Cambridge IGCSE® & O Level

Complete
Biology
Fourth edition

Ron Pickering
David Martindill
Mamta Nath

Oxford excellence for Cambridge IGCSE® & O Level

Cambridge IGCSE® & O Level
Complete
Biology
Fourth Edition

Ron Pickering
David Martindill
Mamta Nath

1
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Dedication
For Nola, our darling granddaughter, who has already provided a
great deal of evidence that she has a scientist’s inquisitive mind.

Acknowledgements
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Contents
Introduction iv Questions on photosynthesis and
plant nutrition 60
Characteristics and classification 7.1 Food and the ideal diet: carbohydrates,
of living organisms lipids and proteins 62

1.1 Biology is the study of life and 7.2 Food and the ideal diet: vitamins,
living organisms 2 minerals, water and fibre 64

1.2 The variety of life 4 7.3 Food is the fuel that drives the
processes of life 66
1.3 Fungi* 8
7.4 Balancing energy intake and demand:
1.4 Plants: the Plant Kingdom 10
problems causing malnutrition* 68
1.5 Invertebrate animals 12
7.5 More about malnutrition* 70
1.6 Vertebrate animals: five classes 14
7.6 Human nutrition converts food molecules
1.7 Protoctists and prokaryotes: often to a usable form 72
single celled 16
7.7 Ingestion provides food for the gut
1.8 Viruses 18 to work on 74
Questions on characteristics and 7.8 Digestion prepares useful food
classification 19 molecules for absorption 76
2.1 Organisms are made up of cells 22 7.9 Absorption and assimilation make
2.2 The organisation of living organisms 26 food available 80
Questions on cells and organisation 28 Questions on human nutrition
and health 83
Organisation and maintenance 8.1 Transport systems in plants 86
of organisms 8.2 Uptake of water and minerals by roots 88
8.3 Transpiration: water movement through
3.1 Movement in and out of cells: diffusion 30
the plant 90
3.2 Movement in and out of cells: osmosis 32
8.4 The leaf and water loss 92
3.3 Movement in and out of cells: active
Questions on plants and
transport 34
water transport 94
Questions on diffusion and osmosis 35
9.1 Transport systems in animals use blood
4.1 Biological molecules 36 as the transport medium 96
4.2 Testing for biochemicals 38 9.2 The circulatory system 100
5.1 Enzymes control biochemical reactions 9.3 Capillaries: materials are exchanged
in living organisms 40 between blood and tissues, and tissue
Questions on enzymes and fluid is formed 102
biological molecules 43 9.4 The heart is the pump for the
6.1 Photosynthesis and plant nutrition 46 circulatory system 104
6.2 The rate of photosynthesis 48 9.5 Coronary heart disease 106
6.3 Leaf structure and photosynthesis 50 Questions on circulation 108
6.4 The control of photosynthesis 52 10.1 Diseases and immunity 110
6.5 Control of photosynthesis by humans: 10.2 Pathogens are organisms that
use of greenhouses 54 cause disease 112
6.6 Photosynthesis and the environment 56 10.3 Preventing disease: safe food 113
6.7 Plants and minerals 58
iii
 10.4 Individuals and the community can
fight disease together 114 Development of organisms and
10.5 Combating infection: blood and
the continuity of life
defence against disease 116
16.1 Reproduction is an important
10.6 Antibodies and the immune response 118 characteristic of living organisms 176
Questions on blood and defence 16.2 Reproduction in flowering plants:
against disease 120 flowers 178
11.1 Respiration provides the energy for life 122 16.3 Pollination: the transfer of male sex
11.2 Contraction of muscles requires energy cells to female flower parts 180
supplied by respiration 124 16.4 Fertilisation and the formation of seed
11.3 The measurement of respiration 126 and fruit 182
12.1 Gas exchange supplies oxygen 16.5 Germination of seeds 184
for respiration 128 Questions on plant reproduction
12.2 Breathing ventilates the lungs 130 and growth 186
Questions on exercise and breathing 133 16.6 Reproduction in humans 188
12.3 Smoking and disease* 134 16.7 The menstrual cycle 192
12.4 How do we know that smoking 16.8 Copulation and conception 194
causes disease?* 136 16.9 Pregnancy: the role of the placenta 196
Questions on respiration and gas 16.10 Pregnancy: development and
exchange 138 antenatal care* 198
13.1 Excretion: removal of the waste products 16.11 Birth and the newborn baby* 200
of metabolism 140
16.12 Sexually transmitted infections 203
13.2 Dialysis and the treatment of
Questions on human reproduction 204
kidney failure* 142
17.1 Variation and inheritance 206
14.1 Homeostasis: maintaining a constant
internal environment 144
17.2 DNA, proteins and the characteristics
of organisms 208
14.2 Control of body temperature 146
17.3 How the code is carried 210
14.3 Control of blood glucose 148
17.4 Cell division 212
Questions on excretion and homeostasis 150
17.5 More about cell division* 214
14.4 Coordination: the nervous system 154
17.6 Inheritance 218
14.5 Neurones can work together in
reflex arcs 156
17.7 Studying patterns of inheritance 220

14.6 Integration by the central nervous

17.8 Inherited medical conditions and
codominance 222
system 158
14.7 Receptors and senses: the eye as a
17.9 Sex is determined by X and Y
chromosomes 224
sense organ 160
Questions on inheritance 226
Questions on coordination and response 164
14.8 The endocrine system 166
18.1 Variation 228

Questions on hormones 169

18.2 Causes of variation 230

14.9 Sensitivity and movement in plants:

18.3 Variation and natural selection:
the evolution of species 232
tropisms 170
15.1 Antibiotics control bacterial
18.4 Natural selection 234
diseases 174 18.5 Artificial selection 236
Questions on variation and evolution 238

iv
 Organisms and their environment
20.8 Conservation efforts worldwide 280
19.1 Ecology and ecosystems 240 20.9 Conservation of resources: recycling
19.2 Flow of energy: food chains and water by treatment of sewage 282
food webs 242 20.10 Saving fossil fuels: fuel from
19.3 Feeding relationships: pyramids of fermentation 284
numbers, biomass and energy 246 20.11 Recycling: management of solid waste 286
19.4 Decay is a natural process 250 Questions on human impacts on
19.5 The carbon cycle 252 ecosystems 288
19.6 The nitrogen cycle 254 21.1 Bacteria are useful in biotechnology
and genetic engineering 292
19.7 Water is recycled too! 256
21.2 Humans use enzymes from
Questions on ecosystems, decay
microorganisms 294
and cycles 258
21.3 Baking and brewing: the economic
19.8 Factors affecting population size 260
importance of yeast 298
19.9 Human population growth 262
Questions on biotechnology 299
20.1 Food supply: humans and agriculture 264
21.4 Genetic engineering 300
20.2 Land use for agriculture 266
21.5 Gene transfer in higher organisms 302
20.3 Damage to ecosystems: malnutrition
Questions on genetic engineering 305
and famine 268
Practical assessment 306
20.4 Human impacts on the environment:
Laboratory equipment 308
pollution 270
Measurement of variables 310
20.5 Pollution of water: eutrophication 274
Enzyme experiments and the
20.6 Humans can have a positive effect on
scientific method 312
the environment: conservation of species 276
Mathematical skills 314
20.7 Managing fish stocks: science and the Index 316
fishing industry 278

Answers for all exam-style questions are available at

www.oxfordsecondary.com/complete-igcse-science

v
 Introduction
Biology is the study of life and living organisms. During the past few
hundred years, biology has changed from concentrating on the structure of
living organisms (often by examining dead specimens!) to looking more at
how they work or function. Over the past thirty years or so biologists have
begun to understand how the molecules which make up the bodies of living
organisms are responsible for this function. We have discovered much about
health and disease, about the interactions of different organisms forming
communities, about the genes which control the activities of our bodies,
and how humans can affect the lives of other organisms. These advances
in biological knowledge raise many issues. We need to understand how
our activities affect the environment, how humans can take responsibility
for their own health and welfare, and how we must make rules for the
appropriate use of our genetic information.
In this book you will study a range of living organisms, the life processes they
carry out, the effects that these life processes might have on our health, and
the responsibilities which we have towards other organisms.
This book has been organised to help you find information quickly and easily.
It is written in double-page units – each is a topic which forms part of the
IGCSE syllabus – and there is also a practical assessment section that will
alert you to the mathematical skills required.

Core syllabus content

If you are following the Core syllabus content, you can ignore any
material with a red line beside it.

Supplement syllabus content

S For this, you need all the material on the white pages, including the
supplement material marked with a red line.
The Enhanced Online Book supports this student book by offering
high-quality digital resources that help to build scientific and
examination skills in preparation for the high-stakes IGCSE
assessment. If you purchase access to the digital course, you will find
a wealth of additional resources to help you with your studies and
revision:
• A worksheet and interactive quiz for every unit
• On Your Marks activities to help you achieve your best
• Glossary quizzes to consolidate your understanding of scientific
terminology
• Full practice papers with mark schemes
vi
 Each person has their own way of working, but the following tips
might help you to get the most from this book:
• Use the contents page — this will provide information on large
topics, such as reflexes or water pollution.
• Use the index — this will allow you to use a single word such as
‘neurone’ or ‘eutrophication’ to direct you to pages where you can
find out more about that word.
• Use the questions — this is the best way of checking whether
you have learned and understood the material on each spread.
Questions are to be found on most units and within or at the end
of each section. Harder questions are identified by the icon
Q
There are more exam-style questions, and revision ‘tips’, in
the IGCSE Biology Exam Success Guide.

Syllabus matching grid

Page number Unit title IGCSE Syllabus section

2 Biology is the study of life and living organisms 1.1
4 The variety of life 1.2/1.3
8 Fungi 1.3
10 The Plant Kingdom 1.3
12 Invertebrate animals 1.3/1.4
14 Vertebrate animals: five classes 1.3/1.4
16 Protoctists/ Bacteria 1.3
18 Viruses 1.3/1.4
22 Organisms are made up of cells 2.1
24 Structures within the cytoplasm / cell structure 2.1/2.3
26 The organisation of living organisms 2.2
30 Movement in and out of cells: diffusion 3.1
32 Movement in and out of cells: osmosis 3.2
34 Movement in and out of cells: active transport 3.3
36 All living things are made up of organic molecules 4.1
38 Testing for biochemicals 4.1
40 Enzymes control biochemical reactions 5.1
46 Photosynthesis and plant nutrition 6.1
48 The rate of photosynthesis 6.1
50 Leaf structure and photosynthesis 6.2
52 The control of photosynthesis 6.1
54 Control by humans: greenhouses 6.1
56 Photosynthesis and the environment 6.1
58 Plants and minerals 6.3
Page number Unit title IGCSE Syllabus section
62 Food and the ideal diet: carbohydrates, lipids and proteins 7.1
64 Food and the ideal diet: minerals, water and fibre 7.1

vii
 66 Food is the fuel that drives the processes of life 7.1/12.1
68 Problems causing malnutrition 7.1
70 More about malnutrition 7.1
72 Human nutrition converts food molecules into a useable 7.2
form
74 Ingestion provides food for the gut to work on 7.3
76 Digestion provides useful food molecules for digestion 7.4
80 Absorption and assimilation make food available 7.5
86 Uptake of water and minerals by roots 8.2
88 Transport systems in plants 8.1/8.3/8.4
90 Transpiration: water movement through the plant 8.3
92 The leaf and water loss 8.3/18.2
96 Transport systems in animals use blood as the transport 9.1
medium
98 Functions of the blood 9.4
100 The circulatory system 9.3
102 Capillaries 9.3
104 The heart is the pump for the circulatory system 9.2
106 Coronary heart disease 9.2
110 Health and disease 10.1
112/113 Pathogens are organisms that cause disease / Preventing 10.1
disease: safe food
114 Individuals and the community can fight disease together 10.1
116 Combating infection: blood and defence against disease 10.1
118 Antibodies and the immune response 10.1
122 Respiration provides the energy for life 12.1/12.2
124 Contraction of muscles requires energy from respiration 12.3
126 The measurement of respiration 12.1/12.2
128 Gas exchange supplies oxygen for respiration 11.1
130 Breathing ventilates the lungs 11.1
132 Exercise and breathing / Gas exchange 11.1
134 Smoking and disease 15.3
136 How do we know that smoking causes disease 15.3
140 Excretion 13.1
142 Dialysis and the treatment of kidney disease 13.1
144 Homeostasis 14.4
146 Control of body temperature 14.4
148 Control of blood glucose concentration 14.4
154 Coordination: the nervous system 14.1
Page number Unit title IGCSE Syllabus section
156 Neurones and the reflex arc 14.1
158 Integration by the CNS 14.1
160 Receptors and senses 14.2
162 Rods and cones 14.2
166 The endocrine system 14.3
168 Adrenaline 14.3
162 Sensitivity and movement in plants 14.5
170 Gravitropism 14.5
174 Drugs and disorders of the nervous system 15.1/15.2/15.3
176 Reproduction in living organisms 16.1/16.2

viii
 178 Reproduction in flowering plants: flowers 16.3
180 Pollination 16.3
182 Fertilisation 16.3
184 Germination of seeds 16.3
188 Reproduction in humans 16.4/16.5
192 The menstrual cycle 16.5
194 Copulation and conception 16.4
196 Pregnancy: the role of the placenta 16.4
198 Pregnancy: antenatal care 16.4
200 Birth and the newborn baby 16.4
202 Twins 16.4
203 Sexually transmitted infections 16.7
206 Variation and inheritance 17.1/18.1
208 DNA, proteins and characteristics 17.2
210 How the code is carried 17.2
212 Cell division 17.3/17.4
214 Stem cells 17.3
218 Inheritance 17.5
220 Studying patterns of inheritance 17.5
222 Inherited medical conditions and co-dominance 17.5
224 Sex is determined by X and Y chromosomes 17.5
228 Variation 18.1
230 Causes of variation 18.1
232 Variation and natural selection 18.3
234 Natural selection 18.3
236 Artificial selection 18.3
240 Ecology and ecosystems 19.1/19.2
242 Flow of energy 19.1/19.2
244 Humans and food webs 19.2
246 Feeding relationships: pyramids 19.2
247 Ecological counting/sampling 19.2/19.4
250 Decay is a natural process 19.3
Page number Unit title IGCSE Syllabus section
252 The carbon cycle 19.3
254 The nitrogen cycle 19.3
256 Water is recycled too! 19.3
260 Factors affecting population size 19.4
262 Human population growth 19.4
264 Food supply: humans and agriculture 21.1
266 Land use for agriculture 21.1/21.2
268 Malnutrition and famine 21.1
270 Human impacts: pollution 21.3
272 Radioactive pollution 21.3
274 Pollution of water 21.3
276 Conservation of species 21.4
278 Managing fish stocks 21.4
280 Conservation efforts worldwide 21.4
282 Recycling water: sewage treatment 21.4
284 Saving fossil fuels 21.4

ix
 286 Recycling solid waste 21.4
292 Bacteria are useful in biotechnology and genetic engineering 20.1
294 Humans use enzymes from microorganisms 20.2
298 Baking and brewing 20.2
300 Genetic engineering 20.3
302 Gene transfer in higher organisms 20.3
306 Practical assessment Appendix
308 Laboratory equipment Appendix
310 Measurement of variables Appendix
312 Enzyme experiments and the scientific method Appendix
314 Handling data Appendix

Assessment for IGCSE

The IGCSE examination will include questions that test you in three different ways. These
are called Assessment Objectives (AO for short). How these different AOs are tested in the
examination is explained in the table below:
Assessment What the syllabus calls
What this means in the examination
Objective these objectives
AO1 Knowledge with Questions which mainly test your recall (and understanding)
understanding of what you have learned. About 50% of the marks in the
examination are for AO1.
AO2 Handling information and prob- Using what you have learned in unfamiliar situations. These
lem solving questions often ask you to examine data in graphs or tables, or
to carry out calculations. About 30% of the marks are for AO2.
AO3 Experimental skills and investi- These are tested on the Practical Paper or the Alternative to
gations Practical (20% of the total marks). However, the skills you
develop in practising for these papers may be valuable in
handling questions on the theory papers.

The end-of-section questions in this book include examples of those testing AO1, AO2 and AO3.
Your teacher will help you to attempt questions of all types. You can see from the above table
that it will not be enough to try only ‘recall’ questions.
All candidates take three papers.
The make-up of each assessment programme is shown below:

Core assessment
Questions are based on Core content.
Paper 1: Multiple Choice (Core), 45 mins Paper 3: Theory (Core), 1 hour 15 mins
There are a total of 40 marks available, worth There are a total of 80 marks available, worth
25% of your IGCSE. The paper consists of 50% of your IGCSE. The paper consists of
multiple-choice questions. compulsory short-answer and structured
questions.
You will be tested in AO1 and AO2 and can You will be tested in AO1 and AO2 and can
achieve a grade C to G. achieve a grade C to G.

x
Extended assessment
Questions are based on the Core and Supplement subject content.
Paper 2: Multiple Choice (Extended), 45 mins Paper 4: Theory (Extended), 1 hour 15 mins
There are a total of 40 marks available, worth There are a total of 80 marks available, worth
25% of your IGCSE. The paper consists of 50% of your IGCSE. The paper consists of
multiple-choice questions. compulsory short-answer and structured
questions.
You will be tested in AO1 and AO2 and can You will be tested in AO1 and AO2 and can
achieve a grade A* to G achieve a grade A* to G.

Practical assessment
Students take either Paper 5 or Paper 6.
Paper 5: Practical Test, 1 hour 15 mins Paper 6: Alternative to Practical, 1 hour 15 mins
There are a total of 40 marks available, worth There are a total of 40 marks available, worth
25% of your IGCSE. You will be required to do 25% of your IGCSE. You will NOT be required
experiments in a lab as part of the assessment. to do experiments in a lab as part of the
assessment.
You will be tested in AO3 and can achieve a You will be tested in AO3 and can achieve a
grade A* to G. grade A* to G.

I hope that you enjoy using this book, and that it helps you to understand the
world of biology. You, like every other living organism, are a part of this world
– perhaps one day you will find yourself working to help others to understand
more about it.

xi
 C H A R AC T E R I S T I C S A N D C L A S S I F I C AT I O N O F L I V I N G O R G A N I S M S

1.1
1.1 Biology
Biologyisisthe study
the of of
study lifelife
and
andliving
livingorganisms
organisms
OBJECTIVES The dawn of life
Scientists believe that the Earth was formed from an enormous cloud
■ To understand that living
of gases about 5 billion years ago. Atmospheric conditions were harsh
things differ from non-living
(there was no molecular oxygen, for example), the environment was
things
very unstable and conditions were unsuitable for life as we know it.
■ To be able to list the
characteristics of living Many scientists believe that the first and simplest living organisms
things appeared on Earth about 2.8 billion years ago. These organisms
■ To understand that energy probably fed on molecules in a sort of ‘soup’ (called the primordial
must be expended to soup) which made up some of the shallow seas on the Earth at that
maintain life time. A question that has always intrigued scientists, philosophers
and religious leaders is:
What distinguishes these first living organisms from the molecules
in the primordial soup?
In other words, what is life?

