m 2 2 2 0.1
60 2,900 2 4 4 2<25m 2 2 6 0.2
2<50m 2 4
75 4,500 3 6 6 2<25m 2 2 10 0.3
4<50m 4 8
90 6,400 4 8 8 2<25 m 9 2 14 0.4
6<50m 6 12

Notes to Table 8.18:

a. The number of monitors required has been calculated by dividing the foam solution rate requirement for film-
forming foam (see Table 8.13) by the capacity of the foam monitors (15,000 lpm)
b. 4<50m means four hydrants are located less than 50m from the pump that they supply.
c. No allowance has been made for any additional foam concentrate requirements as a result of an increased
foam application rale during firefighting due to losses, or for continued application after extinction. Losses
could add as much as 60% to the foam concentrate requirements with associated increases in foam attack
water and equipment (see Chapter 4).
d. All numbers are approximate.

84 Fire Service Manual

Table 8.19: Large Storage Tank Fires, Specialist Equipment Deployment - 150mm Hose
Requirements For a Foam Attack - Pumps to Monitors, Pumps and Monitors 15,000 lpm
Tank Surface No. of No. of Length No. of Total No. Total Hose
Diameter Area of Monitors Hose of Runs 25m Hose of 25m Length
Top of Needed Runs Lengths lengths From
Tank (each Needed Required From Hydrants
15,000 (150mm Hydrants to Pumps
1pm) Diameter) to Pumps to Monitors
to Monitors
(m) (m 2 ) (km)
45 1,600 1 2 <50m 4 6 0.2
60 2,900 2 4 <50m 8 14 0.4
75 4,500 3 6 <50m 12 22 0.6
90 6,400 4 8 <50m 16 30 0.8

Notes to Table 8.19

a. <50m means less than 50 metres.
b. No allowance has been made for any additional foam concentrate requirements as a result of an increased
foam application rate during firefighting; due to losses, or for continued application after extinction. Losses
could add as much as 60% to the foam concentrate requirements with associated increases in foam attack
water and equipment (see Chapter 4).
c. AH numbers are approximate.

Firefighting Foam 85
Firefighting Foam

References Further Reading

1. CFBAC, JCFR Report 19. Trials of 1. CFBAC, JCFR Report 40, Survey of
Medium and High Expansion Foams on Firefighting Foams, Associated Equipment
Petrol Fires, P L Parsons, 1982. and Tactics (Ewbank Preece Reports] 1990.
ISBN 0 82652 556 X
2. FRDG Publication 3/91, Additives for Part 1 : Firefighting Foams
Hosereel Systems: Trials of Foam on Part 2 : Tactics and Equipment
Wooden Crib Fires. B P Johnson. 1991. Part 3 : Large Tank Fires

3. CFBAC, JCFR Report 49, The Use of 2. Fire Service Manual - Volume 2 - Fire
Foam Against Large-Scale Petroleum Fires Service Operations - Petrochemicals.
Involving Lead-Free Petrol Summary
Report, J A Foster. 1992. 3. Fire Service Manual - Volume 1 - Fire
Service Technology, Equipment and
4. CFBAC, JCFR Report 31, Additives for Media - Foam.
Hosereel Systems Trials of Foams on 40m2
Petrol Fires, J A Foster, 1988.

5. SRDB Publication 10/87, Test of Two

Compact High Expansion Foam
Generators Produced by Symtol
Engineering Ltd in 1982, J A Foster,
B P Johnson, 1988.

6. CFBAC, JCFR Report 24, Trials and

Methods of Foam Disposal Following Use
of High Expansion Foam, F E Smith, 1985.

Previous page
is blank
Firefighting Foam 87
Firefighting Foam

Glossary of Terms: Firefighting Foams

(Note: Not all of these terms have been used in this Manual of Firemanship
but they have been included here for completeness)

Accelerated ageing Storage of foam concentrate at high temperatures to indicate

long term storage properties of the foam concentrate at ambient
temperatures.

