Regional Organizations

The Unity and Diversity in Regional

Integration Studies
Luk Van Langenhove

The academic study of regional integration is scattered Luk Van Langenhove

is director of the Unit-
amongst different disciplines. Political scientists have a ed Nations University
longstanding interest in regional integration but historians, Institute on Compara-
tive Regional Integra-
economists, lawyers, and international relations scholars tion Studies (UNU-
have been studying regional integration as well. Often CRIS) in Bruges. He
teaches at the Vrije
a comparative perspective is taken. Hence the develop- Universiteit Brussel,
ment of “Comparative Regional Integration Studies” as an the Université Libre de
Bruxelles, and the Col-
institutionalized academic activity aimed at performing lege of Europe and also
scientifically sound comparisons of regional integration holds an adjunct pro-
fessorship at Murdoch
processes across the globe and across time. But as Alberta University in Perth.
Sbragia rightly noted, the study of comparative regionalism
is ill-defined and “its boundaries are certainly permeable.”1
There is indeed a lot of confusion about the study-object of
the field. Take for instance Ernst Haas’s classic definition
of regional integration: “the study of regional integration
is concerned with explaining how and why states cease to
be wholly sovereign, how and why they voluntarily mingle,
merge, and mix with their neighbours so as to lose the
factual attributes of sovereignty while acquiring new tech-
niques for resolving conflict between themselves.”2 Here
the emphasis is on losing sovereignty. But is this the case
for all forms of regional integration? What if the “integra-

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tion” is organized on a purely inter- tion has always been the position of the
governmental basis? Furthermore, EU. Ever since the work of Ernst Haas
both the concepts of “integration” and in the 1960s, understanding integration
“region” are problematic. Integration became linked to understanding Euro-
has a normative connotation as it is pean integration. His neo-functionalist
often implicitly regarded as a positive approach and the idea of “spill-over”
development (in contrast to the nega- (the pressures from economic inte-
tive connotation of disintegration) and gration towards further integration)
region is a polysemous concept that became academically very popular.
can refer to supranational, subnation- But Ernst Haas himself became more

All too often, the EU is pictured as a

‘model’ for other integration schemes. This
gives the impression that the road taken by
European integration is the only road pos-
sible.
al, or cross-border areas. It is therefore
and more critical about the study of
not always clear what the unit or objectregional integration and ended up sug-
of comparison is. And on top of that, gesting that the study of regional inte-
regional integration in Europe seems gration should cease to be a subject in
to obscure the field as scholars disagree
its own right.4 Meanwhile EU studies
on what place the EU should take in developed into a firmly institution-
comparative regional integration stud- alized academic discipline, not only
ies. In recent years, many authors have because it provided its own teach-
pointed to these conceptual and other ing that facilitated the inflow of new
methodological problems.3 This article scholars, but probably also because
argues that comparing different forms the EU itself has supported the institu-
of regional integration is scientifically
tionalization of the discipline through
feasible, but only if a social construc-financing EU study centers and chairs
tivist point of view is taken. Only in all over the world. Today, one can wit-
this way can a general theory be devel- ness a general lack of communication
oped that allows understanding of the between these EU studies and com-
diversity of integration processes. It parative regional integration studies,
also claims that it is policy-relevant although the tide is slowly turning.
to compare the European integration One major problem in bridging the
experiences with regional integration gap between EU studies and studying
in the rest of the world. other forms of regionalism is how to
deal with the uniqueness or sui generis
The dominance of the EU. A crucial aspect of the EU. This is referred to
issue in the study of regional integra- as the “N=1” problem whereby it is