Characteristics of living organisms

You know that a horse is alive, but a steel girder is not. However, it is
not always so obvious whether something is alive or not – is a dried-
out seed or a virus particle living or non-living? To try to answer
questions like this, biologists use a list of characteristics that living
organisms show.
Living organisms:
■ Respire
■ Show irritability (sensitivity to their environment) and movement
■ Nourish themselves
■ Grow and develop
■ Excrete
■ Reproduce
The opposite page gives more details of the characteristics of life.
You may see other similar lists of these characteristics using slightly
different words. You can remember this particular list using the word
RINGER. It gives Ringer’s solution its name. This is a solution of
ions and molecules that physiologists use to keep living tissues in – it
keeps the cells alive.
As well as the characteristics in the ‘ringer’ list, living things have a
complex organisation that is not found in the non-living world. A
snowflake or a crystal of quartz is an organised collection of identical
molecules, but even the simplest living cell contains many different
complex substances arranged in very specific structures.
Living things also show variation – the offspring are often different
from one another and from their parents. This is important in
adaptation to the environment and in the process of evolution.
2
 C H A R AC T E R I S T I C S A N D C L A S S I F I C AT I O N O F L I V I N G O R G A N I S M S

How the characteristics of life depend on each other

Each of the characteristics of life is linked to the others – for example,
organisms can only grow if they are nourished. As they take nourishment
from their environment, they may also produce waste materials which
they must then excrete. To respond to the environment, they must organise
their cells and tissues to carry out actions. Because of the random nature of
reproduction, they are likely to show variation from generation to generation.

Depending on energy
The organisation in living things and their ability to carry out their life
processes depends on a supply of energy. Many biologists today define life
as a set of processes that result from the organisation of matter and which
depend on the expenditure of energy.
In this book we shall see:
■ how energy is released from food molecules and trapped in a usable form
■ how molecules are organised into the structures of living organisms
■ how living organisms use energy to drive their life processes.

1. Nutrition: the taking in of

materials for energy, growth and
development. Plants require light,
carbon dioxide, water and ions and 5
make their foods using the process of 6
photosynthesis. Animals require 2
1 4
organic compounds and ions (and
usually water) and obtain their foods
‘ready made’ by eating them. 3

2. Growth and development: the

processes by which an organism
changes in size and in form. For
example, as a young animal increases
in size (as it grows), the relative sizes 4. Reproduction: the processes 5. Respiration: the 6. Irritability (or
of its body parts change (it develops). that make more of the same kind chemical reactions that break sensitivity): the ability to
Growth is a permanent increase in of organism – new individuals. down nutrient molecules in detect or sense changes in the
size and dry mass, and results from An organism may simply split living cells to release energy internal or external
an increase in cell number or cell size into two, or reproduction may be for metabolism. The form of environment and to make
or both. a more complex process respiration that releases the appropriate responses. The
involving fertilisation. most energy uses oxygen. changes are called stimuli and
3. Excretion: removal from Reproduction makes new Many organisms have the responses often involve
organisms of toxic materials, the organisms of the same species as gaseous exchange systems movement (an action by an
waste products of metabolism the parents. This depends on a that supply their cells with organism or part of an
(chemical reactions in cells including set of chemical plans (the genetic oxygen from their organism causing a change of
respiration) and substances in excess information) contained within environment. position or place).
of requirements. each living organism.

Q
1 Approximately how many years passed between the formation of the Earth and the appearance of the first living
organisms?
2 What sort of molecules do you think might have been present in the primordial soup?
3 RINGER is a word that helps people remember the characteristics of living organisms. Think of your own word
to help you remember these characteristics.
4 Suggest two ways in which reproduction is essential to living organisms. 3
 C H A R AC T E R I S T I C S A N D C L A S S I F I C AT I O N O F L I V I N G O R G A N I S M S

1.2 The variety of life

OBJECTIVES The need to classify living things
Variation and natural selection lead to evolution. Evolution, and the
■ To know that organisms
isolation of populations, leads to the development of new species
can be classified into
(see page 235). Each species has different characteristics, and some
groups by the features
that they share of these characteristics can be inherited by successive generations
■ To appreciate why of this species. Observing these inherited characteristics allows
classification is necessary scientists to put all living organisms into categories. The science of
■ To understand the use of placing organisms into categories on the basis of their observable
a key characteristics is called classification. There are so many different
■ To be able to name types of living organism (i.e. an enormous variety of life) that the study
the five kingdoms, of these organisms would be impossible without an ordered way of
and describe their classifying them.
distinguishing For example, classification is important in:
characteristics S ■ Conservation: scientists need to be able to identify different
■ To understand the organisms in habitats which are being managed, and they need to
hierarchy of classification control which organisms are used in breeding programmes
■ To know why a binomial ■ Understanding evolutionary relationships: organisms which
system of nomenclature
have many of the same features are normally descended from
is valuable
common ancestors. The more features shared by different
organisms, the more recently they separated from one another
during evolution.

Classification keys
Taxonomists (people who study classification) place organisms into
groups by asking questions about their characteristics, such as ‘Does
the organism photosynthesise?’ or ‘Does the organism contain many
cells?’. A series of questions like this is called a classification key.
Examples of such keys are shown below and on the opposite page.

S The characteristics of living organisms used to make classification

keys have traditionally been based on morphology and anatomy
(the shape and structure of organisms) because this was what the
scientists could easily observe and measure.
YES Go to question 2
1 Does the organism have cells with a definite nucleus?
NO It is a prokaryote
YES Go to question 3
2 Is the organism made up of many different cells?
NO It is a protoctistan
YES Go to question 4
3 Is the organism a heterotroph?
NO It is a plant
4 Does the organism have cell walls and does it feed by YES It is a fungus
external digestion? NO It is an animal

▲ A key may be used to place an organism in one of the five kingdoms

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S
▲ This kind of key, with only two answers to
each question (in this case, YES or NO), is
called a dichotomous key (‘dichotomous’ All living organisms
means branching). It can be written as a
branching or spider key, using the same The five kingdoms
questions: Prokaryotes
Protoctistans
Plants
Fungi
1 Does the organism have cells with a definite nucleus? Animals

YES NO

2 Is the organism made up of many different cells?

It is a prokaryote
NO YES

3 Is the organism a heterotroph?

It is a protoctistan
YES NO

Branching keys are easy to use, but

4 Does the organism have cell walls and take up a lot of space when fully
drawn out. For this reason the listed
does it feed by external digestion?
form of a dichotomous key like the
It is a plant one shown opposite is usually used
YES NO for identification of organisms outside
the laboratory.

It is a fungus It is an animal

Five kingdoms
Using the key above, it is possible to place any living organism into
one of five very large groups. These groups, distinguished from one
another by obvious characteristics of morphology and anatomy,
are called the five kingdoms. Each of these kingdoms contains an
enormous number of different species, and keys can be used within
a kingdom to place any individual species into further groups. The
diagram on the next page shows the names of these groups, and how
the lion is classified within the Animal Kingdom.

Hierarchy of classification*
The sequence of kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus and
species is called a hierarchy of classification.
Notice that each classification group is given a name. Lions belong
to the class Mammalia and the order Carnivora, for example. The
final two group names are written in italics – this is a worldwide
convention amongst scientists. The lion is called simba in Swahili,

5
 1.2 The variety of life

león in Spanish and leu in Romanian but is known as Panthera leo

to scientists in each of these countries. This convention of giving
organisms a two-part name made up of their genus and species was
introduced by the Swedish biologist Carolus Linnaeus. He gave
every organism known to science a two-part name based entirely
on the body structure of the organism. This binomial system of
nomenclature is still in use today (binomial = ‘two name’).

S New species today may be classified based on characteristics such

as protein structure, chromosome number or gene (DNA or RNA)
sequence, which Linnaeus knew nothing about. Each organism, even
each individual, has its own DNA profile. Scientists can compare the
DNA profiles of different species.

S How this helps in classification

■ Protein structure: organisms which are closely related (share a
more recent ancestor) have very similar amino acid sequences in
proteins such as haemoglobin.

Organisms that are closely related have very similar DNA profiles – humans and
chimpanzees, for example, share 98.6% of their genes!

■ DNA structure: closely related organisms have very similar base

sequences in DNA (see page 210) because there has been less
‘evolutionary time’ for mutation to change these base sequences.

Kingdom (Animalia) All animals are ingestive

On moving down the heterotophs.
hierarchy of groups,
note that there are ... Phylum (Chordata) Other phyla
All chordates have a
notochord (becomes the
Class (Mammalia) Other classes backbone).

More similarities
All mammals have fur and
and Order (Carnivora) Other orders
mammary glands.
fewer differences
between the members
Family (Felidae) Other families All carnivores have well
developed carnassial
(flesh-cutting) teeth.
Genus (Panthera) Other genera
All Felidae have
Species Other species retractable claws.
Panthera leo
All Panthera (big cats)
can roar but cannot purr.

All lions belong to the same

species. Members of the
same species can mate and
produce fertile offspring
with other members of the
same species.

▲ The hierarchical classification of the lion

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MAKING A KEY – INVESTIGATION

For example:
Branching key
All objects

With threads Without threads

■ Repeat this branching process until you have separated

all the objects on the basis of some observable external
characteristic.
■ Ask one of your classmates to use the key to identify

Examine the collection of objects. one of the objects (you choose which one they should
■ Choose a feature that allows you to divide the group into
try to identify).
two approximately equal-sized subgroups.
■ Draw a ‘branch/fork’ and use the feature that you have
chosen to place each object into one of the two groups.

Q
1 State which of the following is the best definition 5 The scientific name for the human is Homo sapiens.
of classification. State the meaning of this name.
a Giving every organism a name 6 The table below lists some of the characteristics of
b Arranging organisms into groups living organisms.
c Describing the external features of organisms a Match each characteristic with its definition. Write
d Identifying all living organisms the letter and number to show your answer, for
2 State which of the following is the correct binomial example, a–4.
name for the English oak (a species of oak tree).
Characteristic Definition
a Quercus robur
b Quercus Robur a excretion 1 the ability to detect changes in the
environment
c quercus robur
d QUERCUS ROBUR b nutrition 2 processes that make more of the same
organism
3 Arrange these classification groups in order of size
(from the largest to the smallest): c sensitivity 3 removal of the waste products of
metabolism
class, family, genus, kingdom, order, phylum, species.
4 The scientific names for the weasel and mink are d reproduction 4 taking into the body of materials for
energy, growth and development
Mustela nivalis and Mustela vison, respectively. Both of
these animals belong to the order Carnivora, as do the b Suggest why many biologists believe that respiration
fox (Vulpes vulpes) and otter (Lutra lutra). The otter, is the most significant characteristic of a living
mink and weasel all belong to the family Mustelidae. organism.
a Which feature must they have in common to belong
to the order Carnivora?
b Which two animals are most closely related?
c Which animal is the most different from the other
three?
d Suggest one feature that places all of these
organisms in the Animal Kingdom.

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1.3 Fungi*
OBJECTIVES Fungal cells have a common structure
The fungi are a very large group of organisms. They range in size from
■ To know the structure of a
fungus single-celled yeasts to enormous fungi whose underground parts may
■ To understand the methods occupy an area greater than a football or hockey field.
of nutrition used by fungi Fungal cells have a cell wall made of a mixture of substances
■ To understand the use including chitin. The cytoplasm contains many organelles including
of spores in fungal nuclei, ribosomes and mitochondria (see page 24), because the fungus
reproduction manufactures digestive enzymes. It feeds by saprotrophic (‘dead-
■ To appreciate the impact of feeding’) nutrition, as illustrated opposite.
fungi on the lives of humans
Reproduction in fungi
Single-celled yeasts reproduce asexually by binary fission, but all
other fungi reproduce by the production of spores.

Requirements of fungi
Fungi have very similar requirements to those of bacteria, that is:
■ a moist environment, so that they can absorb the soluble products
of digestion of their food source in solution
■ a warm environment, so that enzymes can work at their optimum
temperature
■ a nutrient source to provide the raw materials and energy required
for growth.
Fungi do not require light because they do not rely on photosynthesis
for the production of food compounds. This means that fungi are
rarely found in light environments, because such environments are
usually too warm and dry for fungal growth.

The importance of fungi

Fungi have a number of effects on the lives of humans. For example:
■ they are decomposers, and play a vital role in nutrient cycles (see
page 250)
■ mould fungi consume food which might otherwise be eaten by
humans (see page 250)
■ fungi may be agents of disease, as in athlete’s foot, for example (see
page 112)
■ they may themselves be a source of food, for example, mushrooms
■ fungi are used in biotechnology – the brewing and baking industries
(see page 298) are entirely dependent on the activities of yeast,
for example.

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 C H A R AC T E R I S T I C S A N D C L A S S I F I C AT I O N O F L I V I N G O R G A N I S M S

One section of the

Cross wall hypha may contain
several nuclei.

Cell wall
Vacuole
Hypha Cytoplasm may
release digestive
enzymes.
The mycelium is made up of
branching hyphae, and Insoluble
Digestive Soluble
penetrates throughout the food compounds
products of
source. The food may be the in food
remains of an animal or plant. source enzymes digestion
absorbed by
fungus by
diffusion or
active transport

▲ Saprotrophic nutrition involves external digestion by enzymes

Q
1 Pin mould is a kind of fungus. It grows on damp materials, such as bread or
some fruits.
Explain why:
a pin mould is not green
b pin mould will not grow on dry food
c pin mould produces very large numbers of spores
d the spores produced by pin mould are very light.
2 This list contains a number of statements about fungi. Complete the
statements by matching a letter with a number.

a the body of a fungus is made

1 starch
up of threads called
b A fungus can secrete the
enzyme amylase which 2 saprotrophism
digests
c The wall of a fungal cell is
3 diffusion and active transport
made of
d The method of nutrition used
4 sporulation
by fungi is called
e Fungi reproduce by a process
5 photosynthesis
called
f Fungi absorb nutrients by 6 hyphae
g Fungi have no chlorophyll
7 chitin
and so cannot carry out

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1.4 Plants: the Plant Kingdom

OBJECTIVES S Ferns
■ To recall that all plants are autotrophs, and are Ferns are much better adapted to life on land than
able to absorb light energy to drive photosynthesis mosses. They have roots, stems, complex leaves and
■ To understand some of the steps in the adaptation vascular tissues. They are able to produce spores for
of plants to life on dry land wide dispersal. However, they do not have very thick
■ To recall the characteristics of two main plant cuticles and can only survive in shady, humid areas.
groups The gametes of ferns, like those of mosses, must
swim through a film of moisture to reach the site of
Plants are autotrophs fertilisation. An example of a fern is described below.
As autotrophs, plants manufacture food
molecules from simple, inorganic sources by Angiosperms
the process of photosynthesis using light as a The angiosperms or flowering plants are the most
source of energy. Plants all contain the light- successful of plants – they have evolved into many
absorbing pigment chlorophyll (or similar species and have colonised almost every available
molecules which perform the same function) habitat. More than 80% of all plants are angiosperms
inside cells which have a definite cellulose cell (plants with enclosed seeds). Many features of the
wall. lives of flowering plants are covered elsewhere in this
book (see pages 46–59, 86–93, 170–173 and 178–185,
Adaptations to life on land for example). The diagram at the top of the opposite
The first plants lived in water, but as living page summarises these features, and emphasises the
organisms evolved, plant forms developed that adaptations of flowering plants to a successful life on
could live on land. The classification of plants land, including warmer habitats.
into groups follows this sequence of evolution.
Two groups of angiosperms
The Plant Kingdom may be divided into three
There are two major subgroups within the
main groups (phyla): mosses, ferns and seed
angiosperms. In one group, there is a single
plants.
cotyledon in the seed (see page 183) – these are
Mosses cannot grow far away from water, but the monocotyledons. In the other group, there
ferns and flowering plants (angiosperms) are are two cotyledons – these are the dicotyledons
much better adapted to life on land. (eudicotyledons). There are other differences between
monocotyledons and dicotyledons, as shown in the
These sporangia have been used as diagram on the next page.
a medicine to cause violent peristalsis
in humans – this is one way to Groups of
remove tapeworms from the gut! sporangia which
produce and
 Ferns have
release spores. complex
leaves,
Frond – a complex
leaf, with conducting
vascular
tubes. tissues and
Stem contains phloem true roots.
and xylem, though the They
tubes are short without
Young fronds are open ends. reproduce by
always rolled up.
producing
Simple, true roots Rhizome – underground spores. ▲ Each brown patch on the underside
for anchorage and stem that can survive
absorption. when fronds die. of the leaf is made up of many sporangia,
which produce and release spores
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S Angiosperm features adapt them for life on dry land

Flowers – the colour, pattern, shape, scent The ovary protects the ovules and developing
or nectar of the flower can attract insects, embryo, particularly from drying out.
birds or mammals. (‘Angiosperm’ means ‘enclosed seed’.)

Large leaf surface allows high Fruits are formed from ripened ovaries.
rate of photosynthesis to supply Their specialised shapes, colours, smells and textures aid
energy for growth and fruit seed dispersal by wind, water and animals.
production. However, water losses
by evaporation and diffusion
through stomata are high.

Stomata with guard cells regulate loss of water vapour

and exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between
plant and atmosphere.

Vascular system transports water, ions and organic solutes.

Extensive root systems anchor the shoot systems and

absorb water and ions.

Monocotyledons and dicotyledons (eudicotyledons) – two groups of angiosperms (flowering plants)

Seed Seedling Mature leaf

One seed
leaf
Monocotyledon e.g. maize One Parallel
cotyledon veins

Dicotyledon (eudicotyledon) Two Two seed Branched

e.g. pea cotyledons leaves veins

Q
1 In what ways are ferns well adapted to life on land?
2 Seed plants are well adapted to live and to reproduce in dry environments.
What major adaptation allows reproduction on dry land?

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1.5 Invertebrate animals

OBJECTIVES Crustacea
Crabs are slightly unusual because many of their
■ To know the difference between a vertebrate segments are tucked under their body.
animal and an invertebrate animal
■ To be able to distinguish between different Hardened, serrated edge to claw:
can hold onto slippery food, and
classes of arthropods
break open shells of molluscs.
■ To understand the importance of metamorphosis
in insects
Jointed limbs: flexible Eyes: important
sensors in aquatic
Vertebrates and invertebrates to help with feeding.
environment.
All animals share one characteristic – they
feed on organic molecules (see page 36).
Members of the Animal Kingdom can be
divided into two large groups based on
whether they have a backbone as part of
a bony skeleton. Animals with a backbone
are called vertebrates and those without a
backbone are called invertebrates.
Arthropods Carapace: a thick,
Gills under shell: hardened shell for
The arthropods are the most numerous of allow uptake of protection against
all animals, both in terms of the number oxygen from water. predators.
of different species and the number of
individuals in any one species. The insects
are arthropods that show an interesting Myriapods
adaptation in their life cycle called Antennae: these are important Mouthparts: have hard
metamorphosis that allows them to use the sense organs in the edges for biting vegetation
millipedes’ dark, damp (millipedes) or other
resources of their habitat to the maximum.
environment. animals (centipedes).
Apart from insects, the arthropod phylum
includes three other classes – arachnids
(spiders, for example), crustaceans (crabs,
for example) and myriapods (millipedes and
centipedes). The diagrams on the opposite Hard exoskeleton:
Many body segments:
page compare insects and spiders. Amongst body is flexible for protection against
the arthropods, insects and spiders are movement and predators.

sometimes confused with one another. The wriggling around

and under leaves Walking legs: allow
table below highlights the differences. and stones. movement over rough
surfaces.
Insects Spiders
Body sections 3 2
Legs 3 pairs 4 pairs
Wings Usually 2 pairs None Body covering: waterproof,
helping animal to live on land.
Eyes Compound Simple

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Insects
e.g. blowfly, mosquito
The body is segmented, with the
segments grouped into The pupa is formed when the
head, thorax and abdomen. larva moults (sheds its skin).
Hatching The pupa has a hard outer case
inside which the tissues of the
larva are reorganised into
Compound eyes adult tissues.

Two pairs of wings

(rear set may be absent
Antennae: or not used for flying).
sense
chemicals The adult blowfly is
in the The maggot (fly larva)
highly adapted for
environment. is highly adapted for
locomotion (aids dispersal)
feeding, but has no
and reproduction.
wings or legs, and no
Mouthparts: Sexual reproductive organs.
very specialised reproduction
for feeding, The egg is the product
e.g. piercing by of sexual reproduction
mosquitoes.
and is laid on decaying
material which will be a
food source for the larva.
Three pairs of legs,
attached to the thorax Metamorphosis (means ‘change of body form’) allows different
stages which:
do not compete for the same food sources
can be highly specialised for different functions. The larva
is adapted for feeding and growth, and the adult for
locomotion and reproduction.