Acidity See pH.

Alcohol resistant These may be suitable for use on hydrocarbon fuels, and
foam concentrates additionally are resistant to breakdown when applied to the
surface of water-miscible liquid fuels. Some alcohol resistant
foam concentrates may precipitate a polymeric membrane on
the surface of water-miscible liquid fuels.

Alkalinity See pH.

Application rate The rate at which a foam solution is applied to a fire.

Usually expressed as litres of foam solution per square metre of
the fire surface area per minute (lpm/m2).

AFFF concentrate Aqueous film-forming foam. AFFFs are generally based on mix-
tures of hydrocarbon and fluorinated surface active agents and
have the ability to form an aqueous film on the surface of some
hydrocarbon fuels.

Aspiration The addition or entrainment of air into foam solution.

Aspirated foam Foam that is made when foam solution is passed through purpose
designed foam-making equipment, such as a foam-making
branch. These mix in air (aspirate) and then agitate the mixture
sufficiently to produce finished foam, (see also primary aspirated
foam and secondary aspirated foam).

Base injection The introduction of fuel-tolerant primary aspirated finished foam

(Subsurface injection) beneath the surface of certain flammable and combustible
hydrocarbons, to effect fire extinguishment. Usually used for
the protection of fixed roof hydrocarbon fuel storage tanks.

Bite The formation of an initial area of foam blanket on the surface of

a burning liquid fuel.

Previous page
is blank Firefighting Foam 89
Boiling liquid The catastrophic failure of a tank containing pressure liquefied
expanding vapour gas (PLG) due to mechanical damage or adverse heat exposure
explosion (BLEVE) will result in a BLEVE. A BLEVE will produce blast and
projectile hazards. If the contents of the tank are toxic, then
health and exposure hazards may occur. If the contents are
flammable, then a fireball may occur with associated thermal
radiation and fire engulfment hazards.

Boil-over Violent ejection of flammable liquid from its container, caused

by vaporisation of a water layer beneath the body of the liquid. It
will generally only occur after a lengthy burning period in wide
flashpoint range products, such as crude oil. The water layer may
already have been in the container before the fire began or may
be the result of the inadvertent application of water (perhaps dur-
ing cooling of the container walls), or from the drainage of foam
solution from finished foam applied to the fire, (see also froth-
over and slop-over).

Bund area (Dike area) An area surrounding a storage tank which is designed to contain
the liquid product in the event of a tank rupture.

Branch A hand-held foam maker and nozzle.

Burnback resistance The ability of a foam blanket to resist direct flame and
heat impingement.

Candling Refers to the thin intermittent flames that can move over the
surface of a foam blanket even after the main liquid fuel fire has
been extinguished.

Chemical foam A finished foam produced by mixing two or more chemicals.

The bubbles are typically caused by carbon dioxide released by
the reaction.

Classes of Fire In the UK the standard classification of fire types is defined

in BSEN 2: 1992 as follows:
'Class A: fires involving solid materials, usually of an
organic nature, in which combustion normally takes place
with the formation of glowing embers.
Class B: fires involving liquids or liquefiable solids.
Class C: fires involving gases.
Class D: fires involving metals.'

Electrical fires are not included in this system of classification.

Cloud point The lowest temperature at which a liquid remains clear.

Usually only applicable to high expansion foam concentrates.

Combustible liquid Any liquid having a flashpoint at or above 37.8°C (IO()°F).

90 Fire Service Manual

Concentration To achieve effective performance, foam concentrates must be
mixed to the concentration recommended by the manufacturer.
For each 100 litres of the required foam solution, the foam
concentrate must be mixed as follows:
Recommended Volume of Foam Volume of Volume of
Concentration Concentrate Water Foam Solution
(litres) (litres) (litres)
1% 1 99 100
3% 3 97 100
6% 6 94 100

Critical application The foam application rate below which a fire cannot be
rate extinguished.