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often wrongly assumed by positivist tional facts and that both types of facts
inspired researchers that because N=1 need to be studied with specific appro-
a scientific study is not possible.6 This priated methods. Institutional facts
is an important issue as most of the are phenomena of the social realm
comparative regionalism studies are that only exist by human agreement.
focusing on comparing the EU with Money is a classic example: for money
other forms of regionalism. All too to exist, humans need to agree upon
often, the EU is pictured as a “model” treating, for instance, a piece of green
for the other integration schemes. This paper as a dollar bill. And it requires
gives the impression that the road trust that others will do the same. In
taken by the European integration is one sense one can say that the dollar
the only road possible.7 The trick is only exists because people believe it to
therefore to come up with a perspec- exist. A major consequence of social
tive that on the one hand allows the constructivism is that it stresses the
researcher to consider regions of all primacy of thoughts and conversa-
kinds, wherever they are located with- tions in the social realm and hence
out being “euro-centric,” but with the the need to study social phenomena
possibility of understanding the EU from a discursive perspective. Social
as a special case. De Lombaerde et al. constructivism has found its way into
have pointed out that this is perfectly the study of international relations
feasible if one acknowledges that the and has inspired the social construc-
study of the EU can be done from tionist school that is often pictured
different methodological perspectives.8 as an alternative to the classical real-
This implies that one regards the EU ist, functionalist, or liberal theories.
as comparable with all other integra- Nevertheless, the social constructivism
tion schemes; comparable with some study of regional integration remains
other regional integration processes; underdeveloped.
or having a number of unique aspects Advancing regional integration
that makes it like no other regional studies that are inspired by social con-
integration scheme! So, in this view, structivism can be done by acknowl-
even when acknowledging the unique- edging that “regional integration” is
ness of the EU, there are still elements first of all a concept that is used by
that allow for comparing the EU with people in certain discursive contexts
other integration schemes. In order to for certain purposes. Such labels can
find out those elements of relevance, refer to different things as was pointed
one has to be as precise as possible on out by Morgan when he introduced
what to compare. This is where social a useful distinction between projects,
constructionism comes in. processes, and products of regional
integration.9 Projects refer to the ideas
The social construction of region- that actors have about the benefits (or
al integration. The philosophical harms) of regional integration and to
school of social constructivism in the plans for achieving such integration.
social sciences stresses that the world Often these ideas and plans take the
consists of both material and institu- form of “dreams,” such as Churchill’s

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dream of once establishing a “United regarding supra-national interactions

States of Europe.” For others the proj- in a certain regional space. But it is
ect might be just to establish a larger not all talk. That talk, which one can
single market or a security commu- call “integration-speak,” can secondly
nity. Such ideas can be found with lead to different products such as trea-
policy makers, academics, or civil soci- ties or institutional arrangements. And
ety. The vision of regional integra- thirdly, both the talk and the outcomes
tion in Latin America can be traced of it become elements of a historical
back to Simon Bolivar. The concept process that will have certain effects
of the “ASEAN Way” of integration in in a region, for instance an increase in
Southeast Asia is generally attributed intra-regional trade or an increase in
to the former Singaporean Minister mobility.
S. Jaykuman. Dreams about a Pan- The very essence of a social con-
African integration were fueled by dif- structivist perspective on regional inte-
ferent people such as Martin Robison gration is the focus upon the primacy
Delany or Kwame Nkrumah. The pro- of ideas. Such ideas can take the form
cesses refer to the actual realization of of “dreams” or projects and will always

The study of regional integration should...

pay more attention to ‘integration-speak,’ or
the storylines about regional integration that
are developed in conversations between dif-
ferent actors.
the dreams and plans through either involve norms. The example of Euro-
formal steps (such as negotiation of a pean integration illustrates this: after
regional trade agreement or adopting the Second World War, a federalist
a treaty in parliaments) or informal movement emerged that dreamt of
actions (such as mobility of people a “united” Europe. But this utopian
or cross-border trade). According to dream got momentum through the
Morgan, the products of regional inte- 1947 Marshall Plan that linked post-
gration are the actual institutions cre- war reconstruction to cooperation.
ated by the processes. The normative aspect of this was the
Taking these distinctions seriously belief that economic integration was
not only permits scholars to see three a tool to achieve the goal of peace and
distinct areas of comparison, but also security. The realization of ideas thus
to consider regional integration as a requires actors who have the power
social construction as it is in the first to start discourses that constitute an
place a discursive label that certain integrated region. Such actors can be
actors (including individuals, interest opinion makers, think tanks, or lobby
groups, or states) put upon their ideas groups, but at the end of the day the

