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SYLLABUS
UNIT I
1. Introduction to Psychology : Nature, Definition, Scope and Branches of
psychology.
2. Methods : Observation, Experimentation, Interview, Field study,
Correlational method.
3. Brief concept of schools of psychology : Structuralism, Behaviourism,
Gestalt.
4. Need for quantification in psychology, Levels of measurement :
Nominal, Ordinal, Interval and Ratio.
5. Variables and their classifications, Independent, Dependent and
Controlling of variables.

Introduction to Psychology: Nature, Definition, Scope, and Branches

1. Nature of Psychology:

Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior. It seeks to

understand how people think, feel, and act in different situations and
environments. The nature of psychology is both empirical and theoretical, as it
combines observation, experimentation, and analysis to uncover patterns in
human and animal behavior. It is a multifaceted discipline that explores mental
processes such as perception, memory, learning, and emotions, while also
examining external behaviors that can be observed and measured.

2. Definition of Psychology:

Psychology is traditionally defined as the "scientific study of behavior and

mental processes." This includes understanding cognitive functions like
thinking, memory, perception, and decision-making, as well as the emotional
and social aspects of behavior. Over time, psychology has expanded to include
various subfields, each focusing on different aspects of human experience.

Some common definitions include:

 American Psychological Association (APA): "Psychology is the

scientific study of the mind and behavior."
 Merriam-Webster Dictionary: "Psychology is the science of mind and
behavior."
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3. Scope of Psychology:

The scope of psychology is vast, as it covers both theoretical and applied

aspects of mental processes and behaviors. The major areas within the scope of
psychology include:

 Biological Psychology: Examines the relationship between the brain, the

nervous system, and behavior.
 Cognitive Psychology: Focuses on mental processes like perception,
memory, problem-solving, and language.
 Developmental Psychology: Studies the psychological growth and
changes that occur over the course of a lifespan.
 Social Psychology: Investigates how individuals' behaviors, thoughts,
and feelings are influenced by the presence of others.
 Clinical and Counseling Psychology: Focuses on diagnosing and
treating mental health disorders and providing therapy and support to
individuals.
 Educational Psychology: Deals with how people learn and the
educational processes involved in teaching and learning.
 Industrial-Organizational Psychology: Studies human behavior in the
workplace, including motivation, performance, and job satisfaction.

4. Branches of Psychology:

Psychology is a diverse field that can be broken down into several branches,
each focusing on different aspects of human behavior and mental processes.
Here are the main branches of psychology:

1. Biological Psychology (or Neuroscience):

o Focuses on the connection between the brain, nervous system, and
behavior.
o Studies how the brain and body influence behavior, emotions, and
cognitive processes.
2. Cognitive Psychology:
o Examines mental processes like perception, attention, memory,
reasoning, and problem-solving.
o Researches how people understand, learn, and remember
information.
3. Developmental Psychology:
o Studies the physical, cognitive, and emotional growth and changes
that occur from infancy to adulthood.
o Investigates how individuals develop over time and the influence
of genetics, environment, and culture.
4. Social Psychology:
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o Examines how individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are

influenced by others.
o Studies group dynamics, social interactions, attitudes, prejudice,
and conformity.
5. Clinical and Counseling Psychology:
o Clinical psychology focuses on diagnosing and treating mental
health disorders.
o Counseling psychology is concerned with helping individuals deal
with personal and interpersonal issues, including emotional
struggles and stress.
6. Educational Psychology:
o Focuses on how individuals learn and the processes that affect
learning in different educational settings.
o Studies the impact of teaching methods, motivation, and the role of
individual differences in learning.
7. Industrial-Organizational Psychology:
o Examines how psychology can be applied to improve productivity,
efficiency, and well-being in the workplace.
o Focuses on areas such as motivation, leadership, human resources,
and organizational behavior.
8. Health Psychology:
o Investigates how biological, social, and psychological factors
influence health and illness.
o Works on the promotion of healthy behaviors and the prevention
and treatment of illness.
9. Forensic Psychology:
o Applies psychological principles to the legal system.
o Involves assessments of offenders, jury behavior, eyewitness
testimony, and criminal investigations.
10.Sports Psychology:
o Focuses on how psychological factors influence performance in
sports and physical activities.
o Includes motivation, stress management, and the mental aspect of
performance enhancement.
11.Environmental Psychology:
o Studies the interaction between individuals and their physical
surroundings.
o Looks at how environmental factors (such as noise, space, and
urban design) affect behavior, emotions, and well-being.
12.Comparative Psychology:
o Compares the behavior and mental processes of different animal
species to understand the evolution of behavior and cognition.
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Methods in Psychology: Observation, Experimentation, Interview, Field