Crude oil Petroleum, in its natural state, as extracted from the earth.
Consequently, there are many different types of crude oil. each
with different characteristics and each yielding different quality
products. The various constituents ensure that crude oils general-
ly have wide ranging flash points with usually sufficient fractions
(or light ends) to classify them as class A petroleum products.

Density The mass per unit volume of a material:

mass
Density =
volume

Dike area See Bund area.

Discharge rate The discharge rate of a high expansion foam generator measured
(high expansion foam) in cubic metres/min (m3/min) of foam at a stated expansion ratio.

Drainage time The time taken for a percentage of the liquid content of a
finished foam sample of a stated depth to drain out of the foam.
For low expansion foam, times taken for 25% of the foam
solution to drain out are usually given: for medium and high
expansion foams 50% drainage times are usually given.

Expansion ratio The ratio of the total volume of finished foam to the volume of
foam solution used to produce it:

Expansion ratio = volume of finished foam

volume of foam solution used to produce it

Film-forming A finished foam, foam solution or foam concentrate that forms a

spreading, thin, aqueous film on the surface of some hydrocarbon
liquids.

FFFP foam concentrates Film-forming fluoroprotein. These are fluoroprotein foam

concentrates which have the ability to form an aqueous film on
the surface of some hydrocarbon fuels.

Firefighting Foam 91
Finished foam The foam as applied to the fire. It will consist of a mixture of
foam solution that has been mixed with air. The foam may be
primary aspirated or secondary aspirated.

Flammable liquid Any liquid having a flashpoint below 37.8°C (100°F).

Flashback The re-ignition of a flammable liquid caused by the exposure of

its vapour to a source of ignition such as a hot metal surface or a
spark.

Flashpoint The lowest temperature at which a flame can propagate in the

vapour above a liquid.

Flow requirement (low The nominal supply rate of foam solution required by a foam
and medium expansion) branch, measured in litres per minute.

Fluoroprotein (FP) A hydrolysed protein based foam concentrate with added

foam concentrate fluorinated surface active agents.

Foam The result of mixing foam concentrates, water and air to produce
bubbles.

Foam concentrate The foam as supplied by the manufacturer in liquid form; this is
sometimes referred to as 'foam compound', 'foam liquid' or by
trade or brand names.

Foam, dry Foam with a long drainage time, i.e. the liquid content of the
foam takes a long period of time to drain out of the foam; the
foam is very stable.

Foam generator A mechanical device in which foam solution is sprayed onto a

(high expansion) net screen through which air is being forced by a fan.

Foam generator Similar to a foam-making branch, but inserted in a line of hose

(low expansion) so that the finished foam passes along the hose to a discharge
nozzle.

Foam-making branch The equipment by which the foam solution is normally mixed
(foam-making with air and delivered to the fire as a finished foam.
branchpipe, FMB)

Foam monitor A larger version of a foam-making branch which cannot be

hand-held.

Foam solution A well mixed solution of foam concentrate in water at the

appropriate concentration.

Foam, wet Foam with a short drainage time, i.e. the liquid content of the
foam takes a short period of time to drain out of the foam; the
foam breaks down quickly.

92 Fire Service Manual

Freeze point The highest temperature at which a material can exist as a solid.

Froth-over Overflow of a non-burning flammable liquid from a container

due to the thermal expansion of the liquid or violent boiling
on top of and within the upper layers of the liquid due to the
presence of small quantities of water, (see also boil-over and
slop-over)

Hazmat A proprietary trade name used to describe special types of foam

which can be used to suppress the vapour production of certain
hazardous materials (toxic, odorous and/or flammable).

Heat resistance The ability of a foam blanket to withstand the effects of exposure
to heat.

High expansion Finished foam of expansion ratio greater than 200:1

foam (HX)

Hydrocarbon fuel Fuels based exclusively on chains or rings of linked hydrogen and
carbon atoms. Hydrocarbon fuels are not miscible with water.

Induction The entrainment of foam concentrate into the water stream.