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 VAN LANGENHOVE Regional Organizations

integration needs the consent of the distinct areas of comparison.10

states involved. European integration The first strategy consists of
for instance became a reality through acknowledging that labeling a process
the signing of a series of treaties from as regional integration rather than as
the Rome Treaty in 1957 to the 2007 cooperation is always done in a spe-
Lisbon Treaty. This process is always cific discursive context. The study of
unique and a function of the local situ- regional integration should therefore
ation. pay more attention to “integration-
A second characteristic of the social speak,” or the storylines about regional
constructivist take is that it empha- integration that are developed in dis-
sizes that integrated regions are course between different actors. One
becoming actors themselves as they can look at how different states offi-
acquire autonomy to act and have cially take positions about regional
some statehood properties. This has integration in negotiation processes,
consequences for the realm of states. how different societal groups unfold
On the one hand, this implies that their opinions on regional integra-
integrated regions, or more specifically tion, and how the storylines developed
the established regional organizations, by academics interact with the above
can engage in discursive power rela- forms of integration-speak. Indeed,
tions with the states that created them. academic theories about integration
The European case clearly illustrates can become part of certain integra-
the problematic relationship between tion projects. The functionalist theory
the sovereign member states of the of integration as developed by Ernst
EU and the powers of the latter over Haas for instance became part of the
the former. On the other hand, the “deepening” discourse of the European
regional actor can be involved in dif- integration project.11 Once a certain
fusing its ideas about integration, and regional integration has become insti-
other actors can choose to emulate tutionalized in one way or another, it
the integration projects, processes, can become an actor itself and hence
or products. But the implementation also develop integration-speak, up to
elsewhere will again be affected by the point that a regional organization
local practices and discourses. can advance opinions that attack the
states that created it. This has been
Five strategies for advancing com- labeled as the Frankenstein syndrome:
parative regional integration stud- the region, ultimately created by states,
ies. From the above perspective a social has acquired enough autonomy that it
constructivist research agenda can be can turn against its creator.12 The story
built, accompanied by concrete pro- of the EU is a clear example of this
posals on how to put these strategies phenomenon: the EU member states
into practice. Their point of depar- are now obliged by the EU to keep
ture is again the Morgan distinction their deficits below a certain level. The
between the projects, the processes, actorness and autonomy of regional
and the products of regional integra- organizations should therefore be a
tion that permits scholars to see three major object of study. But this is not to

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ignore that states play a privileged role lead to the creation of states while oth-
in the process of transferring ideas and ers do not. Think about the Zollverein
projects of regional integration into that led to the German unification in
realities. Indeed, at the end of the day, 1871 or the integration that led to the
it is always states that have to make the birth of the United States of America.
formal decisions to “integrate” some of Students of regional integration usu-
their activities or functions with other ally do not look to the United States
states. Often, this is limited to nego- as an object of study. They should,
tiating and signing a free trade agree- because the U.S. Constitution of 1787
ment, but sometimes it involves sign- is nothing but the result of a region-
ing treaties that actually pool some of al integration process between newly
its sovereignty with that of other states. independent states. That process was
The second strategy is to study marked by a formidable clash of ideas
regional integration through an now known as the debate on the nature
“unpacking” of regions according to of the Union. As for the product of that
their statehood dimension.13 This can process, the creation of a federal state,
be done in multiple ways. One per- it is worthwhile to remember that until
spective is to consider regional integra- 1929, only about 1 percent of the GDP
tion as a process that leads to the cre- went to the federal budget. This is
ation of a geographical area that is not about the equivalent of the budget of
a state but has some statehood prop- the EU today. But by 1953 the federal
erties, enabling it to act to a certain budget had risen to up to 17 percent
extent as if it were a state. This is in line of the GDP. So it does make sense to
with the views of, for instance, Hamei- compare the United States to the EU!
ri and Van Langenhove who claim Equally, such a move allows scholars to
that regions are (discursively) defined unpack the region for analytical pur-
against states.14 Regional integration poses. Since a region can be defined
can thus be seen as a process of moving as a geographical area with certain
some statehood properties from neigh- statehood properties, this implies that
boring states to a supra-national level. regional integration will always be
In some cases, the products of regional linked to certain policy domains of
integration might even look very much states because it is there that the state-
like a fully fledged state. It makes hood properties are acquired. Accord-
sense, therefore, to compare regions ing to the nature of the policy domain
with states. Schmitter has proposed an involved, different varieties of integra-
innovation in research design that is in tion are thus possible.
line with the above thinking: “compare Adhering to a social constructivist
units at different levels of spatial or approach does of course not mean that
legal aggregation, provided they had one should neglect factual elements. A
similar properties and capacities with third strategy therefore is to take into
regard to the problem being studied.”15 account the situation of the states that
This is of particular relevance for the are the elements of regional integra-
study of regional integration as there tion in a given geographical area. Not
are cases of regional integration that only are there potential geographi-