Q
Arachnids 1 Copy and complete the following
paragraph.
Head and thorax are combined into Powerful, piercing jaws All animals have one common
one body part. – all spiders are predators.
characteristic – . The invertebrates
are animals that do not have .
Simple eyes (but more than one are the most numerous of all
pair) help to detect prey.
animals.
Four pairs of legs allow chasing prey or 2 The arthropods include four
holding onto web.
classes – insects, arachnids, crustaceans
and myriapods.
Abdomen a List three features that all of these
classes possess.
Spinneret which produces b List three features that only insects
long, thin strands of silk. possess.
(The word arachnid comes
c Compare insects and spiders under the
from the Greek goddess Spider silk is so strong and thin that it
Arachne who was skilled has been used to make the cross hairs in
headings ‘Number of legs’, ‘Number of
at spinning.) the telescopic sights of rifles. body sections’, ‘Number of wings’ and
‘Type of eyes’.
3 Insects are the most abundant of all
animals on land. Many of them show an
adaptation called complete
metamorphosis. What does this term
mean, and how does it help to explain
why there are so many insect species?
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1.6 Vertebrate animals: five classes

Fish
OBJECTIVES
Scales Lateral line contains sense
■ To know the characteristics of the vertebrates covered in mucus help organs to detect vibration.
streamlining for
■ To understand how different classes of
swimming.
vertebrates show increasing adaptation to dry
land
■ To know the five classes of vertebrate, and to
provide examples of each

If asked to name an animal, most people Operculum covering gills; gills

have a large surface area for gas Fins for movement and
would probably name a mammal because
exchange. stability.
these are the most familiar animals to
us. Mammals are just one class of the
phylum Chordata. The chordates are often
called the vertebrates, although strictly Amphibians

speaking there are a few chordates that

are not vertebrates. Vertebrates have a
hard, usually bony, internal skeleton with
a backbone. The backbone is made up of
separate bones called vertebrae, which
allow these animals to move with
great ease.
There are five classes of vertebrates, which,
like the members of the Plant Kingdom,
show gradual adaptations to life on land.
The classes are fish, amphibians, reptiles,
birds and mammals.
Vertebrates

All have a backbone

Do they have smooth skin?

YES NO

Fish, Reptiles, Birds, Mammals

Scales on skin?

Amphibians
YES NO

Vertebrates can Fish, Reptiles Birds, Mammals

be separated into
classes based on
their skin! Are scales dry? Feathers on skin?

YES NO YES NO

Reptiles Fish Birds Mammals

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Reptiles
Dry, scaly skin –
limits water loss.
Tail can be used
for swimming,
as in crocodiles.

Limbs efficient
for crawling
and climbing.

Mouth has teeth or

bony ridges
▲ The crocodile has the typical dry scaly skin of reptiles.
to aid feeding.
The eyes on the top of its head and its sharp, pointed teeth
adapt it for catching prey in water.

Birds
Forelimbs are Nostril, leading to lungs, which ▲ The heron has typical bird features of feathers and a
modified as wings. are the organs of gas exchange. beak. It is well adapted to capture fish and frogs as it has
large eyes to spot its prey, a long pointed beak to grab its
prey and large feet for walking over soft, muddy ground.

Mammals are endothermic vertebrates that have

Beak – very light the characteristics shown in the diagram below.
Feathers, vital for flight because no bone
or teeth. A wide range of adaptations has allowed mammals
and for endothermy
(they give excellent to colonise habitats as diverse as the polar wastes
insulation against
heat loss). and the Arabian desert.
Scales on legs – feet ideal
for perching. Humans are mammals
Mammals
Humans show the typical mammalian
Pinna on ear – can be moved Whiskers are
characteristics of hair, mammary glands and a
for maximum efficiency in sensitive to touch diaphragm, for example. Humans, though, are
sound detection. and vibration.
unique amongst all animals in that the adaptations
they show allow them to modify their environment
Fur – body
covering which so that it is suitable for human occupation.
allows As a result, humans have been able to live and
endothermy as
a means of work in many habitats – no animal has a wider
keeping a
constant body range. Human adaptation has allowed advanced
temperature. development of the brain, and of all the complex
Mouth – contains teeth
which allow mammals to activities that the brain can coordinate. The
use a wide variety of foods human brain is extremely sensitive to changes in
(page 62).
temperature. Human adaptations include many
Penis – an organ of the male that that are concerned with the fine regulation of
enables efficient internal fertilisation.
blood temperature (see page 146). Another feature
that makes humans very special mammals is an
upright posture, freeing the hands for complex
movements including the use of tools.
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1.7 Protoctists and prokaryotes:

often single celled
OBJECTIVES Protoctists
This is a kingdom with many members of different types. They
■ To know the structure of a
are placed in the Protoctistans Kingdom because they do not fit
protoctist
anywhere else! All protoctists have cells with nuclei and may have
■ To know the structure of a
other organelles such as chloroplasts. Many are unicellular and some
bacterial cell, an example
of a prokaryote are multicellular. Some feed like animals, others can photosynthesise
and there are even some, like Euglena, which can do both. Unicellular
■ To know the difference
between a protoctist and a protoctists include Plasmodium, which is the parasitic organism that
prokaryote causes malaria. Algae are classified as protoctists; they vary in size
from tiny unicellular organisms to giant seaweeds.

Tips!
Remember: if a unicellular
organism has a nucleus, then it
is a protoctist and not a
prokaryote.

▲ Paramecium

▲ Euglena

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S Bacterial way of life

Bacteria are examples of prokaryotes.
Bacteria (singular: bacterium) are single-celled organisms that have no
true nucleus. Bacterial cells do not contain organelles like those found
in typical animal and plant cells (see page 23), but are able to carry
out all of their life processes without them. A few can photosynthesise,
but most feed off other organisms. They may be parasites, feeding off
living organisms, or saprotrophs, feeding off dead organisms.
Bacteria are very small, usually about 1–2 μm in length, and so are
only visible using a high-powered microscope. The structure of a
typical bacterium is shown in the diagram below.
Bacteria exist in a number of different shapes, some of which are
shown opposite. Shape can be used to classify bacteria.
An understanding of bacterial structure and metabolism is very
important in genetic engineering and biotechnology (see page 292).

Cocci (singular
coccus) are
Glycogen grains
spherical
may be a food store. bacteria.
Staphylococcus Pneumococcus
Cytoplasm contains enzymes and Slime coat is present (causes boils) (pneumonia)
food molecules but no organelles. in some species.

0.1 µm
Bacilli (singular
Cell wall does not
bacillus) are rod-
contain cellulose.
shaped bacteria.

Lactobacillus Salmonella typhi

Cell membrane (sours milk) (typhoid)

Flagella – may be Main DNA strand Plasmids are small

one (flagellum) is not contained rings of DNA, Spirilli (singular

or several, which inside a nucleus. spirillum) are

carrying only a
spiral bacteria.
beat to move few genes.
bacterium.
Treponema Vibrio
(syphilis) (cholera)
▲ Bacteria have a cell wall but do not have a nucleus
or organelles ▲ Bacterial shapes

Q
1 True or false?
a Bacteria contain a nucleus, although it is smaller than an animal cell nucleus.
b All bacteria are parasites.

17
 C H A R AC T E R I S T I C S A N D C L A S S I F I C AT I O N O F L I V I N G O R G A N I S M S

1.8 Viruses
S Viruses
OBJECTIVES When the five-kingdom system of classification was devised, no
■ To know the structure one was able to find a place for the group of organisms called the
of a virus viruses. This is because viruses do not show the typical features
■ To know that viruses of living things – respiration, nutrition and reproduction, for
can only live and example – unless they are inside the cells of another living organism.
reproduce inside the In other words, all viruses are parasites and therefore cause harm to
cells of another living their host. Some taxonomists have suggested that viruses belong in a
organism sixth kingdom. There is great variation in the structure of viruses, but
■ To know the differences they all have certain common features. The structure of a typical virus
between bacteria and is shown below.
viruses
Most viruses cause disease – they may infect humans, domestic
animals or plants. The virus COVID-19 is responsible for a severe
respiratory illness. The virus is called a coronavirus because when
viewed under the electron microscope the spikes which stick out from
the protein coat look like a crown (corona = crown in Latin).

Genetic material – may be

DNA or RNA, but usually a
single strand.

Protein coat – protects the

single strand of nucleic acid.
Made of many subunits.

Spikes – may contact and

recognise the cell to be
infected.
▲ A typical virus has genetic material and a protein coat,
but cannot carry out its life processes. It has no cytoplasm.

It is important not to confuse viruses with bacteria. The structure of

bacteria and their importance to humans are described on page 292.

Q
1 True or false?
a All viruses cause disease.
b Viruses can only reproduce inside living cells.
c All viruses are the same shape.
d Viruses are made up of a protein coat surrounding double-stranded DNA or RNA.

18
 C H A R AC T E R I S T I C S A N D C L A S S I F I C AT I O N O F L I V I N G O R G A N I S M S

Questions on characteristics and

classification
1 Butterflies are insects for which of the 4 The table below lists some of the characteristics
following reasons? of groups of living organisms.
A Because they lay eggs a Match each description with its
B Because they can fly classification group. Write the letter and
C Because they have three main body parts number to show your answer, for example,
D Because they feed on nectar [1] a–4.

Group Description of characteristics

2 An eagle is a bird for which of the following
a spider 1 cells with a definite cell wall but no chlorophyll
reasons?
b insect 2 produces spores and cells contain chlorophyll
A Because it has scales
B Because it has a beak c fungus 3 two body parts and eight jointed legs

C Because it can fly d fern 4 body is made of a single cell, with a clear
nucleus and cytoplasm
D Because it feeds on other birds [1]
e protoctist 5 three body parts and six jointed legs

3 Fungi are not included in the Plant Kingdom [4]

for which of the following reasons? a i State one way in which a bacterium
A Because they do not reproduce differs from all of the above organisms.
B Because they do not respire [1]
C Because they do not photosynthesise ii State one way in which a virus differs
D Because they do not excrete [1] from a bacterium. [1]

5 Use the key to identify the five fish shown in the drawings. Write
down the letter of each fish and its name.
[4]

Key
1. One dorsal fin 2
Two dorsal fins 4
2. Barbels 3
(fleshy extensions at
corners of mouth)

No barbels at Phoxinus
corners of mouth phoxinus
3. Four barbels Barbus barbus

Six barbels Barbatula

barbatula
4 More than 10 bony Thymallus
rays in first dorsal fin thymallus

10 or fewer bony Osmerus

rays in first dorsal fin eperlanus

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C H A R AC T E R I S T I C S A N D C L A S S I F I C AT I O N O F L I V I N G O R G A N I S M S

6 The figure shows five different seaweeds. [4]

Specimen 2
Specimen 1

Specimen 3

Specimen 4

Specimen 5

a Describe ONE feature of EACH seaweed which is NOT

present in any of the others. [5]
b Use your answers to part a to construct a dichotomous
key which can be used to distinguish between the
five seaweeds. [4]

20
 Keys and classification
LIVING ORGANISMS A key enables identification of an organism by
* indicates the FIVE KINGDOMS observation of its characteristics. Close observation
1 allows a series of questions (the branch points in
this key) to be answered, eventually leading to
Made up of Made up of the organism being studied.
single cells many cells
2 3

Cells have an
Cells have Cells have Cells have
obvious cell wall
no obvious an obvious no cell wall
12
nucleus nucleus ANIMALS*
Cells contain chlorophyll in Cells do not contain
PROKARYOTE* PROTOCTISTANS* chloroplasts (so organism chlorophyll (so organism
e.g. Salmonella e.g. Plasmodium feeds by photosynthesis) feeds by absorption)
PLANTS*
FUNGI* e.g.
bread mould
4 13
6 7
Organism has Segmented body Soft body with Organism has No separate Stem, leaves Stem, leaves
hard exoskeleton, with chaetae no limbs – covered internal skeleton, root, stem but no roots and roots
jointed limbs, (bristles) by shell non-segmented body and leaves
segmented body VERTEBRATES MOSSES
ARTHROPODS ANNELIDS MOLLUSCS ALGAE
e.g. earthworm e.g. snail 14

Spores Seeds
5 8 produced produced

FERNS SEED PLANTS

Three body Two pairs of Two body No covering on Skin covering
segments (head, antennae segments (head– skin (smooth, e.g. oak tree
thorax, abdomen) thorax, abdomen) moist skin)
Three pairs of legs Four pairs of legs
Two pairs of wings No wings AMPHIBIANS 9
Antennae e.g. frog
Scales on skin No scales on skin
INSECTS CRUSTACEANS SPIDERS
10 11
e.g. mosquito e.g. crab e.g. tarantula
Dry skin Moist
(mucus-covered skin) Feathers Fur/hair
REPTILE Gills Beak Mammary glands
e.g. lizard Fins Wings
MAMMAL
FISH BIRD e.g. human
e.g. stickleback e.g. thrush

21
C H A R AC T E R I S T I C S A N D C L A S S I F I C AT I O N O F L I V I N G O R G A N I S M S
 C H A R AC T E R I S T I C S A N D C L A S S I F I C AT I O N O F L I V I N G O R G A N I S M S

2.1 Organisms are made up of cells

OBJECTIVES
The light microscope
i
■ To know that the basic unit of living organisms Cells are too small to see with the naked eye so a
is the cell microscope is used to study them. Visible light passes
■ To know that all cells have certain features in common, through a suitable specimen, and a series of lenses
but that there are differences between plant and magnify the image that is formed. A light microscope
animal cells can give a useful magnification of about 400 times,
which means the image seen is actually 400 times larger
■ To understand that the study of cells requires the use of
than the specimen. The contrast between different
a microscope
structures in the image can be improved by using dyes
or stains. The nucleus of an animal cell, for example,
All living organisms are made up of units called
shows up particularly well when stained with a dye
cells. Although cells may take on very specialised called methylene blue, and plant cells often show up
functions, they have certain common features. better when stained with iodine solution.
These are shown on the opposite page. Both
animal and plant cells have a cell surface Image viewed here
membrane, cytoplasm and a nucleus. These
three features can be seen on the photograph of Series of lenses which
magnify and sharpen
a liver cell below. In addition, plant cells have the image
a cellulose cell wall, a vacuole and may have
chloroplasts. These features can be seen on the
photograph of the palisade cell below. Specimen (living or
prepared) on thin
glass slide

Source of visible light

A typical animal cell is about one-fortieth of a

millimetre in diameter. This is rather a clumsy term,
so scientists use smaller units: one metre (m) contains
1000 millimetres (mm), and one millimetre contains
▲ A cell from the inside of ▲ A palisade cell from a leaf,
the liver, viewed using a light viewed using a light microscope 1000 micrometres (µm). So a typical animal cell
microscope (magnified × 1500 (magnified × 500 times) is about 25 µm in diameter.
times)

The size of a structure or an organism is measured in units of length (such as mm or m). When a diagram is made, or a photograph
taken, it may not be easy to directly show the correct size – for example, when a structure is extremely small or very large. The correct (or
true) size of an organism can be calculated using a combination of actual measurement and a known magnification.
Measured length For example, look at this poppy seed.
Magnification = _________________
Actual length
Measured length Mag × 50
or Actual (true) length = _________________ 5 1
Actual length = ___ = ___ = 0.1 mm
Magnification 50 10

We can also use a scale line to work out magnification S Tips!

1 Make sure that measured and actual lengths are given
in the same units.
2 To help remember the formula:
1 mm Measured
Magnification = _________
Actual
Measured 10 3 Core students can use millimetres as a unit. Extension
Magnification = __________ = ___ × 10
Actual 1 students may need to use millimetres and micrometres.
22 ▲ Calculating magnification and size
 C H A R AC T E R I S T I C S A N D C L A S S I F I C AT I O N O F L I V I N G O R G A N I S M S

Secretory vesicles Cytoplasm of animal cells Vacuoles are small Glycogen is the
containing cell products is often denser, with many and temporary. They can storage form
such as hormones or more organelles and be involved with digestion of carbohydrates.
enzymes are much dissolved substances. (e.g. in phagocytes)
more common in or with excretion
animal cells. (contractile vacuoles may
remove excess water).

The absence of the

cellulose wall means
that animal cells may be
Animal cell features very irregular in shape.
often relate to heterotrophic The amount of cytoplasm
nutrition and high rates that can be controlled by
of metabolic activity the nucleus is limited,
(e.g. liver cell). so that animal cells may
be quite small – about
25 µm in diameter.

Plant and animal cells Cell surface membrane Nucleus contains the
have common features surrounds the cytoplasm. genetic material (DNA which
which relate to maintaining It controls the entry and exit makes up genes on the
the characteristics of life. of dissolved substances and chromosomes). This carries
separates the cell’s contents the coded instructions for
from its surroundings. controlling the activities and
Do not confuse the cell characteristics of the cell.
wall with the cell surface The chromosomes only become
membrane. visible during cell division.

Plant cell features

often relate to
autotrophic nutrition. The presence of the
(e.g. palisade cell of leaf). cellulose cell wall means
that plant cells tend to be
regular in shape.
The presence of the vacuole
Cytoplasm contains water means that plant cells
and dissolved substances may be quite large –
such as sugars and salts. often 60 µm (or 0.06 mm)
in diameter.

Chloroplasts contain Large permanent vacuole Starch (in the cytoplasm Cellulose cell wall
the pigment chlorophyll contains water necessary or the chloroplasts) provides structural support
(for light absorption) and to provide turgor pressure is the storage form (pressure of cell contents leads
the enzymes necessary and may store ions of carbohydrates. to turgidity) and protects against
for the production of and molecules. damage caused by osmotic
glucose by photosynthesis. intake of water. The cell wall is
freely permeable to water
and dissolved substances.

▲ The features of plant and animal cells allow these cells to carry out the basic processes
of life. The differences between plant and animal cells are due to the differences in
lifestyle between animals and plants, especially to their different methods of nutrition.
23
 2.1 Organisms are made up of cells

Structures within the cytoplasm

Some organelles are so small that they cannot be seen clearly using
a light microscope. However, an electron microscope is capable of
showing these minute structures, including mitochondria and rough
endoplasmic reticulum.

Mitochondrion

Nucleus

Rough
endoplasmic
reticulum

▲ Animal cell viewed through an electron micrograph

▲ Rough endoplasmic reticulum ▲ Mitochondrion

Rough endoplasmic reticulum is made up Mitochondrion (plural: mitochondria) is made up

of flattened membranes with ribosomes on of membranes which provide a large surface area
their surface. These are the sites of protein for some of the reactions of aerobic respiration. This
synthesis (see page 210) and so are common process releases energy needed to perform work in
in cells which make many proteins (liver the cell (see page 123). The mitochondria are like
cells, for example). powerhouses, and there are many of them in cells
that require a lot of energy. Muscle cells, nerve cells
and cells in the liver have many mitochondria.
24
 C H A R AC T E R I S T I C S A N D C L A S S I F I C AT I O N O F L I V I N G O R G A N I S M S

Cell investigations
1 LOOKING AT CELLS

Plant cells
An onion cut in half
1 Use a razor to cut a small piece out of an
onion leaf. Use forceps to peel skin off the Brown outer
scale leaf
inner surface of the leaf. Put the skin into a
Petri dish of water. Inner fleshy
food-storage
2 Put a drop of iodine solution onto a slide. Put leaves
a small piece of the onion skin (less than 5 Transparent skin
mm) into the solution and smooth it out so from kidney surface
there are no folds. Lower a coverslip over it,
taking care not to trap any bubbles. Prepare
another slide in the same way but using water
instead of the iodine solution.
Kidney
3 Study the stained onion cells under the low,
medium and high power of a microscope,
then look at unstained cells. What parts of the
cell have become stained? Skin pulled Forceps
from inner
Animal cells surface of leaf
4 Use a razor and forceps to peel pieces of
transparent skin off the outside of a kidney. Make a slide of the skin in water, and another in iodine.
5 Study stained and unstained cells. How are they different?
6 Draw plant and animal cells and list their similarities and differences.