Inductor (Eductor) A device used to introduce foam concentrate into a water line.

Induction rate The percentage at which foam concentrate is proportioned in to

(pick-up rate) water by an inductor in order to produce a foam solution.
Normally this is 1%, 3% or 6%.

Inline inductor An inductor inserted in to a hose line in order to induce foam

concentrate prior to the water reaching the foam-making branch.

Knockdown The ability of a foam to quickly control flames. Knockdown does

not necessarily mean extinguishment.

Low expansion Finished foam of expansion ratio of less than or equal to 20:1.
foam (LX)

Mechanical foam Foam produced by a physical agitation of a mixture of water,

foam concentrate and air.

Medium expansion Finished foam of expansion ratio greater than 20:1. but less than
foam (MX) or equal to 200:1.

Minimum use The lowest temperature at which the foam concentrate can be
temperature used at the correct concentration through conventional equipment
such as inline inductors and other proportioning devices.

Monitor A large throughput branch (water or foam-making) which is

normally mounted on a vehicle, trailer or on a fixed or portable
pedestal.

Firefighling Foam 93
Multipurpose foam Another name given to alcohol resistant foam concentrates.
concentrates

Newtonian liquids The viscosity of Newtonian liquids remains the same no matter
how quickly or slowly they are flowing (see also non-Newtonian
pseudo-plastic liquids). Most non-alcohol resistant foam
concentrates (such as AFFF, FFFP, FP, P and SYNDET) are
Newtonian liquids.

Non-aspirated The application, by any appropriate means, of a firefighting

(Unaspirated) liquid that does not mix the liquid with air to produce foam
(i.e. aspiration does not occur). The term "non-aspirated foam' is
often used incorrectly to describe the product of a foam solution
that has been passed through equipment that has not been
specifically designed to produce foam, such as a water branch.
However, the use of this type of equipment will often result in
some aspiration of a foam solution. This is because air is usually
entrained into a jet or spray of foam solution as it leaves the
branch, as it travels through the air due to the turbulence
produced by the stream and/or when it strikes an object. This
causes further turbulence and air mixing. There is sufficient air
entrained by these processes to produce a foam of very low
expansion (often with an expansion ratio of less than 5:1).
Consequently, the term secondary aspirated foam is preferred in
these cases (see also primary aspirated and secondary aspirated
foam).

Non-Newtonian As the rale of flow of non-Newtonian pseudo-plastic liquids

pseudo-plastic increases, their viscosity decreases and so they flow more easily.
liquids Consequently, getting them to flow initially can be difficult, but
once flowing, their viscosity reduces to a more acceptable level.
Many alcohol resistant foam concentrates (such as AFFF-AR and
FFFP-AR) are considered to be non-Newtonian pseudo-plastic
liquids.

Oleophobic Oil repellent.

Over-the-top foam The application of foam by projecting it over the sides of a

application storage tank and directly on to the surface of the contained fuel.

pH (Acidity/Alkalinity) Measurement of the acidity to alkalinity of a liquid on a scale of

1 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral (like that of pure water), a pH of I is
very acidic, a pH of 14 is very alkaline.

Polar solvent This term is generally used to describe any liquid which destroys
standard foams, although it actually refers to liquids whose mole-
cules possess a permanent dielectric discharge e.g. Alcohols,
ketones. Most polar solvents are water-miscible.

Pour point The lowest temperature at which a foam concentrate is fluid enough
to pour. This is generally a few degrees above its freezing point.

94 Fire Service Manual

Preburn time The time between ignition of a fire and the commencement of
foam application.

Premix solution A mixture in correct proportions of a foam concentrate and water.

Use of this term generally implies that the foam is stored in a
premix form, as in a portable foam fire extinguisher or as foam
solution in a fire appliance water tank.

Primary aspirated Finished foam produced from foam solutions that are passed
foam through purpose designed foam-making equipment.
(See secondary aspirated foam).