Study, and Correlational Method

Psychologists use a variety of research methods to study and understand human

behavior and mental processes. These methods help psychologists gather data,
test hypotheses, and draw conclusions about how people think, feel, and act.
Below are descriptions of five key methods used in psychological research:

1. Observation Method:

The observation method involves the systematic watching and recording of

behavior in a natural or controlled environment. It can be either participant or
non-participant observation.

 Participant Observation: The researcher becomes actively involved in

the situation being observed. For example, a psychologist might observe
a classroom while interacting with students to gather insights about
teaching methods.
 Non-Participant Observation: The researcher remains an outsider,
observing without actively participating. For example, a psychologist may
observe children in a playground without intervening.

Advantages:

 Provides natural and real-time data.

 Allows for the study of behavior in its natural context.

Disadvantages:

 Observer bias can influence findings.

 The presence of the observer might influence participants' behavior
(Hawthorne effect).

2. Experimentation Method:

Experimentation is a controlled method where researchers manipulate one or

more variables (independent variables) to determine their effect on other
variables (dependent variables). This method allows for establishing cause-and-
effect relationships.
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 Independent Variable: The variable that is manipulated or changed by

the researcher.
 Dependent Variable: The variable that is measured to observe the effect
of the independent variable.
 Control Group: A group that is not exposed to the experimental
treatment and serves as a comparison.
 Experimental Group: The group that is exposed to the manipulation of
the independent variable.

Advantages:

 Allows researchers to establish cause-and-effect relationships.

 Provides high control over variables, reducing the influence of
extraneous factors.

Disadvantages:

 Can lack ecological validity if the experiment does not reflect real-life
situations.
 Ethical concerns can arise, especially when manipulation of variables
might cause harm to participants.

3. Interview Method:

The interview method involves direct interaction between the researcher and the
participant, where the researcher asks questions to obtain information about the
participant’s thoughts, feelings, or behavior. Interviews can be structured, semi-
structured, or unstructured:

 Structured Interviews: Fixed set of questions with no room for deviation.

 Semi-Structured Interviews: Some flexibility to allow for follow-up
questions based on responses.
 Unstructured Interviews: Open-ended questions where the conversation
can flow naturally.

Advantages:

 Provides in-depth, qualitative data.

 Allows researchers to clarify questions and probe deeper into responses.

Disadvantages:

 Time-consuming and resource-intensive.

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 Subject to interviewer bias or influence on responses.

4. Field Study Method:

Field studies involve observing and collecting data in real-world settings,

outside of a laboratory. This method is often used to study behavior in natural
environments such as homes, schools, workplaces, or communities.

Advantages:

 High ecological validity (i.e., the findings are more applicable to real-life
situations).
 Can provide rich, detailed data about behavior in natural settings.

Disadvantages:

 Less control over variables, making it difficult to establish cause-and-

effect relationships.
 Ethical concerns may arise regarding privacy and consent in natural
environments.

5. Correlational Method:

The correlational method is used to determine whether and how strongly two
variables are related. It involves measuring the strength and direction of the
relationship between variables using statistical techniques. Correlations are
typically represented by a correlation coefficient, which ranges from -1.00 to
+1.00.

 Positive Correlation: As one variable increases, the other also increases

(e.g., more hours studied, higher test scores).
 Negative Correlation: As one variable increases, the other decreases
(e.g., more stress, lower well-being).
 Zero Correlation: No relationship between the variables.