2 MEASURING CELLS

Measuring a field of view

1 Place a clear plastic ruler under a microscope and focus on it
with low power magnification. How many millimetres wide
is the field of view?
2 Remember: 1 mm = 1000 µm. Convert your field of view to
micrometres (µm).

Measuring onion cells

3 Prepare a slide of onion cells. Look at the slide under low
Cell
power magnification. How many cells fit across the field of
view? In the drawing, four and a half cells fill a field of view
2200 µm wide. What is the average length of each cell?
4 What is the average length (in µm) of onion cells in your 1 2 3 4 ½
Ruler
slide? Turn the slide around and calculate the average width
of the cells.
Millimetre marks
5 You now know the length in µm of one onion cell. Use this
information, and your onion slide, to calculate the field of
Hazard warning
vision in µm under medium and high power magnification.
Razors (and scalpels) are sharp, handle with care.

Q
1 An onion is a bulb, rather like a daffodil. The bulb sends up a shoot with a flower at the tip.
Assume that the shoot is 25 cm tall. Calculate the smallest number of onion cells which
would reach along this length. (First convert 25 cm to mm).
2 Onion cells stay still when you are examining them under a microscope. Think of trying to
examine a small moving single-celled animal. Suggest how you could slow down the
movement of the animal and so make measurement easier.
25
 C H A R AC T E R I S T I C S A N D C L A S S I F I C AT I O N O F L I V I N G O R G A N I S M S

2.2 The organisation of living

organisms
OBJECTIVES Specialised cells
Large organisms are multicellular – they are
■ To understand that the body of a living organism
made up of many cells. Different types of cell
is a highly organised structure
have particular structures designed to help them
■ To understand that cells, tissues, organs and systems
represent increasing degrees of organisation in living carry out different tasks and functions – they have
organisms become specialised. Some examples of specialised
cells, and their functions, are shown in the table.

Cell type Appearance Functions and adaptations

Animal cells

Red blood cell (page 96) Transports oxygen from the lungs to the tissues where aerobic
respiration occurs. The cytoplasm is filled with the pigment
haemoglobin, which carries oxygen. The cells have no nucleus, leaving
more space for haemoglobin, and they are very flexible (they can be
forced through even the narrowest of blood vessels).

Ciliated cell (page 129) Has a layer of tiny hairs (cilia) which can move and push mucus
from one place to another. The mucus can transport trapped dust and
microbes when it is pushed by the cilia.

Motor nerve cell (page 157) Conducts nerve impulses. The cell has a long fibre called an
axon along which impulses travel, a fatty sheath which gives electrical
insulation, and a many-branched ending which can connect with many
other cells.

Other important specialised animal cells are the gametes, sperm and egg (page 190). These are specialised for fusion to form a zygote.
The sperm (male) is able to swim and the ovum (female) has a large food store. Each of them has the haploid number of chromosomes.

Plant cells

Root hair cell Absorbs minerals and water from the soil water. The cell has a
long extension (a root hair) which increases the surface area for the
absorption of materials.

Xylem vessel Transports water and supports the plant. The cell has no
cytoplasm (so water can pass freely), no end wall (so that many cells
can form a continuous tube) and walls strengthened with a waterproof
substance called lignin.

Another important specialised plant cell is the palisade mesophyll cell (page 50). This cell has many chloroplasts and a shape that allows many
of them to pack together in the regions of highest light intensity for the maximum absorption of light energy.

26
 C H A R AC T E R I S T I C S A N D C L A S S I F I C AT I O N O F L I V I N G O R G A N I S M S

Specialised cells combine to form

tissues …
Cells with similar structures and functions are
massed together in tissues. Some plant and
animal tissues are shown in the tables below.

Animal tissue Main functions Plant tissue Main functions

Epithelium Lines tubes such as the gut and covers Epidermis Protects against water loss, and may
surfaces such as the skin be involved in absorption of water
Connective tissue Binds and strengthens other tissues, such and ions
as tendons Mesophyll Photosynthesis
Blood Transports substances around the body, Parenchyma Fills spaces between other plant
and defends against disease tissues and may be involved in
Skeletal tissue Supports and protects softer tissues, and storage, as in the potato tuber
allows movement Vascular tissue Transports materials through the
Nervous tissue Sets up nerve impulses and transmits them plant body
around the body Strengthening tissue Supports the plant
Muscle tissue Contracts to support and move the body

… tissues combine to form organs … Epithelial cells Smooth muscle cells

Several tissues may be combined to form an Specialised

cells
organ, a complex structure with a particular
function, such as the small intestine shown right. These cells mass together These cells mass together to form
to form an epithelial tissue. smooth muscle tissue.
… organs combine to form organ Tissues
systems
In complex organisms, several organs work
together to perform a particular task. These Organ
organs form an organ system.
Each cell, tissue and organ in an organism has
Intestine
a specialised part to play (there is division of
labour) but their activities must be coordinated.
Epithelial cell of Epithelium lining
intestine lining the intestine
Small intestine

Cell Organ:
Tissue: group of tissues, working
group of cells with together to perform
similar structures, specific functions.
working together
to perform a
shared function.
Digestive
Organ system:
Mitochondrion system
group of organs with related
functions, working together
Organelle to perform body functions.
Organism

Human
27
 Questions on cells and organisation
1 Arrange these biological terms in order of size Glycogen granule
(from the smallest to the largest): [3] Large, permanent vacuole
organ, cell, organism, organelle, tissue, system. Mitochondrion
Ribosome on endoplasmic reticulum
2 Arrange these units of length in order, starting
with the largest and ending with the smallest: [10]
kilometre, micrometre, metre, millimetre. [2] 5 The table below describes some cell structures.
Match each structure with its description. Write
An average plant cell is 50 micrometres
long. How many plant cells could fit into one the letter and number to show your answer, for
millimetre? Show your working. [2] example, a–4.

Structure Description
3 Look at these photomicrographs (photographs
taken through a microscope). a Cell membrane 1 Structures which contain chlorophyll
b Cell wall 2 Cavity found only in plant cells
3 Surrounds a plant cell and contains
c Chloroplasts
cellulose
d Cytoplasm 4 Main site of protein synthesis
e Mitochondria 5 Sites of aerobic respiration
12 µm
f Endoplasmic reticulum 6 Controls entry and exit of substances
Epithelial cell
7 Carries genetic information and
g Nucleus
controls cell activities
h Vacuole 8 Site of anaerobic respiration
[7]
6 The following diagrams show six cells. One of
35 µm
the cells transports oxygen in the blood. This
Palisade cell cell does not contain a nucleus.
a List three differences between the epithelial a i Give the letter of the cell that transports
and palisade cells, and three common oxygen in the blood. [1]
features which they share. Why are there ii State the function of the nucleus in
differences between these cells? [7] most cells. [1]
b Use the scales to calculate the following in µm: b i State the letters of two plant cells. [2]
i the height of the palisade cell ii State the letter of the cell with a surface
ii the width of the palisade cell adapted for the uptake of minerals. [1]
iii the width of the epithelial cell at its
widest point
iv the length of a single chloroplast
v the length of an animal cell nucleus. [5]

4 Copy and complete this table by placing a tick

if the structure is present and a cross if it is not.

Structure Liver cell Palisade cell

Cell surface membrane
Chloroplasts
Cytoplasm
Cellulose cell wall
Nucleus
28 Starch granule
 C H A R AC T E R I S T I C S A N D C L A S S I F I C AT I O N O F L I V I N G O R G A N I S M S

7 The diagram shows a single-celled organism 9 Use words from this list to complete the
called Chlamydomonas. This organism is able following paragraphs. The words may be used
to swim about in the small pools of water once, more than once or not at all.
where it lives. palisade cell, epidermis, tissues, excretory
system, specialised, cells, blood, kidney,
chloroplasts, leaf, red blood cell, division of
cilium (1) labour, xylem, phloem, nervous, systems,
endocrine, organ.
a Large numbers of that have the
cell wall (2)
same structure and function are grouped
nucleus (3) together to form , for example .
Several separate tissues may be joined
together to form an which is a
chloroplast (4)
complex structure capable of performing
a particular task with great efficiency. In
a In the table below, which set of numbers (A, B, the most highly developed organisms, these
C or D) correctly relates functions of cell parts complex structures may work together in
to the structures labelled in the diagram? , for example the in humans is
responsible for the removal of the waste
Function
products of metabolism. [6]
Protection Photosynthesis Movement Control of
b The structure of cells may be highly
against cell
bursting activities adapted to perform one function, i.e. the
A 2 4 1 3 cells may become . One excellent
B 1 3 2 4 example is the which is highly adapted
C 4 2 1 3
to carry oxygen in mammalian blood. If
the different cells, tissues and organs of a
D 2 4 3 1
multicellular organism perform different
[1] functions they are said to show . One
b State three structures in the Chlamydomonas consequence of this is the need for close
cell that would not be found in a sperm co-ordination between different organs –
cell. [3] this function is performed by the and
8 On the following diagram of a liver cell, identify: systems in mammals. [5]
a which structure carries out aerobic respiration c In plants, an example of a cell highly
b which structure controls the movement of specialised for photosynthesis is the
salts into the cell which contains many . These cells are
c which structure would carry the genes located in the organ called the which
d which feature increases the surface area of also contains other tissues such as
the cell which limits water loss and which
e which structure is a food store. [4] transports water and mineral ions to
the leaf. [5]
C

B
D

A
29
 O
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GRAA
N CI ST A
E TR II O
SNTIC
ANS DA N
MDA ICNLTAESNSAINF C
I CE AO
T IFOO
N RO
GFA NL I S
V IMNSG O R G A N I S M S

3.1 Movement
1.2 The variety in
of and
life out of cells:
diffusion
OBJECTIVES
■ To understand that the contents of a living cell must be
Partially permeable membranes
Not all particles can diffuse through cell surface
kept separate from its surroundings
membranes. Sometimes the particles are too big, or
■ To know that the cell surface membrane can act
they have the wrong electrical charge on them, or
as a barrier to some substances which might pass
the chemical composition of the membrane prevents
between a cell and its surroundings
them passing across. The diagram below shows a
■ To understand the principles of diffusion, osmosis, active partially permeable membrane – it is permeable
transport and phagocytosis to glucose and water but impermeable to protein.
On page 22, we saw that the cell cytoplasm is Diffusion and life processes
surrounded by a cell surface membrane. This acts Diffusion is the main process by which substances
as a boundary between the cell contents and its move over short distances in living organisms. Some
surroundings – it has very little strength, but it plays of the life processes that involve diffusion
a vital role in regulating the materials that pass in are shown in the diagram above right.
and out of the cell. Materials may pass in and out of
S Living organisms have certain adaptations to speed
cells by:
up diffusion:
■ diffusion
■ Diffusion distances are short – the membranes in
■ osmosis
the lungs, for example, are very thin so that oxygen
■ active transport
and carbon dioxide can diffuse between the blood
■ in special cases, phagocytosis.
and the lung air spaces.
Diffusion – ‘mixing molecules’ ■ Concentration gradients are maintained –
Molecules and ions in a liquid or a gas move glucose molecules that cross from the gut into the
continuously. The movement is quite random, and blood, for example, are quickly removed by the
the particles change direction as they bump into one circulating blood so that their concentration does
another. The particles collide more often when they not build up and equilibrium is not reached.
are close together (when they are concentrated) ■ Diffusion surfaces are large – the surface of the
and so they tend to diffuse, or spread out, until placenta, for example, is highly folded to increase
they are spaced evenly throughout the gas or liquid. the surface area for the diffusion of molecules
between a pregnant female and the developing
E The random movement of the particles is due to
their own kinetic energy. When diffusion happens fetus in her uterus.
in living cells, the cells themselves do not have to
Key
expend any energy for it to take place.
If there is a region of high concentration and a Protein
region of low concentration, we can say that there is Glucose
a concentration gradient between the regions. We Water
can therefore define diffusion as:
■ the net movement of molecules within a gas
or liquid
■ from a region of high concentration to a
region of lower concentration (down a Partially permeable membrane – some,
concentration gradient) but not all, particles can diffuse across
■ as a result of their random movement ▲ The overall (net) movement of glucose and water molecules
■ until an equilibrium is reached. depends on their concentration gradient. Protein molecules cannot
diffuse across this membrane, even though the concentration
30 gradient suggests that they should move from right to left.
 O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

Life depends on the exchange of

materials between different cells,
and between cells and their
surroundings. For example, a
plant absorbs carbon dioxide from
its surroundings by diffusion, and
the carbon dioxide passes through
the leaf to the photosynthesising
cells by the same process.
Oxygen produced by photosynthesis
diffuses out of the plant into the air.
It enters the boy’s lungs as he breathes
in. The lungs are adapted to speed up
the diffusion of oxygen into the blood,
From the lungs, oxygen enters the because they have thin surfaces with a
blood by diffusion. The continual very large surface area.
movement of the blood keeps up
a high concentration gradient
between the air and the blood.

Mineral ions from the soil solution

are absorbed by plant roots.
This process depends upon diffusion,
as well as on active transport.
Glucose and amino acids pass
from inside the gut into the blood,
partly by the process of diffusion.

▲ Many life processes depend on diffusion to move substances around. Diffusion has no ‘energy cost’
to a living organism.

How surface area affects rate of diffusion

i
In an investigation to measure the speed of diffusion, cubes of agar which had been stained purple with an
indicator solution were placed in dilute acid as shown in the diagram. The time taken for each cube to turn
completely orange is shown in the table.

Length of Time taken Surface area of Volume of Surface area to

side of to turn cube (total of cube / mm3 volume ratio (surface
cube / mm orange / s 6 sides) / mm2 area ÷ volume)
Trough 1 20
2 41
Acid 3 76
4 104
5 188
Agar cubes
10 600
a Copy and complete the table. Plot a graph of surface area to volume
ratio against time taken to turn orange. Plot time taken on the vertical
axis.
b What do the results suggest about the efficiency of diffusion in supplying
materials to the centre of an organism’s body?
c Suggest methods which organisms might use to improve the supply
of materials by diffusion. Try to provide examples of these methods.

Q
1 Using an example, explain what is meant by a partially permeable membrane.
2 What is a concentration gradient?
3 List the processes in living organisms that are dependent on diffusion.
4 Explain how living organisms are adapted to increase the possibility of diffusion.
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3.2 The
1.2 Movement in life
variety of and out of cells:
osmosis
Osmosis is a special case of diffusion
The biochemical processes in living cells always take place in
a solution. A solution is made up of a solvent (the dissolving
fluid) and a solute (the particles dissolved in the solvent). In
living organisms, the solvent is water and the solution is called an
aqueous solution.
Living cells are separated from their surroundings by the
partially permeable cell surface membrane. The contents of
Strong glucose Weak glucose
the cell,
solution solution the cytoplasm, is one aqueous solution and the surroundings
(less water = low (more water = high of the cell, for example pond water, is another aqueous solution.
water potential) water potential)
If the two solutions do not have the same concentrations of
various substances, molecules can move from one to the other by
diffusion, if the membrane is permeable to these substances.
The diagram on the left shows two glucose solutions separated
by a partially permeable membrane – this membrane will allow
the diffusion of water molecules but not glucose (the solute)
molecules. As a result, water can move from the right, where
there is a high concentration of water molecules, to the left,
where there is a lower concentration of water molecules, by the
Partially process of diffusion. This diffusion of water is called osmosis,
permeable
membrane and will continue until a water equilibrium has been reached.
Key
S Because it is sometimes confusing to talk about water
= glucose = water ‘concentration’, biologists use the term water potential instead.
A solution with many water molecules has a high water
ien
t potential, and a solution with few water molecules has a low
d
al gra water potential. In the diagram, a water potential gradient
tenti
r po exists between the two solutions, and water molecules can flow
te
Wa down this gradient from right to left.
Osmosis can be defined as:
■ the diffusion of water molecules
■ from a region of higher concentration of water molecules
Water flows down a to a region of lower concentration of water molecules
water potential gradient – osmosis down a water potential gradient
S ■
■ through a partially permeable membrane.

Cells and osmosis

A cell is surrounded by a partially permeable membrane, and
water may cross this membrane easily. If a cell is placed in a
solution of lower water potential, water leaves the cell by osmosis.
If the cell is placed in a solution of higher water potential, water
32 enters by osmosis.
 O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

S Plant cells and osmosis

If water enters a plant cell by osmosis, the cytoplasm will swell but
only until it pushes against the cellulose cell wall, as shown below.
A plant cell will not be permanently damaged by the entry of water.
If water leaves a plant cell by osmosis, the cytoplasm will shrink
but the cellulose cell wall will continue to give some support.
Plant cells rarely suffer permanent damage through the loss of water.
Water potential of surroundings

Cellulose
cell wall

Cell surface
membrane

Cell in solution of lower water Cell in solution of equal water Cell in solution of higher water
potential than cell contents – potential – no net movement potential – water enters by
water leaves by osmosis. of water; cytoplasm just osmosis. The cytoplasm pushes
The cytoplasm pulls away presses against cell wall. hard against the cell wall and
from the cell wall and the cell the cell becomes turgid (firm).
becomes flaccid (‘floppy’).

Animal cells and osmosis

Animal cells have no cell wall, just a membrane. They are likely to
suffer damage as a result of osmosis, as shown in the diagram below.
Osmosis is potentially damaging to animal cells, and animals
have mechanisms to keep the blood plasma and the body fluids at
the same water potential as the cytoplasm of cells. In mammals,
the kidney plays a vital part in this process of osmoregulation
(see page 140).

Red blood cell

In a solution of lower In a solution of the same In a solution of higher

water potential, the water potential as the water potential, the cell
cell loses water, shrinks inside of the cell, the takes in water, swells
and becomes crenated. cell is in equilibrium. and bursts (haemolysis).

▲ Crenated red ▲ Red blood cells in

The ‘ghost’ of a red blood
cell; just the membrane blood cells equilibrium
is left behind.

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3.3 The
1.2 Movement in life
variety of and out of cells:
active transport
Active transport requires energy uptake of ions by plant root hairs (page 88) and
to move materials the uptake of glucose by epithelial cells of the villi.
Molecules and ions can move from one place to To summarise – active transport:
another by diffusion, but only until an equilibrium ■ can move molecules against a concentration
has been reached. If no concentration gradient gradient but
exists between the two places, no diffusion can ■ requires energy and
occur – this means that if an equilibrium has been ■ involves protein carriers in membranes.
reached, useful particles cannot be absorbed by
diffusion. Active transport is a method by which Some cells use phagocytosis*
particles can cross membranes even against Some particles are too large to cross a
a concentration gradient. In active transport, membrane by diffusion or by active transport.
protein molecules in the cell surface membrane A few very specialised cells have developed
pick up and carry particles across the membrane. a method for taking up these particles – the
These protein molecules are called carriers, and particles are literally engulfed by the cell surface
when they work they use energy supplied by the membrane flowing around them. This process of
cell. Active transport is explained in the diagram phagocytosis is used by white blood cells, and is
below, and important examples of its use are the described on page 117.

S Particle recognised by Active transport uses energy

carrier protein in membrane. Carrier protein returns
to collect more of the to move substances against a
same particle. concentration gradient. The
Carrier protein carriers involved in active
protein transport are rather like
Cell surface membrane
enzymes. They are able to
recognise particular molecules
Particle released into and select them from a mixture.
cell, even against a As a result active transport is
concentration gradient.
Energy specific, and the cell can
‘choose’ which molecules it
absorbs from its surroundings.
Respiration supplies
energy to drive carrier
Q protein across membrane.