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cal markers and geographical limits; nomic and political power, from land-
there is also the particularity of the locked, poor, or even failed states on
geographical area and the nature of the one hand to superpowers with a
the states operating in that region. rich colonial past on the other. And,
States differ from each other in many some states are largely decentralized
ways. There are differences in cul- with federal structures, while others
tural and value orientation. And there have a very centralized form of gov-
are the important differences between ernance. All these variables will affect
small and big states. Regional integra- processes of regional integration, and
tion in Europe is therefore very differ- studying these processes hence needs
ent from integration in, for instance, to take into account the social, politi-
Southeast Asia simply because of the cal, and economic reality of the entities
differences in the size of the region. So that are involved in building a region.
the advice is: bring in geography! Not The study of regional integration can
taking this into account leads to dis- therefore not be done without mak-

The advice is: bring in geography! Not tak-

ing this into account leads to distorted com-
parisons.
torted comparisons, as demonstrated ing room for a historical perspective.
by De Lombaerde et al.16 These authors The origins of regional integration in
have shown that a classic indicator of Europe for instance are clearly linked
economic integration such as intra- to the post-war situation in 1945 and
regional trade density is influenced by how the Big Powers wanted to deal
the size of the region: the smaller the with the European problem. Different
integrated area, the larger the “rest of historical conditions shaped the efforts
the world” and hence the larger the towards regional integration in Latin
potential for trade outside the region. America, Southeast Asia, and Africa.
Using intra-regional trade as an indi- A fourth strategy is to combine the
cator for the success of a regional trade search for a general logic with under-
agreement puts the EU-27 first as one standing the differences. As mentioned
of the most integrated areas of the above the debate about comparing
world. Correcting the indicators for regions has been blurred by two issues:
size gives, however, a totally different the confusion about the status of the
picture and puts other RTAs before “comparative method” and the con-
the EU-27! fusion about the role of the EU. The
Next to the geographical differences, result is, as mentioned, a false debate
one also has to take into account that about the sui generis character of the
states have very different regimes that EU. If one applies the “unpacking”
obviously influence the functioning strategy proposed above, then one can
of a state. States also differ in eco- study the EU—and for that matter any

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other form of regional integration— schemes have a global actor télos, they
from both a nomothetic and an idio- can engage in relations with other
graphic perspective. There are today actors, states or regional organizations.
enough regional trade agreements in In the latter case one can speak of
the world that it makes sense to try to inter-regional relations and even inter-
generate nomothetic knowledge of the regional integration.17
processes of removing economic bar-
riers between states. And it is equally Conclusions. Regional integration
possible to constitute a “small N” sam- can be studied from a comparative
ple of regional integration schemes perspective. This article has argued
that deal with the common provi- that this is best done from a social
sion of public goods. Meanwhile, each constructivist point of view and has
regional integration scheme can and advanced a number of research strate-
should be studied as a single case, too. gies to take into account the unity and
The fifth strategy is about widening diversity of regional integration. The
the research agenda to the study of implications for comparative regional-
intra-regional and inter-regional pro- ism are that one should not focus on
cesses. This is important as, unlike comparing for instance “Europe” with
states, regions and regional arrange- another region, nor on comparing
ments can overlap. This has conse- regional organizations, but rather on
quences for regional integration as specific governance domains, bringing
several of such processes may occur in all the relevant units of governance
simultaneously in a given geographi- (states and regions) that exist in a
cal area. A lot of scholars dealing with given geographical area and that have
European integration focus on the EU, the relevant statehood properties.
but the regional integration scene in One final word about comparability
Europe is so much more diverse. Think versus applicability. A recurring ques-
of the Council of Europe, the Organi- tion by policy makers is to what extent
zation for Security and Cooperation in the EU can be a “model of regional
Europe, the Western European Union, integration” applicable to other parts
Benelux, and so on. Each part of the of the world. The answer is yes and
world has a true web of regional inte- no. No, if one talks about the processes
gration schemes that partly overlap in of integration. In that respect each
membership and/or mandate. These case is unique as a result of its histori-
overlaps show that for any geographi- cal and geopolitical idiosyncrasies that
cal area, different integration projects generate a specific and unique con-
can exist, fueled by different actors. versational dynamic. Yes, if one looks
As such it is not only possible to study at the products that result out of the
the intra-regional integration dimen- integration processes. As soon as they
sion for each region but also compare exist as regional organizations or trea-
different intra-regional integrations in ties, they can be talked about and also
Europe, Africa, Asia, or Latin America. copied elsewhere. Whether that would
This is an understudied field. Also, to be advisable is another question. But
the extent that regional integration diffusion happens all the time with