Advantages:

 Allows for the identification of relationships between variables in real-

world settings.
 Useful for predicting trends and patterns.
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Disadvantages:

 Correlation does not imply causation. Just because two variables are
correlated doesn’t mean one causes the other.
 Potential for third-variable problems, where an unmeasured factor
influences both variables.

Brief concept of schools of psychology : Structuralism, Behaviourism,

Gestalt.

1. Structuralism

 Founder: Wilhelm Wundt, further developed by Edward Titchener.

 Concept: Structuralism is focused on breaking down mental processes
into the most basic components. Wundt and Titchener believed that by
analyzing the structure of conscious experience (like thoughts, feelings,
and sensations), you could understand the basic elements of the human
mind.
 Method: The primary method was introspection, where individuals
would report their thoughts and feelings in response to stimuli. The aim
was to identify and analyze the "structure" of consciousness.

2. Behaviorism

 Founder: John B. Watson, later developed by B.F. Skinner and Ivan

Pavlov.
 Concept: Behaviorism focuses on observable behavior, arguing that
psychology should only study what can be measured and observed, not
internal thoughts or feelings. It believes that all behaviors are learned
through interaction with the environment.
 Method: Emphasis on stimulus-response relationships, using controlled
experiments to understand how environmental stimuli influence behavior.
Classical conditioning (Pavlov) and operant conditioning (Skinner) are
key principles.

3. Gestalt Psychology

 Founders: Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, and Wolfgang Köhler.

 Concept: Gestalt psychology is based on the idea that the mind perceives
objects and patterns as whole entities, rather than just the sum of their
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parts. It emphasizes that perception is more than the simple accumulation

of sensory information.
 Principle: The famous phrase "The whole is greater than the sum of its
parts" reflects the Gestalt view. It focuses on how people organize visual
elements into groups or unified wholes (like in patterns, shapes, and
designs).

Need for quantification in psychology, Levels of measurement : Nominal,

Ordinal, Interval and Ratio.

Quantification in psychology is essential for a variety of reasons, as it allows

psychologists to measure and analyze complex human behaviors, thoughts,
emotions, and physiological processes in a structured and systematic way. By
quantifying variables, psychologists can make their research more objective,
replicable, and scientifically rigorous. Moreover, quantification allows for
meaningful comparison between different subjects, populations, or experimental
conditions, which is critical for developing theories, testing hypotheses, and
drawing conclusions from research data.

Levels of Measurement:

In psychology, and in research more generally, understanding the levels of

measurement is critical for selecting the appropriate statistical techniques and
drawing valid conclusions from data. The four primary levels of measurement
are Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, and Ratio, each with distinct properties and
implications for data analysis.

1. Nominal Level of Measurement:

o Definition: The nominal level is the simplest level of
measurement. Data at this level can only be categorized or labeled,
without any order or ranking.
o Characteristics:
 Categories are mutually exclusive (no overlap between
categories).
 Categories are exhaustive (all possible values are included).
 No quantitative significance; the data is just a name or label.
o Examples:
 Gender (male, female, other).
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 Types of therapy (cognitive behavioral therapy,

psychoanalysis, etc.).
 Eye color (blue, brown, green).
o Analysis: Chi-square tests, frequency counts, mode (most frequent
category).
2. Ordinal Level of Measurement:
o Definition: The ordinal level involves categories with a
meaningful order or ranking, but the distances between categories
are not necessarily equal or known.
o Characteristics:
 Data can be ordered or ranked (e.g., from least to most).
 The difference between ranks is not necessarily consistent or
measurable.
 There is no true zero point.
o Examples:
 Likert scales (strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree,
strongly disagree).
 Educational level (high school, bachelor's degree, master's
degree, doctorate).
 Severity of symptoms (mild, moderate, severe).
o Analysis: Median, mode, non-parametric tests like the Mann-
Whitney U test or Kruskal-Wallis test.
3. Interval Level of Measurement:
o Definition: Interval data has meaningful differences between
values, and the intervals between values are consistent. However,
there is no true zero point.
o Characteristics:
 Equal distances between points on the scale.
 Lacks an absolute zero, meaning you cannot make
statements about ratios (e.g., something is "twice as much"
as something else).
 Allows for arithmetic operations like addition and
subtraction.
o Examples:
 Temperature in Celsius or Fahrenheit (zero does not mean
the absence of temperature).
 IQ scores.
 Calendar years (e.g., 2025 is not "twice as much" as 1012).
o Analysis: Mean, standard deviation, and parametric tests such as t-
tests and ANOVA.
4. Ratio Level of Measurement:
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o Definition: The ratio level is the highest level of measurement,