Proportioner A device where foam concentrate and water are mixed to form a
foam solution.

Protein (P) foam Protein foam concentrate contains organic concentrates derived
concentrate from natural vegetable or animal sources. Hydrolysed products of
protein provide exceptionally stable and heat resistant properties
to foams although they lack fuel tolerance and have slow knock-
down performance.

Relative density see Specific gravity

Secondary aspirated Finished foams that are produced from foam solutions that are
foam applied other than by purpose designed foam-making equipment,
usually standard water devices. (See primary aspirated foam).

Security The ability of a foam to seal around hot objects and prevent
reignition.

Shear strength The measurement of the stiffness of a finished foam sample

when measured with a foam viscometer. Units of measurement
are Newtons per square metre (n/m 2 .

Slop-over When some burning liquids, such as heavy fuel oils or crude oils,
become extremely hot, any applied water may begin to boil on
contact with the fuel, the resulting rapid expansion as it converts
to steam may cause burning fuel to overflow its containment and
the fire to spread (see also boil-over and froth-over).

Solution transit time The time taken for foam solution to pass from the point where
foam concentrate is introduced in to the water stream to when
finished foam is produced.

Specific gravity The specific gravity of a material is a measure of the density of

the material in relation to the density of water. The specific
gravity is calculated as:-

Specific Gravity = Density of material

Density of water

Firefighting Foam 95
 A liquid with a specific gravity of less than one will float on
water (unless it is water-miscible); a specific gravity of more
than one indicates that water will float on top of the liquid.

Spill fire A flammable liquid fire having an average depth of not more
than 25mm.

Stability The ability of a finished foam to retain shape and form particu-
larly in the presence of heat, flame and/or other liquids. The 25%
drainage time is often used as a measure for stability.

Subsurface injection See base injection.

Surface active agents A chemical ingredient of some foam concentrates. Finished

foams is stabilised by the addition of surface active agents (or
surfactants) which promote air/water stability by reducing the
liquids surface tension. Most surface active agents are organic
in nature and common examples are soaps and detergents.

Synthetic detergent These are based upon mixtures of hydrocarbon surface active
(SYNDET) foam agents and may contain tluorinated surface active agents with
concentrate additional stabilisers. They are multipurpose foams in that they
can be used at low, medium and high expansion.

Venturi A constricted portion of a pipe or tube which will increase water

velocity, thus momentarily reducing its pressure. It is in this
reduced pressure that foam concentrate is introduced. The
pressure difference across the venturi can be used to force foam
concentrate into the water.

Viscosity This is a measure of how well a liquid will flow. Liquids are
generally classed as either being non-Newtonian or Newtonian.
A low viscosity is often desirable because it improves the How
characteristics of a foam concentrate through pick-up tubes,
pipework and induction equipment.

Viscosity will also vary with foam concentrate type and with
concentration. AFFF foam concentrates at 3% and 6%
oncentrations tend to be the least viscous, closely followed by
P, FP and FFFP foam concentrates at 6%. AFFF at 1% and
SYNDET foams, P, FP and FFFP foam concentrates at 3%
concentration are appreciably more viscous than these. The
alcohol resistant foams are often the most viscous although
recent developments have dramatically reduced the viscosity
of some products.

In addition, the viscosity of all foam concentrates will vary

with temperature and may be affected by the age of the foam
concentrate. Manufacturers often state the viscosity of their
products when measured at 20oC; lower temperatures will result
in higher viscosity.

96 Fire Service Manual

Water-immiscible liquid A liquid that is not soluble in water.

Water-miseible liquid A liquid that is soluble in water. Polar solvents and hydrocarbon
liquids that are watcr-miscible can dissolve normal firefighting
foams (see also alcohol resistant foam concentrates).

Wetting agent A chemical compound which, when added to water in correct

proportions, materially reduces its surface tension, increases its
penetrating and spreading abilities and may also provide foaming
characteristics.

Firefighting Foam 97
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