1 Copy and complete the following paragraphs. be moved using the process called , which
Animal cells contain , a semi-fluid solution of salts consumes and can move molecules a
and other molecules, and are surrounded by a . concentration gradient.
When in distilled water, the animal cells because The leaves of green plants obtain the gas ,
the cell has a water potential than the which they require for the process of photosynthesis,
surrounding water. Plant cells do not have this by the process of . They also lose the gas oxygen,
problem because they are surrounded by a . produced during , by the same process.
In the gut, soluble food substances such as 2 Make a table that compares diffusion with active
cross the gut lining into the capillaries by the process transport. Include one example of each process in
of , which is the movement of molecules down your table. Under what circumstances would an
a . When an equilibrium is reached between the organism use phagocytosis rather than diffusion or
gut contents and the blood, glucose may continue to active transport?
34
 Questions on diffusion and osmosis
1 Using only the information in the following passage and the
figure below, answer questions i to v.

When a plant’s cells are fully inflated by water the plant

is said to be turgid. Each cell pushes against nearby cells
and together they help to support the plant. If water is lost
and not replaced each cell loses turgor. Cells in this state
are said to be flaccid.

i What does the term turgid mean? [1]

ii How does turgor play a part in the support of plant tissues? [1]
The figure below shows the results of an experiment.
beaker A beaker B

10 g weight potato chip cork, secured to

dish base by plasticine

iii Which beaker is likely to contain pure water? [1]

iv Which potato chip is flaccid? [1]
v What would happen if the potato chip from beaker B was
placed in beaker A for 24 hours? Explain your answer. [2]
2 A student carried out an investigation based on the one in the
diagram using a range of sugar solutions. He obtained the
results below.
a Copy and complete the table,
and present the results in
a suitable graph. [5]
b Use the graph to calculate
the sugar concentration
inside the potato cells.
Explain your answer. [2]
c Why is it useful to present
the results in terms of
‘percentage change’ in length? [2]
Concentration of Length of Length of
Mean Mean Percentage
sugar solution / cylinder at cylinder after
length / mm length / mm change
mol per dm3 start / mm 24 hours / mm
0.0 50, 50, 50 54, 52, 55
0.1 50, 49, 50 53, 52, 53
0.2 50, 50, 50 51, 52, 51
0.3 50, 51, 49 49, 49, 49
0.4 50, 50, 50 47, 47, 48
0.5 50, 51, 51 45, 47, 46 35
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4.1 The
1.2 Biological molecules
variety of life
OBJECTIVES
combinations, by a reaction called condensation,
■ To understand that the structures of living things
which produces water (see opposite page).
depend on the molecules that make them up
■ To list the types of molecule found in living organisms In this way living organisms can take molecules
from their environment and rearrange them
into shapes that suit their own particular
Organic molecules requirements, as illustrated below.
Biological molecules are often called organic
molecules, because many of them were Hydrolysis: large molecules are
broken down to smaller ones by
discovered in living organisms. Chemists have the addition of water.
found that organic molecules all contain carbon
and hydrogen atoms (often along with other Starch in
elements). Carbon atoms bond strongly to other maize H2O
carbon atoms, so organic molecules can be
large and show a wide variety of chain and ring Glucose
structures, with many carbon atoms bonded subunits
together. Organisms need organic molecules to:
■ provide energy to drive life processes Glycogen in
■ provide raw materials for the growth and rat
H2O
repair of tissues.
Nutrition supplies living organisms with the
molecules that they need. There are four main
groups of organic chemicals used by living things:
Condensation: large molecules
■ carbohydrates
are built up from smaller ones
■ lipids by the removal of water.
■ proteins
▲ The carbohydrate starch in the maize is hydrolysed in
■ nucleic acids.
the rat’s cells into subunits called glucose. These are then built
The diagram on the next page shows the
up into the carbohydrate glycogen by condensation reactions.
structures of these different groups of organic
molecules: note which elements they contain.
Q
Basic biochemistry* 1 List the main groups of organic compounds found
Living organisms also contain inorganic molecules in living organisms. Suggest one important function
(such as water) and a number of ions. The study of for each group.
the organic and inorganic molecules that make up 2 Some molecules such as glucose and amino acids
are soluble, whereas others such as starch and fats
living organisms is called biochemistry. The sum
are insoluble. Why is this physical property
of all the chemical reactions in living organisms is
important in living organisms?
sometimes called metabolism.
3 Some scientists would say that nucleic acids are
Large organic molecules are usually made up of the most important molecules in living cells;
lots of similar smaller molecules called subunits. others might suggest that proteins are more
The subunits can be split apart by a reaction important; and some might say that life could
called hydrolysis, which uses water. They not continue without a supply of carbohydrates.
can be joined together again, perhaps in new Write a sentence in support of each of these
points of view.
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 O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

Carbohydrates (page 62) Lipids (page 62)

Monosaccharides are the Lipids are formed by the
simplest carbohydrates, for condensation of three
example, glucose. Glucose is soluble molecules of fatty acid
so it is easily transported in blood with one molecule
and dissolves in the cytoplasm of glycerol.
of cells. Monosaccharides are
the main source of energy for Glycerol Fatty acids
many cells.

Hydrolysis Condensation Hydrolysis Condensation

Polysaccharides are formed

Fats (which are solid at
from many monosaccharide
room temperature) and oils
molecules – for example, starch
(which are liquid at room
and glycogen are two
temperature) are insoluble in
polysaccharides both made of
water. As a result, they are
many thousands of glucose
excellent stores of energy,
molecules. Polysaccharides are
and form barriers between
insoluble, so they are good stores
watery environments,
of energy and can form important
such as between a cell
structures such as cellulose
and its surroundings.
cell walls.
Some contain only carbon (C),
hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O)

All organic molecules

contain the elements
C O carbon and hydrogen. The
simplest organic molecule
H C O
is methane, CH4. More
H C OH complex organic molecules
Some also contain nitrogen (N) also contain oxygen. The Some also contain nitrogen (N)
H C H biological function of a
and sometimes sulfur (S) and phosphorus (P)
molecule depends on its
shape and structure.

S Proteins (page 62) Proteins are made up of long S Nucleic acids (page 208)
chains of subunits called amino
In DNA, these chains are coiled
acids, joined together in
around one another to form a
particular sequences which are
double hellix. The sequence
coded for by genes. The 20
of bases forms a code which
different amino acids can be
carries the genetic information.
joined together in a vast
This code is passed from one
number of different orders, and
generation to the next and
some proteins are thousands of
instructs a cell or an organism to
amino acids long. The sequence
carry out a particular task.
of amino acids determines the
shape of the protein molecule –
some are long and thin (such as
keratin, the protein in hair and
nails), whilst others are more
Hydrolysis Condensation egg shaped or spherical. The function
of proteins depends on their shape. Water as a solvent
For example, the active site of As well as taking part in these hydrolysis reactions, water is
enzymes and the binding site of the most important biological solvent (it is able to dissolve
antibodies are the areas of these other substances).
two egg-shaped proteins that bind Water acts as a solvent in:
to their substrates. ■ digestion (see page 76)
Amino acids are soluble so they ■ excretion (see page 140)
are easily transported in living ■ transport (see page 86).
organisms, and can take part in
Other important functions of water are described on page 256.
reactions in the watery 37
cytoplasm of the cell.
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4.2 The
1.2 Testing forofbiochemicals
variety life
OBJECTIVE
This is known as the emulsion test:
■ To describe simple chemical tests for the molecules of
living organisms ■ 2 cm3 of ethanol are added to the unknown
solution, and the mixture is gently shaken.
■ The mixture is poured into a test tube
Scientists often need to know whether or not
containing an equal volume of distilled water.
a particular type of molecule is present in a
■ If a lipid is present, a milky-white emulsion
solution. For example, a doctor might try to
is formed.
detect glucose in a urine sample (which suggests
the patient has diabetes), or an environmental
scientist might test for starch in the outflow
from a food factory. There are a number of
simple chemical tests that can be carried out
on biological solutions. Some of these tests are
described on the opposite page.

A special test for lipids

An important feature of fats and oils is that
they are insoluble in water. This means that you
cannot make an aqueous solution of a fat or oil on
which to carry out a biochemical test. However,
the fact that lipids are insoluble forms the basis of
a physical test. ▲ A milky emulsion shows that a lipid is present

Q
1 a What is the difference between a fat and an oil?
b Both lipids and carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. How do they differ from one another?
c Draw a diagram to show a molecule of fat. Suggest why it is possible to have many kinds of fat.
2 Here are the results of a series of tests on biological solutions. Acidification and neutralisation splits sucrose into
reducing sugars.

Solution Colour after testing with reagent:

Iodine solution Benedict’s reagent Biuret reagent Benedict’s reagent after
acidification and neutralisation
A Blue-black Clear blue Clear blue Clear blue
B Straw yellow Orange Purple Orange
C Straw yellow Clear blue Clear blue Orange
D Blue-black Clear blue Faint purple Clear blue
E Straw yellow Orange Clear blue Orange

Suggest, giving your reasons, which of these solutions might be:

a the washings from a laundry d urine from somebody who has sugar diabetes
b milk e sweetened tea.
c crushed potato solution
3 Describe the two types of control which are used in food tests and explain why they are needed.

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 O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

Testing for vitamin C: using DCPIP

Vitamin C takes the colour out of a blue dye called DCPIP.

The number of drops of

VITAMIN vitamin C solution needed
C to make this happen depends
on how concentrated the
vitamin C solution is.

So
few drops: strong vitamin C solution
many drops: weak vitamin C solution

A control is needed to make sure

that results are valid.
To show that the test is working
properly, a solution that is known
to contain the substance is tested
(for example, the Biuret reagent is
used with a solution known to
contain protein). This should give
a positive result.
To show that the test solutions are
not contaminated, each test should
be carried out on a sample of water.
This should give a negative result.

To test for protein, To test for starch, a few drops To test for glucose (a reducing
a few drops of Biuret reagent of iodine solution are added to sugar), 2 cm 3 of Benedict’s
are added to 2 cm3 of the 2 cm3 of the unknown solution, reagent are added to 2 cm 3 of
unknown solution, and the and the mixture is gently shaken. the unknown solution, and the
mixture is gently shaken. A deep blue-black colour is a mixture is heated in a boiling
A mauve/purple colour is a positive result (starch is present). water bath for 2–3 minutes. An
positive result (protein orange/brick-red colour is a
is present). positive result (glucose is present).

When making comparisons between

different solutions – for example, to
compare the glucose content of different
urine samples – it is important to carry
out all tests under the same conditions.
For example, a series of Benedict’s tests
should be performed:
on equal volumes of unknown solutions
using equal volumes of Benedict’s solution
with all mixtures heated to the same temperature
for the same length of time.

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5.1 The
1.2 Enzymes
varietycontrol
of life biochemical
reactions in living organisms
OBJECTIVES Enzymes are biological catalysts
The sum of all the chemical reactions going on within a living
■ To appreciate that biochemical
organism is known as metabolism. Anabolic reactions build up large
reactions in living organisms
must be controlled molecules from smaller ones, and usually require an input of energy.
Catabolic reactions break down large molecules into smaller ones,
■ To understand how enzymes can
act as biological catalysts and often release energy. The condensation of glucose molecules into
■ To list and explain the factors the polysaccharide glycogen is an example of anabolism, and this
that affect enzyme activity happens in cells of the liver and skeletal muscle. The breakdown of
■ To list some examples of human glucose into carbon dioxide and water by respiration is an example
exploitation of enzymes of catabolism, and this also occurs in cells of the liver and skeletal
muscle. What determines whether glucose molecules are built up into
glycogen or broken down into carbon dioxide and water? The answer
is enzymes. Enzymes are proteins that function as biological catalysts
(catalysts speed up reactions without themselves being changed by the
reaction). The molecules that react in the enzyme-catalysed reaction
are called substrates, and the molecules produced in the reaction are
products. Different enzymes are involved in anabolic and catabolic
reactions, and so the presence or absence of a particular enzyme
controls what will happen to a particular molecule.
Enzymes and cells
Enzymes are synthesised in living cells. Most enzymes work inside
the cell – an example of these intracellular enzymes is catalase
(which breaks down harmful hydrogen peroxide in liver cells). Other
enzymes are made inside cells and then released from the cell to
perform their function – examples of these extracellular enzymes
include the digestive enzyme lipase (which breaks down fats to fatty
acids and glycerol) and amylase, which converts starch to maltose
during germination (see page 184). Enzymes are specific – most
enzymes work on one kind of substrate only. For example, proteases
break down proteins but have no effect on carbohydrates or lipids.
This specificity results from the complementary shape and fit of the
active site and the substrate.
Factors affecting enzyme activity
Temperature
Temperature affects the activity of enzymes. The enzyme activity
increases with a rise in temperature, up to a point. This is because:
■ A higher temperature speeds up the movement of substrate
S
molecules, so that when they collide with the enzyme they have
more kinetic energy and are more likely to bind to the active site.
■ The enzyme molecules themselves also gain in kinetic energy as
the temperature rises so that they begin to vibrate. Eventually

40
 O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

the enzyme molecules vibrate so much that they become denatured – they
lose their three-dimensional shape and can no longer bind to their substrate.
Because of this, high temperatures reduce enzyme activity. Each enzyme
has an optimum temperature, which is a balance between these two effects, as
shown in the graph below. Most human enzymes have an optimum temperature
around 37°C, whilst for most plants the optimum is rather lower at around 25°C.
Denaturation is usually irreversible, and living cells make great efforts to keep the
conditions suitable for their enzymes to work.

Increased heat energy Optimum temperature

causes more collisions
between enzyme and At high temperatures
the enzyme may lose
Enzyme activity

substrate.
its active site – it is
denatured.

Temperature / ˚C

▲ An enzyme-catalysed reaction gets faster, reaches a maximum

rate and then slows down again the temperature increases

pH
pH also affects enzyme activity.

S Changing the acid or base conditions around an enzyme molecule affects its three-
dimensional shape and can denature the enzyme.
Each enzyme has its own optimum pH, as shown in the graph below, which
depends on the environment in which the enzyme is working – pepsin is an enzyme
that works in the stomach, and has an optimum pH around pH 2.0 (very acidic),
whereas amylase works in the mouth and small intestine and has an optimum pH
around 7.5 (slightly basic).
Optimum pH
Enzyme activity

pH extremes may
denature the enzyme

pH

S Activators and inhibitors

Some molecules change the likelihood of an enzyme being able to bind to its
substrate. Activators make this binding more likely – for example, chloride ions
are essential for the activity of salivary amylase. Inhibitors make it more difficult
for the enzyme to bind to the substrate – for example, cyanide ions block the
active sites of enzymes involved in respiration. 41
 5.1 Enzymes control biochemical reactions in living organisms

Humans exploit enzymes

Because enzymes are specific, and can be used over and over again,
they are very useful in the fields of industry, food preparation and
medicine – an enzyme from snake venom can break down blood
clots, for example. Other uses are described on page 294.

S
The mechanism of enzyme action (the lock and key hypothesis)
i
An enzyme is a protein, folded into a complex three-dimensional shape. The active site is
the part of the enzyme that allows it to act as a catalyst, as shown below.

Molecules
of substrate
Active site

Enzyme
Substrate molecules
The enzyme fit exactly into the No enzyme
Energy of reaction

molecule is active site of the Enzyme present

now free to enzyme to form an
bind with more enzyme–substrate Substrates
molecules of complex. The active
substrate. site brings the
Products
Each enzyme substrate molecules
molecule may closer together.
be used many Product Time
thousands The substrates now
of times.
▲ The enzyme lowers the energy
react to form a
molecule of product,
needed for the reaction, and the
which leaves the reaction is then much more likely to
active site. take place.

Q
1 Copy and complete the following paragraph about 2 Enzyme action is explained by the lock and key
enzymes. hypothesis (see box above). The example shows an
Enzymes are which speed up the biochemical enzyme that catalyses a condensation reaction – two
in living organisms. The enzymes themselves are not small molecules are joined together to make a larger
changed in these reactions, that is they are biological one. Redraw the diagram to show the action of an
. enzyme catalysing a hydrolysis reaction, and give
Enzymes are – each one controls only one type of an example of such an enzyme.
reaction. They are by high temperatures and by
extremes of pH.

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Questions on enzymes and

biological molecules
1 The diagram below shows a protein molecule. 3 a The diagram below shows an enzyme-
catalysed reaction.

A
a Name the subunit molecules that are
assembled into the protein. [1]
B
b Name two proteins found in the
human body. [2]
c State two places in the human body
where many proteins are made. [2]
d Some seeds are rich in proteins. Describe
the chemical test that you would use to
determine whether different types of seed C

are rich in proteins. Include the practical

details of the test in your answer. [4]
2 A student used the DCPIP test to find out how
much vitamin C is present in different fruit
i State the names of A, B and C. [3]
juices. The concentration of the DCPIP solution
ii Use the diagram to describe what
was 10 g per dm3. The student followed these
happens when an enzyme catalyses a
instructions:
reaction. [3]
1 Put 2 cm3 of DCPIP solution into a test tube.
iii Explain why the model is known as
2 Use a graduated pipette or burette to add
‘lock and key’. [2]
a 10 g per dm3 vitamin C solution drop by
b Explain the following statements:
drop to the DCPIP solution. Shake the tube
i Amylase digests starch, but proteases
gently after adding each drop. Continue to
do not. [1]
add the vitamin C solution until the colour
ii Human enzymes catalyse reactions
of the DCPIP solution disappears.
at 37°C, but not at 73°C. [2]
3 Record the volume of vitamin C solution
c The table shows the relative activity of a
that was added.
human enzyme in solutions of different pH
4 Repeat the procedure two more times and
kept at 35°C.
calculate a mean volume.
5 Repeat steps 1 to 4 with the juices to be tested. pH Relative activity
The results are shown in the table below. 3 4

Test substance Volume added to DCPIP solution / cm3 5 12

1 2 3 mean 7 31

10 g per dm3 1.8 1.9 2.1 1.9 9 9

vitamin C solution 11 4
orange juice 2.4 2.6 2.3 2.4
i Explain why all the reaction mixtures
grapefruit juice 3.2 3.1 2.9 3.1
were kept at 35°C. [2]
apple juice 9.6 9.1 9.4 9.4
ii Draw a graph of the results in the table.
a Explain why the student took three readings [4]
for each test substance. [3] iii Describe and explain the results shown in
b Use the results to calculate the the graph. [4]
concentration of vitamin C in the three 43
fruit juices. Show your working. [3]
O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

4 a The bar chart below shows the percentage of each of the main
elements in the human body.
Convert this data into:
i a table
ii a pie chart.
Which do you think is the better way of showing the data?
Explain why.
b These elements are mostly present in the body as part of
compounds.
The proportions of the main groups of compounds in a human
body are shown in the table.
i Which is the most abundant compound?
ii Which compound contains most of the nitrogen in the body?
iii Which compound contains most of the oxygen?
iv Which compound contains most of the carbon?
v The total of these compounds does not add up to 100%.
Suggest another organic compound that forms a proportion
of the remainder.
vi Try to find out which structure(s) in the body contain most
of the calcium.
70

60

50
Percentage

40

30

20

10

0
Oxygen Carbon Hydrogen Nitrogen Calcium Phosphorus Iron/
others

Compound Approximate percentage in the body

Fats 14%
Proteins 12%
Carbohydrates 1%
Water 70%

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5 a The properties of enzymes were investigated

iv Boiled saliva contains an enzyme which
using the simple experiment shown below.
digests starch.
Which of the following conclusions are valid
b What is the purpose of tube D?
from these results?
c How could you increase the validity of
i The enzyme reaction occurs more quickly
these results?
at 30°C than at 20°C.
d What is the product of starch digestion present
ii The enzyme in saliva is inactivated by
in tubes A and B after 20 minutes? Describe a
boiling.
simple biochemical test for this substance.
iii Saliva contains an enzyme which digests
starch.
Four test tubes were set up:
A at B at C at D at
30°C 20°C 20°C 20°C

Boiled
Saliva Saliva cooled Water
saliva
1% 1% 1% 1%
starch starch starch starch
The tubes were shaken. They were immediately tested for starch
by adding one drop of iodine solution to one drop of the mixture
in a specimen tube. The test was repeated at intervals.