which includes all the properties of the interval level, but with an
absolute zero point, allowing for meaningful ratios between values.
o Characteristics:
 Has all the characteristics of the interval level, but also
includes an absolute zero.
 Ratios can be calculated (e.g., something can be "twice as
much" as something else).
 Allows for a full range of statistical operations.
o Examples:
 Height (e.g., 0 cm means no height, and 180 cm is twice as
tall as 90 cm).
 Weight (e.g., 0 kg means no weight).
 Reaction time (e.g., 0 seconds means no time elapsed).
o Analysis: Mean, standard deviation, ratios, and parametric tests
such as regression analysis.

Summary of Differences:

Level Characteristics Examples

Gender, Types of therapy, Eye
Nominal Categories without order or value.
color.
Ordered categories with unequal
Ordinal Likert scales, Educational level.
intervals.
Ordered categories with equal Temperature
Interval
intervals, but no true zero. (Celsius/Fahrenheit), IQ scores.
Ordered categories with equal
Ratio Height, Weight, Reaction time.
intervals and a true zero.

Each level of measurement has its own set of appropriate statistical analyses,
and understanding the differences is key to interpreting and analyzing data
correctly in psychological research.
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Variables and their classifications, Independent, Dependent and Controlling

of variables.

1. Variables and Their Classifications

a. Independent Variable (IV)

 Definition: The independent variable is the variable that is manipulated

or controlled by the researcher to observe its effect on the dependent
variable.
 Role: It is the presumed cause in a cause-and-effect relationship.
 Characteristics:
o It is the variable that researchers change or vary.
o It influences or affects the dependent variable.
o Often has different levels or categories (e.g., different experimental
conditions).
 Examples:
o In an experiment examining the effect of sleep on test performance,
the amount of sleep (e.g., 4 hours, 8 hours, or 12 hours) is the
independent variable.
o In a study investigating the effect of different teaching methods on
student performance, the teaching method (e.g., lecture-based,
project-based, online) is the independent variable.

b. Dependent Variable (DV)

 Definition: The dependent variable is the variable that is measured or

observed in response to changes in the independent variable. It is the
presumed effect in a cause-and-effect relationship.
 Role: It is the outcome or result that depends on the independent variable.
 Characteristics:
o It is the outcome or the effect that is measured in the study.
o It is expected to change as a result of manipulation of the
independent variable.
 Examples:
o In the sleep and test performance experiment, the test performance
(e.g., score on a quiz) is the dependent variable.
o In the teaching method study, student performance (e.g., exam
score or project grade) is the dependent variable.
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c. Control Variables (CV)

 Definition: Control variables are the variables that are kept constant or
controlled throughout the study to ensure that any observed effect on the
dependent variable is due to the independent variable alone.
 Role: Control variables help isolate the relationship between the
independent and dependent variables by eliminating the influence of
other factors.
 Characteristics:
o These variables are not of primary interest in the study but must be
controlled to prevent them from confounding the results.
o They help to ensure that the observed effects are directly
attributable to the independent variable.
 Examples:
o In the sleep and test performance experiment, control variables
might include factors like age, prior knowledge of the subject, time
of day the test is taken, and the environment (e.g., quiet room).
o In the teaching method study, control variables might include
students' prior academic ability, the amount of study time, or the
test environment
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UNIT II
1. Processing of data : Tabulation, Classification and Frequency
distribution of data; Plotting of graph (Polygon, Histogram and Ogive).
2. Concept, Types, Uses and Measures of Central Tendency and
Dispersion.
3. Normal Probability Curve : Properties and Application.