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institutional facts. Think for instance pens with regional integration. As such
of the liberal constitutions of states; regional integration can be regarded as
they have been copied many times by an innovation in governance that will
new sovereign states. The same hap- continue to spread around the globe.

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NOTES

1 Alberta Sbragia, “Comparative Regionalism: 9 Glyn Morgan, The Idea of a European Super-
What might it be?” Journal for Common Market state. Public Justification and European Integration
Studies (2008): 32. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005).
2 Ernst Haas, “The Study of Regional Integration: 10 These research strategies are based upon
Reflections on the Joy and Anguish of Pretheorising,” Warleigh-Lack and Van Langenhove (2010).
International Organisations 24, no. 4 (1979): 607-646. 11 For a more detailed discussion of integration-
3 See for instance Philippe De Lombaerde, speak, see Nikki Slocum and Luk Van Langenhove,
Fredrik Söderbaum, Luk Van Langenhove, and Fran- “The Meaning of Regional Integration. Introducing
cis Baert, “The Problem of Comparison in Compara- Positioning Theory in Regional Integration Studies,”
tive Regionalism,” Review of International Studies Journal of European Integration 26, no. 3 (2004):
36, no. 3 (2010): 731-53; Philippe De Lombaerde, 227-252.
“Comparing Regionalisms: Methodological Aspects 12 Luk Van Langenhove, Building Regions. The
and Considerations,” in The Ashgate Research Com- Regionalisation of the World Order (London: Ash-
panion to Regionalism, Timothy M. Shaw, J. Andrew gate, 2011).
Grant, and Scarlett Cornelissen, eds., (London: Ash- 13 Luk Van Langenhove, “Why we need to
gate, 2012), 31-50. ‘unpack’ Regions to compare them more effectively,”
4 Ernst Haas, “The Obsolescence of Regional The International Spectator 47, no. 1 (2012): 16-29.
Integration Theory,” Institute of International Studies 14 Shahar Hameiri, “Theorising Regions through
Research Series (1975): 25. Changes in Statehood: Rethinking the Theory and
5 Alex Warleigh-Lack and Luk Van Langenhove, Method of Comparative Regionalism,” Review of
“Rethinking EU Studies: the Contribution of Com- International Studies (2012); Luk Van Langenhove,
parative Regionalism,” European Integration 32, no. “Why we need to ‘unpack’ Regions to compare them
6 (2010): 541-562. more effectively,” The International Spectator 47, no.
6 For a general discussion of this problem, see 1 (2012): 16-29.
J.A. Smith, Rom Harré, and Luk Van Langenhove, 15 Philippe C. Schmitter, “The Nature and Future
“Idiography and the Case-Study,” in Rethinking Psy- of Comparative Politics,” European Political Science
chology, J.A. Smith, Rom Harré, and Luk Van Lan- Review 1, no. 1 (2009): 51.
genhove, eds., (London: Sage, 1995). 16 Philippe De Lombaerde, Fredrik Söderbaum,
7 See for instance Andrew Hurrell, “One World? Luk Van Langenhove, and Francis Baert, “The Prob-
Many Worlds? The Place of Regions in the Study of lem of Comparison in Comparative Regionalism,”
International Society,” International Studies 83, no. 1 Review of International Studies 36, no. 3 (2010):
(2007): 127-146. 731-53.
8 Philippe De Lombaerde, Fredrik Söderbaum, 17 Fredrik Söderbaum and Luk Van Langenhove,
Luk Van Langenhove, and Francis Baert, “The Prob- The EU as a Global Player. The Politics of Interregion-
lem of Comparison in Comparative Regionalism,” alism (London: Routledge, 2006).
Review of International Studies 32, no. 6 (2010):
541-62.

[1 7 ] Geor getow n Jo u r n a l o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l Af f ai rs