Time of test for starch

A B C D

0 minutes

All turned blue-black

A B C D

10 minutes

No change Turned blue-black

A B C D

20 minutes

No change Turned blue-black

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6.1 Photosynthesis
1.2 and plant nutrition
The variety of life
OBJECTIVES
■ To understand that plants, like all living
Chloroplasts are energy transducers
organisms, must receive nourishment Plants can absorb and use light energy because
they have a green pigment, chlorophyll,
■ To know the basic definition for photosynthesis
contained in chloroplasts in some of their cells.
■ To know word and symbol equations for photosynthesis
Chlorophyll allows the energy in sunlight to
■ To remember that a plant body has organs that are well
suited to carry out particular functions drive chemical reactions. Chloroplasts act as
energy transducers, converting light energy into
chemical energy.
Plants need food
Plants, like animals, require raw materials Defining photosynthesis
for building tissues and as a source of energy. Photosynthesis is the process in which light energy,
They manufacture everything they need out trapped by chlorophyll, is used to convert carbon
of simple ions and compounds available in dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen.
the environment. The building up of complex These equations summarise photosynthesis:
molecules from simpler substances (synthesis)
requires energy and enzymes. The enzymes carbon dioxide + water ⎯⎯⎯→
light energy
glucose + oxygen
chlorophyll
are in the plant’s cells, and the energy comes
from sunlight. The process is therefore called
S light energy
photosynthesis: this could be defined as the ⎯⎯⎯→ C6H12O6 + 6O2
6CO2 + 6H2O chlorophyll
basic process by which plants manufacture
carbohydrates from raw materials using energy
These equations are simplified, and show only
from light. An outline of plant nutrition is shown
glucose as a food product of photosynthesis. In
in the diagram below.
fact, plants can make all of their food compounds
by photosynthesis and other chemical processes.

▼ Plants are autotrophic (self-feeding) – they take simple substances from their
environment and use light energy to build them up into complex food compounds

SUN

Oxygen – a waste product released to the atmosphere

The plant makes complex food compounds which may be

used for energy, growth, repair and reproduction. They include:
glucose contain carbon, hydrogen
Light energy starch and oxygen (C, H, and O).
amino acids contain nitrogen as
and proteins well as C, H and O
Carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere nucleic acids – contain phosphorus as well as C, H, O and N
lipids – contain C, H and O

Animals depend on plants

Autotrophic nutrition provides:
a supply of complex food compounds which can be
Water from the soil eaten by heterotrophic organisms, including animals
Minerals such as a supply of oxygen which is essential for aerobic
nitrate, phosphate and respiration in all organisms, including animals.
magnesium from the soil
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 O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

Some of the glucose produced is stored in the plant cells as starch.

The experiment below shows how a starch test can be used to
demonstrate the conditions needed for photosynthesis.

TESTING LEAVES FOR STARCH

To demonstrate that
some factor is necessary
for the production of Ethanol
starch, the plant must
have no starch to begin Boiling water
with. The plant is placed in Leaf Leaf
a dark cupboard or box Warm water
for 48 hours. It uses any
starch that is already in its
(a) Leaf is boiled in water for about 2 minutes. (b) Leaf is warmed in ethanol until leaf
leaves and is now
Purpose: to break down cell walls and to stop is colourless. Purpose: to extract the
destarched.
the action of enzymes within the leaf. Also chlorophyll, which would mask
allows easier penetration by ethanol. observations later. (Chlorophyll dissolves
in ethanol but not in water.)

Leaf Warm water

(c) Leaf is dipped into warm water (briefly). (d) Leaf is placed on white tile and iodine
Purpose: to soften the now brittle leaf, and solution added. Purpose: iodine shows
allow penetration by iodine solution. the presence (blue-black) or absence
(orange-brown) of starch; colours are
shown against the white tile.

A B C
Airtight
seal around
Black White A B C
leaf stalk
paper
clipped (I)
onto both (II)
Soda lime (I) Variegated
sides of leaf
leaf Green
Hydrogencarbonate
solution (II)

Q
These questions are about the diagram above. necessary for starch formation by photosynthesis.
1 Before testing for starch, the leaf is warmed in ethanol. 3 The students’ teacher asked for some further tests to be
The ethanol turns green. Why is this? completed before accepting their results as valid.
2 A group of students wanted to investigate the a How could the students show that there was no
conditions needed for photosynthesis. They set up the starch in the leaves at the start of the experiment?
three experiments shown as A, B and C. Each of the b The teacher suggested that the black paper attached
plants was given the same light conditions. to the leaf in experiment A prevented the leaf from
a What does the result of experiment A suggest? absorbing gases, and that was why no starch had
b Soda lime removes carbon dioxide from the been produced in the covered area.
atmosphere, and hydrogencarbonate slowly releases How could the students disprove this theory?
it. What do the results of experiment B suggest about 4 What additional experiment could be set up to show
carbon dioxide and starch formation? that the formation of starch by photosynthesis depends
c What is the purpose of experiment C? on the activity of enzymes? (There is a clue given in one
d From experiments A, B and C, list the factors part of the diagram above.)

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6.2 The
1.2 Thevariety
rate ofofphotosynthesis
life
OBJECTIVES Measuring photosynthesis
The most straightforward way of showing whether or not photosynthesis
■ To understand a quantitative has occurred is to test for the presence of starch. Starch is a product of
method of investigating photosynthesis and the blue-black colour of the iodine test is a simple
photosynthesis method for detecting it. Unfortunately, this is an ‘all-or-nothing’ test, that
■ To perform an exercise in is, the colour is just as dark with a small amount of starch as it is with
experimental design a large amount. The iodine test is said to be qualitative – it only shows
whether or not starch is present. To find out how quickly photosynthesis
is going on, we need to use a quantitative test.
The basic equation for photosynthesis is:

carbon light energy glucose

+ ⎯⎯⎯→
water chlorophyll + oxygen
dioxide (starch)

This shows that, as well as starch, there is another product of

photosynthesis – oxygen. It is quite easy to measure amounts
(volumes) of oxygen, and so the production of oxygen can be used
as a quantitative test for photosynthesis.
S
Tracing photosynthesis
i
The rate of photosynthesis can be estimated by measuring how much carbon dioxide a plant absorbs. This is done
using a radioactively labelled form of carbon dioxide, 14CO2. Labelled carbon dioxide is absorbed by the leaf cells and
converted into labelled carbohydrates in exactly the same way as ‘normal’ carbon dioxide. A Geiger counter is used to
detect how much radioactive material has been incorporated by the plant in a fixed length of time – the rate of
photosynthesis. This method is useful for studying the rate of photosynthesis in a ‘real-life’ situation – in the middle
of a crop field, for example – where it is not possible to collect and measure volumes of oxygen.
Using radioactive tracers can also provide information about other compounds that plants make following photosynthesis,
and about how plants transport food substances from one place to another in the plant.

ANALYSING THE DESIGN OF SIMPLE ESTIMATION OF

AN EXPERIMENT PHOTOSYNTHESIS

The simplest apparatus for measuring oxygen release is Stopwatch used to count
shown in the next box. This method depends on counting Gas collects the number of bubbles
in a fixed time.
the number of oxygen bubbles given off in a fixed length
of time. 60

Apparatus that can be used to measure the volume of 45 15

oxygen released in a fixed length of time is shown on the 30

opposite page. When looking at this, remind yourself of
the principles of experimental technique. Light source

Test tube

Pondweed

Plasticine support Funnel

lifts funnel off Beaker
bottom of beaker.
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 O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

MEASURING THE RATE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

The volume of oxygen released
in a fixed length of time can be
used to calculate the rate of
Scale
photosynthesis. This is the
dependent (outcome)
variable.

There are other

variables that must be
fixed (controlled) so that
they do not influence the
The light intensity
results, and the experiment
can be varied by the
remains a fair test.
experimenter: this is
the independent e.g. Water temperature
(input) variable. (continuous)
Concentration of
hydrogencarbonate
A more accurate method for in vessel (continuous)
Wavelength of light
measuring the rate of (continuous)
photosynthesis. This apparatus Species of plant used
can be used to investigate the Light intensity is (categoric)
an example of a Number of leaves on
effect of light intensity on the rate continuous variable. plant (discrete)
of photosynthesis.

Q
1 What important assumption about the bubbles is being Samantha and Jane wanted to investigate whether the
made, when using the method shown on the page wavelength of the light would affect photosynthesis,
opposite, to measure the rate of photosynthesis? and decided that they could use the same apparatus.
2 Using the apparatus above, Samantha and Jane d What is the input variable in this investigation? How
obtained the results shown in the table. could the two students change this variable?
a Plot this information in the form of a graph. e What are the fixed variables in this investigation?
f The students decided to repeat their experiment,
Light intensity / Volume of oxygen and then to pool their results with the results of
arbitrary units released / mm3 per minute other students in the same class. Why was this
1 7 pooling of results important?
2 14 g The teacher said that if the students were going to
3 21 pool their results then they must remove the plants
4 28 from the apparatus and weigh them. Why should
they do this?
5 34
h State the input, outcome and fixed variables in an
6 39 investigation into the effect of temperature on the
7 42 rate of photosynthesis.
8 44 3 This question is about the box ‘Tracing photosynthesis’
9 45 on the opposite page.
a What important assumption is being made when
10 45
using the rate of uptake of 14CO2 as a measure of
b At what light intensity did the plant produce the rate of photosynthesis?
25 mm3 of oxygen per minute? b Why is it important that radioactively labelled
c What levels of light intensity had the greatest effect carbon dioxide, 14CO2, is treated by leaf cells in
on the rate of photosynthesis? How could this exactly the same way as ‘normal’ carbon dioxide?
information be useful to a grower of greenhouse c Which process might release 14CO2 from the plant?
tomatoes?

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6.3 Leaf
1.2 structure
The variety and photosynthesis
of life
OBJECTIVES Features of the leaf
In order to photosynthesise efficiently, a leaf needs:
■ To understand how the structure
of the leaf is adapted for ■ a method for exchange of gases between the leaf and its
photosynthesis surroundings
■ To recall the structure of a ■ a way of delivering water to the leaf
palisade cell ■ a system for the removal of glucose so that it can be transported
■ To understand how whole plants to other parts of the plant
can be adapted to make the most ■ an efficient means of absorbing light energy.
of light energy
The diagram below shows how the structure of the leaf meets these
requirements.

Waxy cuticle – reduces water loss. It is thicker on the upper Upper epidermis – a complete covering which is usually one cell thick.
surface because this surface is usually more exposed to the It is transparent to allow the free passage of light, and has the important
warming rays of sunlight. function of preventing the entry of disease-causing organisms such as
bacteria and fungi.

Palisade mesophyll – tall thin cells arranged in columns and

separated by very narrow air spaces. Cells contain many
chloroplasts, and the dense packing of these cells allows the
absorption of the maximum amount of light energy.

Vein – the transport system in and out of the leaf. The xylem
vessels deliver water and mineral salts, and the phloem sieve
tubes carry away the organic products of photosynthesis,
such as glucose.

Spongy mesophyll – these cells are rather loosely packed,

and are covered with a thin layer of water. The air spaces
between them aid the diffusion of gases through the leaf.
The air spaces are saturated with water vapour so water
diffuses out of the leaf.

Stomata – (singular: stoma) these minute pores When a plant has plenty of water, the guard cells become turgid. The cell wall on
allow the entry of carbon dioxide and the exit the inner surface is very thick, so it cannot str etch as much as the outer surface. So
of oxygen. They are mainly present in the as the guard cells swell up, they curve away from each other, opening the stoma.
lower epidermis. This surface is less exposed to
Closed Open
the Sun’s radiation so that evaporation of
water is kept to a minimum. The stomata
can be closed when no carbon dioxide
intake is needed (in the dark, for example). Flaccid Turgid
Thick
guard cell guard cell
cell wall
When a plant is short of water,
the guard cells become flaccid, Stoma Stoma
closed open Thin
closing the stoma.
cell wall

50 ▲ Leaf structure is a compromise between maximising photosynthesis and minimising water loss
 O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

This diagram shows how leaf, palisade cell and chloroplast are adapted for
photosynthesis
Leaf blade has a large surface to
trap light and is thin so that light
Cells of the upper Palisade cells are packed together and filled
can penetrate.
epidermis do not with chloroplasts. Best site for photosynthesis
Interior of leaf have chloroplasts. because light penetrates, carbon dioxide and
magnified 300 Light passes easily water are delivered and chlorophyll is present.
with a light through them.
microscope. Chloroplasts can move
within the cell to make
best use of available light.
Waxy cuticle is
Leaf stalk
transparent.
holds leaf
in the best
position to
receive light.

Cell wall and cell

membrane are
CO2 from freely permeable
the air to CO2 and water.
Xylem
(carries water
Vascular and minerals) Thin layer of
bundle Phloem water on cell
(carries away sucrose, surface can
made from glucose) dissolve CO2.

Single palisade
cell magnified
Lower epidermis 800 with
Spongy cells have few
a light
chloroplasts. Large
microscope.
spaces between them
Water from Stomata are pores allow easy diffusion of
the soil that allow CO2 to water and CO2 through
diffuse into the leaf. leaf to palisade cells.
S

2 Light energy reaches the 4 Oxygen is released

chlorophyll molecules. as a waste product. Chloroplasts are the
site of photosynthesis

Membrane contains the

chlorophyll molecules
that can trap light energy.

7 Carbon dioxide can diffuse

into the region between
the green membranes.
6 Glucose is often stored
1 Water is a raw material as starch grains.
for photosynthesis.
3 Light energy splits the 5 The hydrogen reduces Key
water molecules into the carbon dioxide to
1 m Water
oxygen and hydrogen. form glucose - this part
Carbon dioxide
of photosynthesis is
Oxygen
catalysed by enzymes.
Hydrogen

Q Glucose

1 Work out the magnification of the single chloroplast. Show how you reached your answer.

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6.4 The
1.2 Thevariety
controlofof photosynthesis
life
OBJECTIVES
S The need for each of these requirements or
■ To understand that photosynthesis is affected factors is outlined in the diagram below.
by a number of different factors
If any of these factors is in short supply, the
■ To appreciate that photosynthesis is affected
rate of photosynthesis will be less than its
most by the factor that is in shortest supply –
maximum possible rate. One factor can cause
the limiting factor
a ‘bottleneck’ in the overall process as shown
■ To know that an understanding of limiting
at the top of the page opposite. (This factor
factors can be used in the efficient growth of
greenhouse crops is called the limiting factor.) The limiting
factor is the one which restricts the rate of the
overall process because it is the factor nearest
Requirements for photosynthesis to its minimum value. The limiting factor
The process of photosynthesis depends upon: varies at different times and under different
■ the availability of light conditions.
■ the presence of a pigment to absorb ■ In the UK, during the summer, light
the light and temperature may be ideal for
■ a supply of carbon dioxide and water photosynthesis but the carbon dioxide
■ a temperature suitable for enzyme activity. concentration may be the limiting factor.

Availability of light – light provides the energy that drives

photosynthesis (by splitting water molecules).
The light energy absorbed by a plant depends on:
the intensity of the light source
the wavelength of the light
the length of time (duration) that the light is available.

Chlorophyll is essential for the absorption of light energy.

The synthesis of chlorophyll requires magnesium ions,
which must be supplied from the soil (see page 88).

Temperature affects the rates of enzyme activity.

A 10˚C rise in temperature can cause a doubling in the
Carbon dioxide concentration has a rate of enzyme activity (although higher temperatures
major influence on the rate of cause denaturation). This is important both in leaves
photosynthesis because it is the substrate (enzymes involved directly in photosynthesis) and in roots
that is in shortest supply (there is almost (enzymes systems involved in active transport of mineral
always enough water for photosynthesis). ions – see page 88).

Good greenhouse effect! Poisons and photosynthesis

Burning fossil fuels: Photosynthesis may be inhibited by poisons, e.g.
raises carbon dioxide concentration paraquat (a weed killer) prevents light energy
raises temperature. being used to convert carbon dioxide to sugars
Both of these factors increase the rate sulfur dioxide (in acid rain) damages the palisade
of photosynthesis (see page 48). cells of the leaf.

Well-balanced plants! Plants are autotrophic

(’self-feeding’) and can carefully regulate their food
Water availability – a shortage of water production. Plants need nitrate to be able to convert
closes stomata (see page 92) which limits glucose from photosynthesis into amino acids. If there
carbon dioxide uptake. There is always enough is a shortage of nitrate, the plant will reduce its rate
water as a substrate for photosynthesis. of photosynthesis because it will need fewer sugars to
make amino acids.

52 ▲ Factors affecting photosynthesis

 O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

S 25˚C
Rate of reaction, e.g. how much
oxygen released per minute

15˚C

3 If the bottleneck is widened, in this case by raising the

temperature, more substrate molecules can be converted
to product.

Concentration of carbon dioxide

Enzyme
Product
Substrate

2 As the concentration of substrate is increased, a second

1 The rate of the reaction, i.e. how many molecules of product ( ) limiting factor acts like a ‘bottleneck’. No matter how
are formed, is limited by the number of available substrate (carbon many molecules of the substrate ( ) are available, the
dioxide) molecules ( ), because they can all pass through the enzyme number of molecules of product ( ) formed is limited by
‘channel’. The reaction will go faster if more substrate becomes how quickly the enzymes ( ) can work. In this example the
available – in this situation substrate concentration is the temperature might be the limiting factor, because enzymes
limiting factor. work less quickly at lower temperatures.

▲ Limiting factors control the rate of reactions in living organisms

■ During any 24-hour period, light will be the warm up the air, for example. However, in an
limiting factor from dusk to dawn. enclosed environment, such as a greenhouse,
■ During a British winter, plants may not it is possible to control the factors affecting
photosynthesise on a bright, sunny day photosynthesis and so get the maximum yield
because temperature is the limiting factor. from crops. This requires an understanding
of the principle of limiting factors – it is no
The availability of water is rarely a limiting
good simply increasing the light availability
factor for photosynthesis, because there are so
by having lights on in dull weather
many other physiological processes in plants that
without making sure that carbon dioxide
depend on water that these processes will usually
concentration and temperature are adequate,
halt in a water shortage before photosynthesis
for example. A greenhouse grower will also
does.
try to use strains of plants selected for their
Controlling the limiting factors high yield (see page 54), control any potential
In an open field, there is very little that farmers pests and will probably use automatic
can do to speed up photosynthesis – they systems to control the factors that might limit
cannot change the degree of cloud cover or the crop yield.

Q
1 List the three most important factors that control 4 What is a limiting factor? Which limiting factor is
the rate of photosynthesis. most likely to affect photosynthesis:
2 The burning of fossil fuels can both help and a on a cloudy, spring day
hinder photosynthesis. Explain this statement. b on a bright, sunny day in winter
3 Which ion deficiency is most likely to affect c in the middle of a crop field on a sunny, warm
photosynthesis? Explain why. July day?

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6.5 The
1.2 Control of photosynthesis
variety of life by
humans: use of greenhouses
S OBJECTIVES allows us to maximise yields of ‘food’ populations
by minimising environmental resistance. Two
■ To understand how humans can control environmental examples of the use of biological principles in the
resistance
management of food-producing ecosystems are
■ To describe examples of maximising yields in the
greenhouses (described here) and fish farming
commercial management ecosystems
(see page 278).
Humans exploit many other organisms, often as
Illumination – it is important to control:
i
sources of food. Our understanding of population
growth and the effect of environmental resistance ■ intensity – higher light intensity leads
to more photosynthesis until some other
Carbon dioxide concentration is a major
i limiting factor intervenes
limiting factor in photosynthesis. In a ■ quality – photosynthesis is most efficient
greenhouse, plants may photosynthesise very at red and blue wavelengths; white light
quickly and CO2 is rapidly used up. The CO2 contains some wavelengths (green) which
level is usually raised to about 0.1% of the are not useful
atmosphere (about three times higher than
■ duration – if fruit is the desired product,
in normal air). This gives an increase in yield
the plant must flower; flowering is controlled
of about 50%. The extra CO2 can be provided
by day length (the duration of light in a
by burning paraffin (which also raises the
24-hour period).
temperature) or by releasing it from a cylinder.
Sunlight provides some illumination
but artificial lighting systems are more
High-yielding strains of crop are used.
i controllable (though more expensive).
Selective breeding and/or genetic engineering
can develop crop strains which:
■ give a high yield
■ produce fruit of a desirable colour/texture/
size
■ produce fruit at the same time
CO2
■ may have genetic pest resistance.

Sensors

Temperature affects plant growth because of

i Heater

its effect on the enzymes of photosynthesis.

High temperatures may also speed up the life
cycle of pests. Sunlight provides some heat
(shading may be necessary in summer) but
thermostatically regulated heaters provide When looking at photosynthesis, consider these key points:
greater control. ■ What is a limiting factor?
■ In the equation for photosynthesis, why are carbon dioxide
and water required?
▲ Greenhouse management involves an understanding of ■ Why is light essential for photosynthesis?
the limiting factors that control photosynthesis (see page 52). ■ Why does temperature affect the rate of photosynthesis?
Maximum photosynthesis means maximum plant growth. (Think: enzymes and temperature.)
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Q
1 The table below shows the rate of photosynthesis of geranium plants under eight different sets of conditions, A to H.
S
Light intensity / Carbon dioxide Temperature / ºC Rate of photosynthesis /
arbitrary units concentration / % arbitrary units
A 4 0.03 20 60
B 8 0.03 20 60
C 4 0.15 20 120
D 8 0.15 20 180
E 4 0.03 30 60
F 8 0.03 30 60
G 4 0.15 30 170
H 8 0.15 30 250

a State which set of conditions gives the highest rate of photosynthesis.

b State the effect of increasing the temperature when there is a high light intensity and carbon
dioxide concentration.
c The usual concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is 0.03%. State what these results
indicate about the effect of adding carbon dioxide to the air.
d Explain why the rate of photosynthesis is identical in conditions A, B, E and F.
2 The table below shows the effect on yields of adding extra carbon dioxide to the atmosphere in a greenhouse.

Crop Normal atmosphere Atmosphere enriched with CO2

Lettuce 0.8 kg 1.0 kg (mass of 10 lettuces)
Tomatoes 3.8 kg 6.2 kg (mass of each whole plant)

a Calculate the percentage increase in the crop yield of lettuce in the enriched atmosphere. Show your working.
b Three possible ways of increasing the carbon dioxide concentration in the greenhouse atmosphere are:
■ using paraffin heaters in the greenhouse (combustion releases carbon dioxide and water)
■ keeping small animals, such as rabbits, in the greenhouse
■ releasing carbon dioxide from gas cylinders.
Suggest and explain the best method for increasing the crop yield.
3 The graph below shows the rate of photosynthesis.
8

6
Carbon dioxide taken up /
mg per 50 cm2 per hour

0
given off / mg per
50 cm2 per hour
Carbon dioxide

10 20 30 40 50
1

0
Light intensity / arbitrary units

Use this graph to explain the term limiting factor.

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6.6 Photosynthesis
1.2 and the environment
The variety of life
OBJECTIVES
■ To understand that plants both photosynthesise
Demonstrating gas exchange
and respire The overall change in carbon dioxide levels
in the atmosphere can be demonstrated using
■ To understand that these processes affect the
composition of the atmosphere hydrogencarbonate indicator, as shown in
■ To appreciate that photosynthesis plays an important the diagram below. Carbon dioxide produces
part in the carbon cycle a weak acid, carbonic acid, in water and this
indicator is sensitive to the changes in pH
caused by the acid.
Photosynthesis and respiration
From the equation for photosynthesis (see In the dark, the rate of respiration greatly
page 46) we know that this process removes exceeds the rate of photosynthesis – the plant
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and at the cells are living on the sugars they manufactured
same time releases oxygen. This is the opposite of during previous periods of photosynthesis. As
the light intensity increases after dawn, there
the exchange of gases in respiration:
comes a point where the rates of respiration and
glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water photosynthesis exactly balance one another and
there is no net uptake or loss of carbon dioxide
Green plants both photosynthesise and respire: or oxygen. This is called the compensation
■ if photosynthesis exceeds respiration (in the point and, at this point, the glucose consumed
light) plants will, overall, remove carbon by respiration is exactly balanced by the glucose
dioxide and add oxygen produced during photosynthesis. Beyond the
■ if photosynthesis is less than respiration (in the compensation point the plant begins to gain
dark) plants will, overall, remove oxygen and glucose, as photosynthesis exceeds respiration.
add carbon dioxide.

EXPERIMENT TO DEMONSTRATE THE EFFECT OF LIGHT INTENSITY ON THE

BALANCE BETWEEN PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND RESPIRATION

Colour of hydrogencarbonate indicator solution As carbon dioxide concentration

decreases, the indicator solution
Even source turns purple.
of light

Black paper Tissue Boiled

cover paper leaf
pH rises
cover (less acidic)

pH falls
Processes going on in living plant cells (more acidic)

O2 CO2 O2 CO2

Respiration Respiration
No
Respiration O2 CO2 living cells
Photosynthesis Photosynthesis
As carbon dioxide concentration
increases, the indicator solution
 Hydrogencarbonate indicator reacts turns orange–yellow.
to changes in carbon dioxide in the air
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 O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

The products of photosynthesis substrate for photosynthesis. An atom of carbon in

Plants manufacture all of their food carbon dioxide could be taken in by a plant, built
requirements, starting from the glucose molecule. up to a complex food molecule, and then eaten by
The diagram shows some of the products that the an animal which breaks it down to carbon dioxide
plant makes. again. Thus atoms are recycled between simple
and complex molecules, through the bodies of
These products are available to the plant, and to
plants, animals and other living organisms. The
any organism that eats the plant. An animal that
carbon cycle is described simply in the diagram
eats plant material will use most of it to obtain
at the bottom of the page, and more fully on page
energy by respiration. The carbon dioxide released
252.
as a waste product is then available for plants as a
Carbon
dioxide
Oxidation in Energy, which is used to
respiration drive all of the other
Water (page 122) reactions

Photosynthesis Sucrose, the transport form

of carbohydrate

Condensation Starch, a storage form

Glucose
(page 36) of carbohydrate

Cellulose, a structural form

of carbohydrate (in cell walls)
Mineral ions Nitrate (and
(see page 88) sulfate) Fats, for long-term energy storage,
Reduction and
oils, part of cell membranes

Amino acids and proteins

(including enzymes)

Nitrate (and Nucleic acids (including DNA)

phosphate) which carry information for
protein synthesis

▲ Plants produce all their food molecules from the products of photosynthesis by metabolic reactions

Carbon dioxide Simple, inorganic

in the atmosphere Q
1 Name an indicator that can be used to measure
carbon dioxide concentrations in solution. What
Photosynthesis colour change would you predict for this indicator in
(autotrophic
feeding) the presence of an actively photosynthesising plant?
Explain your answer.
2 What is meant by the term compensation point?
Why is it important that a grower of greenhouse
Respiration crops should understand this term?
3 ‘Photosynthesis provides plants with sugars’ – is this
Food Food
true, and is it the whole story?
molecules molecules
in plant in animal 4 Plants take up carbon dioxide, which they convert to
Heterotrophic
feeding carbohydrate. Explain how it is possible for the plant
Complex, organic
to take in the same molecule of carbon dioxide more
▲ Photosynthesis and the carbon cycle – carbon is recycled than once.
between simple inorganic and complex organic compounds
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6.7 The
1.2 Plants andof
variety minerals
life
OBJECTIVES
Minerals are taken out of the soil by plants, and are
■ To know that plants require minerals such as
also washed out by rain. In natural, uncultivated
nitrate and magnesium
soils there is a balance between the formation and
■ To know the functions of minerals in plants
the loss of mineral ions, as shown below.
■ To appreciate how information about plants’ mineral
requirements can be obtained In cultivated soils the ground is prepared and then
the crop is harvested. There are few plant remains
left to decompose and replace the minerals taken
Plants need a number of minerals. The plant up into the plant body. Levels of minerals such
uses minerals to make food molecules such as as nitrate and phosphate fall, so farmers add
amino acids, proteins and nucleic acids out of
these back in the form of fertilisers. These may
the carbohydrates made by photosynthesis (see
be natural fertilisers, such as sewage sludge,
page 46). Plants absorb minerals from the soil in
animal manure or compost, or they may be
the form of ions. The mechanism of ion uptake is
artificial fertilisers. The most common artificial
described on page 88. Here we shall consider why
fertiliser is NPK fertiliser which contains three
the ions are required, and how scientists might
main nutrients – nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and
work out the function of each different mineral
potassium (K). The role of some of these minerals,
nutrient.
and the effect on the plant of mineral deficiencies,
Minerals in soil is shown in the diagram on the opposite page.
The minerals present in soil depend on the type of Providing these minerals is one of the most
rock beneath the soil and on the decomposition important aspects of preparing soil for agriculture.
of animal and plant remains lying on the soil.

Addition Removal

Carried in by
Uptake by plants to
flooding rivers.
build food molecules.

Decomposition of animal
and plant remains In cultivated soils, removal
(pages 250, 252). by these two processes is
Minerals in the soil
so great that minerals must
be added as fertilisers.
Breakdown of bed rock by
weathering, plant roots Leaching as ions dissolve
and burrowing animals. in rainwater running
through the soil.

▲ Minerals are added to the soil and also removed by natural processes
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Problems with fertilisers

Excessive use of fertilisers can cause problems of
eutrophication (see page 274). The fertiliser runs off Nitrogen probably has the
into nearby streams, rivers and lakes and boosts the greatest effect on plant growth.
Farmers use expensive NPK
growth of algae. As algae die, they are decomposed by fertilisers to replace nitrogen
bacteria, which use all of the oxygen dissolved in the removed from the soil when
crops are harvested.
water for aerobic respiration. As a result, the water
becomes oxygen deficient, and larger animals such as
fish and insects die.

Magnesium is absorbed from Leaves turn

the soil as magnesium ions
(Mg2+). Magnesium forms part
pale green
or yellow.
Q
of the chlorophyll molecule. 1 Copy and complete the following
Deficiency causes chlorosis – paragraph.
the leaves turn yellow, Roots
usually from the bottom of normal. Plants require minerals such as
the plant first. for protein synthesis and for the
production of chlorophyll. The
minerals are absorbed in the form of
Nitrogen is absorbed from the Leaves
soil as nitrate ions (NO3– ) or pale. by the process of , which is
ammonium ions (NH4+ ). passive, and , which requires
Because nitrogen is required Lower energy.
for so many food molecules, leaves
especially proteins (including dead. Absorption is made easier because
enzymes), deficiency causes Roots only the have an enormous surface
severe symptoms. The whole slightly area.
plant is stunted, with a weak affected.
stem and yellowing, dying
leaves.
▲ Plant growth and mineral deficiencies

INVESTIGATION OF PLANTS AND MINERALS

The apparatus shown on the right can be used to investigate the effects Plant – a cereal such as grass
is usually chosen because growth
of mineral deficiencies on plant growth. Cereal plants of equal age and is rapid.
size are grown in a series of culture solutions. One of the solutions
contains all known mineral nutrients in the correct proportions; each of
the others is missing a single mineral. All the vessels are placed in
identical conditions of temperature and light intensity, and the plants Cotton wool
are allowed to grow for equal lengths of time. support for plant.

1 Why is the vessel surrounded by black paper? Glass vessel with

2 The bubbled air supply provides oxygen to the roots. Why might this black paper cover.

be important in mineral uptake?

3 What is the independent variable in this investigation, and what is
the dependent variable?
4 Suggest some fixed variables, and state how you would attempt to Culture solution –
minerals dissolved
control them.
in distilled water.
5 Cereal plants such as grasses are useful in this sort of investigation,
because many identical plants can be obtained from a single clump.
Why is this important in providing valid data?
6 The plant nutrients used in this investigation are supplied as salts.
How could you make up a culture solution that is only lacking a Air supply – provides oxygen
to roots, and bubbles keep
single element? culture solution well mixed.

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 Questions on photosynthesis and
O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

plant nutrition
1 What is the green pigment which absorbs light 4 The diagram below shows a simplified diagram
energy for photosynthesis called? of a section through the green part of a leaf.
A Haemoglobin
B Chlorophyll
C Keratin
D Chloroplast [1]
2 Starch produced during photosynthesis Palisade layer
can be detected by which solution?
A Biuret solution
B Benedict’s solution
C Iodine solution
D DCPIP [1]
3 A plant with variegated (green and white) leaves
Spongy layer
was destarched. Part of one leaf was covered
on both sides with black paper as shown in
the diagram below. The plant was left in bright
light for 8 hours. The leaf was then detached
and tested for the presence of starch.

a Count the number of chloroplasts that you

can see in each of the cells of the palisade
and spongy layers.
i Calculate the mean number of
chloroplasts per cell in each layer.
Show your working. [4]
ii Suggest an explanation for your results. [2]
b i Use the scale on the diagram to calculate
the thickness of the leaf.
Show your working. [2]
ii Explain how this leaf shape is important
a Explain for photosynthesis. [2]
i how you would destarch the plant [1] 5 A student investigated the effect of varying the
ii why destarching is necessary. [1] light intensity on the rate of photosynthesis
b Describe how the green pigment can using the apparatus shown below.
be removed from the leaf before testing
Scale
for starch. [1]
c Redraw the leaf to show how it would
appear after testing for starch. State the
colours you would see in different parts
of the leaf. [2]

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a State how the student would: Hydrogencarbonate indicator is affected by the

i vary the light intensity [2] concentration of carbon dioxide.
ii determine the rate of photosynthesis [2] CO2 levels decrease CO2 levels increase
Purple Red Yellow
iii maintain a constant temperature and Bicarbonate indicator
constant carbon dioxide concentration
a Suggest the likely colour of the indicator in
throughout the investigation. [4]
tubes A and B. [2]
b The results for the experiment are shown in
b Explain any differences in colour between
the table below.
tubes A and E. [2]
Light intensity / Distance moved by bubble c Explain any differences between the colour
arbitrary units in the 4 min period / mm of the solution in tubes B and D. [2]
0.5 0 d Explain why tubes C and G were included
1.0 6 in the investigation. [1]
2.0 18 7 Two groups of seedlings were grown in
3.0 30 solutions that were deficient in two ions that
4.0 42 plants need. Group M was grown without
5.0 54 nitrate ions; group N was grown without
magnesium ions. Group O received all the ions
Using the term limiting factors,
that plants require. The results are shown in the
describe and explain the results shown
table below.
in this table. [4]
6 A group of students carried out an investigation Seedling Colour of leaves Growth
on the effects of photosynthesis and respiration group
on the environment. They set up eight boiling M yellow (especially the reduced growth but not
tubes as shown below. lower leaves) as much as seedlings in
group N
N lower leaves – yellow severely reduced growth
upper leaves – pale
green
O green normal growth

a Explain the effects of the deficiencies

of nitrate ions and magnesium ions as
shown in the table. [2]
b Suggest why it was necessary to include
the seedlings in group O. [2]

Tubes A–D were kept in bright light and tubes

E–H in the dark for 3 hours. After this time,
red hydrogencarbonate indicator was added to
each of the tubes.

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7.1 The
1.2 Foodvariety
and the ideal diet:
of life
carbohydrates, lipids and proteins
OBJECTIVES
■ To understand why organisms require food (see page 38). A balanced diet should contain the
■ To list the constituents of an ideal diet correct proportions of carbohydrates, lipids,
■ To know the functions of each component proteins, vitamins and minerals, water and
of an ideal diet dietary fibre. We shall look at each in turn.

Food An adequate diet provides sufficient energy for the performance

All living organisms are made up of molecules, of metabolic work, although the ‘energy’ could be in any form.
organised so that they can carry out the A balanced diet provides all dietary requirements in the correct
characteristics of life. Food supplies them with: proportions. Ideally this would be 1/7 fat, 1/7 protein and 5/7
carbohydrate.
■ molecules that are the raw materials for repair,
In conditions of undernutrition the first concern is usually
growth and development of the body tissues provision of an adequate diet, but to avoid symptoms of
■ molecules that can be oxidised in respiration, malnutrition a balanced diet must be provided.
and act as a source of energy
■ elements and compounds that enable the raw
CARBOHYDRATE
materials and energy to be used efficiently.
All living organisms need food, but some, green
PROTEIN
plants in particular, can make their own organic
molecules. These organisms are said to be
FAT
autotrophic (or ‘self-feeding’). Green plants use a
form of autotrophic nutrition called photosynthesis
to supply them with all the organic molecules they WATER
need (see page 46). Other organisms cannot make
their own food, and must take in food molecules VITAMINS
from their surroundings. These molecules have been
made by another organism, so living things that MINERALS
feed in this way are said to be heterotrophic (or
‘other feeding’). Humans, like all animals, are totally FIBRE
dependent on other organisms for their food.

A balanced diet
The total of the molecules or nutrients that Q
we need is called the diet. A balanced diet 1 Give three reasons why living organisms need food.
provides all the nutrients, in the correct amounts, 2 Write one sentence to explain the difference
needed to carry out the life processes. If the between autotrophic and heterotrophic nutrition.
diet does not provide all the nutrients in the 3 What is a balanced diet?
correct proportions, a person may suffer from 4 List the main energy foods for humans.
malnutrition (see page 68, for example). 5 State four functions of proteins, using particular
examples to illustrate your answer.
Food can be analysed to find out what chemicals
it contains using quite simple chemical techniques.

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Carbohydrates, lipids and proteins: three food types

Good source Functions in humans Comments

Carbohydrates

Rice, potatoes, wheat (e.g. pasta) and other A source of energy. Glucose is oxidised in Carbohydrates are digested in the mouth and
cereals provide starch. Food sweetenings, respiration (see page 122) to release small intestine and absorbed as glucose.
such as those in desserts, sweets and soft energy for active transport, cell division, Refined sugars are absorbed very rapidly,
drinks, and preservatives provide refined muscle contraction and the manufacture of giving a sudden boost of ‘energy source’.
sugars, such as sucrose (cane sugar) large biological molecules. Excess Starch is digested and absorbed more slowly,
and glucose. carbohydrate can be stored as glycogen giving a steady supply of energy: starches are
(see page 148) and as fat. called slow-release carbohydrates.

Lipids

Meat and animal foods (eggs, milk, cheese) Fats and oils are an important source of Fats and oils are digested in the small
are rich in saturated fats and cholesterol. energy (see page 62). They are especially intestine and absorbed as fatty acids and
Plant sources such as sunflower seeds and valuable as an energy store because they glycerol. Some lipids contain saturated
peanuts are rich in unsaturated fats. are insoluble in water. They also provide fatty acids and others contain unsaturated
insulation – electrical insulation around fatty acids (with at least one carbon–carbon
nerve cells (see page 156) and thermal double bond). The body can store unlimited
insulation beneath the skin (page 146) – and amounts of fat, contributing to obesity (see
form part of cell membranes. Steroid page 68). The incorrect balance of saturated
hormones, including sex hormones, are and unsaturated fatty acids, or an excess of
made from cholesterol. cholesterol, can cause diseases of the
circulation (see page 106).

Proteins

Meat, fish, eggs from animals, and legumes Many functions, including Digested in the stomach and small intestine,
(peas and beans) and pulses from plants. One ■ enzymes (catalysts) (page 40) and absorbed as amino acids. Twenty different
of the best sources of protein is the soya bean. ■ transport molecules, such as amino acids are needed to make up all of the
This contains very little fat (unlike most animal haemoglobin (page 96) different proteins in the human body. Some of
sources) and so is suitable for people with ■ structural materials, as in muscles these must be supplied in the diet as the body
health problems caused by fat (see page 106). (page 124) cannot make them – these are the essential
Soya beans can be flavoured and textured to ■ hormones, such as insulin (page 148) amino acids. Proteins from animal sources
make them taste and feel like meat – this ■ in defence against disease, such as usually contain all 20 amino acids, but plant
textured vegetable protein is used as antibodies (page 118) proteins often lack one or two of the essential
‘artificial’ meat. Mycoprotein is also a amino acids. Deficiency of protein causes poor
low-fat substitute for meat derived from fungi. growth – in extreme cases it may cause
marasmus or kwashiorkor (see page 69).

Essential amino acids – cry baby

i
One factor that determines how comfortable babies
feel is the supply of a ‘pleasure chemical’, called 100
serotonin, in the brain (see neurotransmitters, page 155). 80
Percentage

An essential amino acid called lysine is needed to make 60

serotonin. Lysine is in short supply in some artificial 40
milks. Babies fed on these milk substitutes can’t 20
manufacture enough serotonin, they feel uncomfortable 0
es ilk as an
s e ur at gs ef ns se
and they cccrrryyy! Natural mother’s milk contains
ato M Pe Be Ric flo he Eg Be bea hee
ot e e w
an adequate supply of lysine. P hit hol our ya C
W W fl So
Vegetarians must ensure that their diet contains a wide
range of protein sources because very few plants contain Key
all the essential amino acids. An ideal vegetarian meal % protein in the food % essential amino acids in the protein
containing all the essential amino acids is baked beans
on toast (which also contains a high proportion of ▲ The protein values of some common foods
dietary fibre).
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7.2 The
1.2 Food and the
variety ideal diet: vitamins,
of life
minerals, water and fibre
OBJECTIVES
■ To list the constituents of an Vitamins and minerals
ideal diet Vitamins and minerals are essential for the body to be able to use
■ To know the functions of each the other nutrients efficiently. They are needed in only very small
component of an ideal diet amounts. There are many different vitamins and minerals, and
they are usually provided in the foods of a balanced diet.

Vitamins
Water-soluble Food source Symptoms of deficiency Comments
C (ascorbic acid) Cherries, citrus fruits e.g. limes, Scurvy – production of collagen Vitamin C also seems to protect cells
lemons, oranges, and fresh green fibres in the body is affected. from ageing.
leafy vegetables
Fat-soluble Food source Symptoms of deficiency Comments
D (calciferol) Liver, dairy products, eggs, Rickets – bones are soft and may Can be made by the body, just under
fish liver oil bend, because vitamin D is needed the skin, but only if there is plenty of
for the absorption of calcium. sunlight.

Minerals
Food source Symptoms of deficiency Comments
Iron Red meat, liver, some leafy Anaemia – iron is needed to Iron is added to foods when metal
vegetables, e.g. spinach produce haemoglobin for red utensils are used in cooking – the
blood cells. A shortage causes amount of iron in a piece of beef is
weakness as oxygen needed for doubled when the meat is minced in
respiration cannot be transported an iron mincer ready for making
efficiently. burgers!
Calcium Milk, cheese and fish Several problems Calcium shortage causes rickets,
■ weak bones and teeth the same deficiency disease caused
■ poor clotting of blood by insufficient vitamin D.
■ uncontrolled muscle
contractions (‘spasms’).

Water
Water forms about 70% of the human body. Two-thirds of
this water is in the cytoplasm of cells, and the other third is in
tissue fluid and blood plasma. Humans lose about 1.5 litres of
water each day, in urine, faeces, exhaled air and sweat – this
must be replaced. It is obtained in three main ways:
■ as a drink
■ in food, especially salad foods such as tomatoes and lettuce
■ from metabolic processes (look at the equation for aerobic
respiration on page 123 – water is one of the products).

A loss of only 5% of the body’s water can lead to unconsciousness,

and a loss of 10% would be fatal. We shall look further at how the
64 body conserves water on page 140.
 O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

Fibre Summary of a balanced diet

Dietary fibre is the indigestible part Fats, oils and
of food, largely cellulose from plant sweets group
Eat sparingly
cell walls, which provides bulk for
the faeces. Plenty of fibre in the diet Milk, yogurt and
cheese group
stretches the muscles of the gut wall 2–3 servings Meat, poultry,
and helps push the food along by fish, pulses, eggs
peristalsis (see page 76). A shortage and nuts group
2–3 servings
of fibre can cause constipation, and Vegetable group
may be a factor in the development of 3–5 servings

bowel cancer. Fruit group

2–4 servings
Bread, cereal, rice
and pasta group
6–11 servings

Key

Fat (naturally occurring and added to food)

Sugars (added to food)

▲ Food guide pyramid: choosing to eat these amounts of

different kinds of foods each day provides a balanced diet.
People choosing a vegetarian or vegan diet need to adjust
this scheme. They may choose to eliminate meat, fish and
poultry, for example, but will then need to replace them with
alternative sources of protein.
Q
1 Table 1 shows the composition and energy content of four common foods.

Food Energy content / Composition per 100g

kJ per g
Protein / g Fat / g Carbohydrate / g Vitamin C / mg Vitamin D / μg Iron / mg
A 3700 0.5 80 0 0 40 0
B 150 1.2 0.6 7 200 0 0
C 400 2.0 0.2 25 10 0 8
D 1200 9.0 1.5 60 0 0 0

▲ Table 1
a Which food would be best to prevent rickets? Explain your answer.
b Which food would be best for a young person training for cross-country running? Explain your answer.
c Which food would be most needed by a menstruating woman? Explain your answer.
d Which food would be the most useful to a body-builder? Explain your answer.
e Which food would be most dangerous for a person with heart disease? Explain your answer.

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7.3 The
1.2 Food is theoffuel
variety life that drives the
processes of life
OBJECTIVES
To suction pump
■ To know that food has an energy value Thermometer
■ To know how to calculate the energy value of different
foods
■ To understand that different people have different
demands for energy

Lid
Measuring the energy in food
Water
Energy is released from food by respiration,
which is an oxidation process, similar in some Stirrer
ways to combustion – if food is combusted Coil – heat from
(burned), it releases energy, mainly as heat. We the food is
can work out the energy value of any particular transferred to
the water
type of food by assuming that respiration releases through this.
the same amount of energy in total as combustion
does. The energy value is found using a food Crucible
containing food
calorimeter or bomb calorimeter, shown in
the diagram opposite. A weighed sample of Heat-proof base
food is completely burned in an atmosphere of
oxygen. The heat released by this combustion is
transferred to a known volume of water, which To heating element Oxygen in here
rises in temperature as a result. The energy value for igniting the food
of the food can be calculated as follows:

temperature volume of Units of energy

i
× water / cm3
energy value of food rise / °C
__________________________ The SI unit of energy is the joule (J). The
=
in calories per gram mass of food sample / g amount of energy contained in food is measured
energy value in in either joules (J) or calories (cal).
energy value in calories per gram 1000 J = 1 kJ (kilojoule) 1000 cal = 1 kcal
= _________________ × 4.2 (kilocalorie)
kilojoules per gram 1000
A calorie is an older unit of energy that is still
often used. A calorie is the amount of energy
Energy values of different foods needed to raise the temperature of 1 cm3 of
The three main energy-providing organic water by 1°C.
1 calorie = 4.2 joules
molecules found in food are fats, carbohydrates
Joules and calories are small amounts of energy
and proteins. Each has a different energy value:
so kilojoules and kilocalories are more frequently
Fats 39 kJ per g used to describe the energy values of foods.
Proteins 20 kJ per g In popular nutrition guides, the calories referred
Carbohydrates 17 kJ per g to are actually kilocalories and are often spelt
Carbohydrates provide most of our energy, not Cal, with a capital C.
because there is most energy available per gram in The energy content information given on the
carbohydrates, but because we eat more grams of packaging of many foods has been calculated
by burning a sample of the food in a food
carbohydrates than of proteins or fats.
calorimeter.
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Our energy requirements

The total of all the chemical reactions in the body energy requirement
= BMR + activity
per day
is called metabolism. It is driven by the energy
from respiration, so the amount of energy needed
depends on how many metabolic reactions a The bar chart below illustrates the energy demands
person is carrying out. The amount of metabolism for different people. Three factors affect the body’s
depends on several factors: energy requirements – age, sex and occupation.
■ The processes required simply to stay alive.
20 000
These processes include breathing, excretion,
18 000

Energy demand / kJ per day

thinking and keeping a constant body 16 000
temperature. The energy consumed in one day 14 000
S
by these processes is called the basal metabolic 12 000
rate (BMR). The BMR is different for males and 10 000
8000
females, and gets less as a person gets older.
6000
■ The amount of activity or exercise – this 4000
requires muscular work and extra temperature 2000
regulation. This energy demand can be very 0
r r r
ng in
g ng ke ke ke nt in
g
little (in a sedentary office worker, for example) epi lay n ni or or or na ed
sle ;p ru w w w eg tf e
or very great (in a road worker, for example). ; 8 ; ce a d c e ; pr as
rn 17 ffi ro ffi 25 re
bo 5;
o 5; 0;
o ; b
■ Pregnant and breastfeeding women use more ew 2 2 6 25
N
energy than many other women of the same Age / years; activity
age and occupation. A fetus or baby needs
energy for growth (as well as extra iron, Key
calcium and protein). ▲ Energy requirements for
Male Female
different people

Q
1 Table 1 shows the daily energy needs of different Use the following data and the formula to work out the
people. Table 2 shows the energy content of four foods. number of joules released from 1 gram of food which
a What is the daily energy need for an active caused the rise in temperature of the water.
8-year-old boy? Mass of water = 20 g
b How many grams of Food 3 would meet the energy Temperature rise = 18°C
needs of a male office worker? Mass of food = 2 g
c How much more energy does a labourer need than
a male office worker each day? Show your working. Person Occupation Daily energy
d i From the foods given in Table 2, which ONE need / kJ
would be the best for the labourer to eat? Give a
Active girl aged 8 years Schoolgirl 8 000
reason for your choice.
ii If the labourer ate only the food you have Active boy aged 8 years Schoolboy 8 400
suggested in your answer to i, what is the least Woman Office worker 9 500
amount he should eat to meet his daily energy
Man Office worker 10 500
need? Show your working.
e The heat energy in foods can be measured Active girl aged 15 years School girl 11 800
experimentally by burning food under a known mass Active boy aged 15 years School boy 14 700
of water. The temperature rise of the water is
Man Labourer 18 900
recorded. The number of joules received by the water
from 1 gram of food can be calculated using the
▲ Table 1
following formula:
Heat gained by water from Y grams of food
mass of water × temperature rise × 4.2 Food 1 2 3 4
= __________________________________ J per g
Y Energy content / kJ per 100 g 3 800 130 1 050 400

▲ Table 2

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7.4 The
1.2 Balancing energy
variety of life intake and
energy demand: problems
causing malnutrition*
OBJECTIVES Storing excess food: overnutrition
The body can store a limited amount of glycogen,
■ To understand that different people have different
which allows the body to continue working even
demands for energy
if the last meal was some time ago. However, the
■ To understand that energy intake must be balanced by
body can store an almost unlimited amount of fat
energy use
to help the body survive periods without food. Our
food intake should not be so great that we store an
Malnutrition means literally ‘bad feeding’. This unhealthy amount of fat.
‘bad feeding’ could include:
■ eating too much of all foods, so having a
balanced diet but consuming more than is
needed
■ having too little food
■ eating foods in the wrong proportions, for
example, gaining too many kilojoules from fats
and too few from carbohydrates.

Too much energy

The need for energy is related to age, sex and
activity.
If the diet contains more energy than the body
needs, the excess will be stored as glycogen or ▲ A person whose fat storage is beyond a healthy limit is
fat; if it contains less energy than the body needs, said to be obese
then the body’s own tissues will be broken down
to be respired. The diagram below shows the The ‘ideal’ body mass differs from person to
importance of an energy balance. person, and depends on height and age. A
person who is obese is at risk from a number
Gain in of life-shortening diseases, including diabetes,
body mass
breathing difficulties, atherosclerosis
Demand exceeds Loss in
intake body mass
(narrowing of the arteries) and arthritis.
Obesity is one of the most widespread results of
Intake exceeds
demand malnutrition in the western world. The recent
COVID-19 pandemic has shown that obesity is
also a risk factor for infected individuals – they
are less likely to recover from treatment in
Lunchtime
intensive care.

A ‘couch
h potato’ h has a poo
poor An athlete must take care that
diet and takes little exercise. a balance is achieved between
exercise and eating.

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Losing body mass This child has kwashiorkor.

The absence of protein
The energy balance diagram shows that to lose
means that muscle
body mass, it is necessary to reduce energy intake
development is very slow,
below energy use. This can be done in two ways: and the limbs have a stick-
■ by eating less ‘high-energy’ food, which will like appearance. The swollen
reduce the energy intake abdomen is caused largely by
water from the blood plasma
■ by taking more exercise, which will increase
remaining behind in the
the energy use. body tissues. The liver is also
swollen because it is working
The best approach is to combine both methods,
hard to make the proteins
controlling the diet and also taking more exercise. needed by the body from an
Many people who rely on diet alone have great inadequate dietary supply.
difficulty in controlling their body mass.

S Malnutrition can also mean

undernutrition: too little food
In the developing countries of the world, many
people have diets which are neither adequate
nor balanced. In other words, they do not receive
enough energy to drive metabolism, nor do they
take in the nutrients they need for growth and
development. These people, often children, suffer
from many deficiency diseases – shortage of iron
means they are often anaemic, and a limited
supply of vitamin C means that many of them have
scurvy, for example. The most obvious signs of
Marasmus is caused
their malnourished state, however, are often caused by insufficient levels of
by protein deficiency. There are two extremes of all nutrients in the diet
protein deficiency – kwashiorkor and marasmus.

Kwashiorkor
S Causes and treatments
In kwashiorkor, the child may not have received Kwashiorkor and marasmus are both serious
enough of its mother’s milk (often because another conditions. They are common in countries where
child has been born) and may be forced onto a diet drought conditions have led to poor harvests, or
that is too high in carbohydrate (often maize). As where people have left their homes because of
a result the child may eat enough ‘energy’ food, civil war. Aid offered to these people must include
but because the diet is poor in protein when its both energy foods and the nutrients needed
body should be developing quickly, the mental and for growth. Powdered milk is often provided,
physical development of the child may be impaired. because it is light and easy to transport. However,
Marasmus it must be rehydrated with clean water otherwise
In marasmus, the child has symptoms of general water-borne diseases such as cholera may result.
starvation – there is not enough ‘energy’ food nor There is more information on famine and its
enough protein. All the body tissues waste away, and causes on page 268.
the child becomes very thin with a wrinkled skin.

Q
1 True or false?
a A person suffering from malnutrition is has too little protein in their diet.
b Arthritis is more common in obese people because their diet contains too much fat. 69
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7.5 The
1.2 More aboutofmalnutrition*
variety life
OBJECTIVES ENERGY IN FOOD
■ To understand that malnutrition might not be the same A class of students used the apparatus shown here to
as undernutrition investigate the energy content of a peanut.
■ To name and explain some examples of malnutrition in They first recorded the temperature of the water (T1)
the developed world and weighed the nut. The nut was held in a Bunsen
burner flame until it caught fire, and then placed
under the boiling tube.

Malnutrition in the developed world The students recorded the maximum temperature the
As well as the problem of obesity, caused by water reached (T2), and then repeated the
experiment twice more. A typical set of results from
taking in more energy than is needed for the
one pair of students is shown in the table in Q1
body’s metabolism and activity, there are other opposite.
problems caused by an unbalanced diet for many
people in developed countries. These problems,
and the ‘unbalanced diet’ that causes them, are Boiling tube

outlined in the figure opposite.

Pregnant and breastfeeding women may show
signs of deficiency of calcium (rickets) or iron
(anaemia). Some women who cover their bodies 20 cm3
completely may not receive enough sunlight to of water
produce vitamin D in their skin, and so may suffer
Burning peanut
from rickets.
Dangers of an unbalanced diet
High blood pressure
Too much salt in the diet can
cause water to be drawn into
the blood and blood pressure
to rise, eventually damaging
delicate blood vessels (page 102)
including those in the brain.

Tooth decay
A diet with a high content of
acidic, sugary foods can cause
damage to tooth enamel and
dentine (see page 75).

Coronary heart disease

Too much saturated fat and
cholesterol can cause blockage
to blood vessels supplying oxygen
to heart muscle (page 106).

Constipation and bowel cancer

Too little fibre means that faeces
Don’t forget obesity!
are not passed as regularly as they
Too many kilojoules – the
should be – the person is constipated.
most common problem
of undernutrition in the Bacteria can work on some of the
developed world trapped faeces and release chemicals
(see page 68)! that cause colon (large bowel) cancer.
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Q
1 a Copy and complete the table of results.
b Add a further column and include the energy value of the peanut in kJ per g.
c Calculate the mean energy value of the peanut as found by these students. Why is the mean value more valid
than any single value that they obtained?
d Can you suggest any improvements to the apparatus so that the students’ value might be closer to the
‘professional’ one (24.5 kJ per g)? Redraw the apparatus showing your suggestions.
e What features of the method helped to improve the validity of the results? How could the students have treated
the results differently to improve their validity further?

T1 / °C T2 / °C T2 − T1 / °C Volume of Energy transferred Mass of nut / g Energy value /

water / cm3 to water / kcal kcal per g
22 78 0.45
22 74 0.52
21 75 0.47

2 An absence of what from the diet causes the disease kwashiorkor?

A Fat
B Fibre
C Sugars
D Protein
3 Poor diet can lead to bad health.
Match each fact about diet with the harm it may cause. Write the letter and number to show your answer, for
example, a–4.

Fact about diet Harm caused

a too much salt 1 constipation
b too little iron 2 high blood pressure
c too much fat 3 slow growth of muscles
d not enough fibre 4 anaemia
e too little protein 5 hardening of the arteries

4 Scientists recommend that we eat more fibre in our diet. 400

They have compared the intake of fibre with the chance of Nigeria
developing cancer of the colon. 350
The scatter graph at the right shows their results.
Amount of fibre eaten / g per day

a State which country has the largest proportion of people 300

with colon cancer.
b Calculate how much more likely a person from the UK is 250
to have colon cancer than a person from Nigeria. Show Sweden
your working. 200
c State which two of the following foods are good sources
France
of fibre: 150
Germany
wholemeal bread cheese chocolate
UK
apples eggs pizza 100
USA

50
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Number of people per 100 000
of population with colon cancer

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7.6 The
1.2 Human nutrition
variety of life converts food
molecules to a usable form
OBJECTIVES
must be changed into a form that can cross the
■ To know that the process of nutrition involves
gut wall and then be transported to the places
several stages
where they will be used or stored. The processes of
■ To know the basic layout of the human alimentary canal
nutrition are described in the diagram below.
Definition: nutrition is the taking in of nutrients The alimentary canal is highly specialised in
which are organic substances and mineral ions, humans. The food molecules are converted to a
then absorbing and assimilating them. usable form in a clear sequence, with each part
of the gut being adapted to carry out particular
Nutrition involves a sequence functions. The layout of the alimentary canal is
of processes shown in the diagram opposite, and we shall see
Living things obtain food molecules from the how its organs work in the next few pages.
environment. These molecules are not usually
exactly the same as the biological molecules the Q
organism needs to carry out its life processes.
1 List, in their correct sequence, the processes that
The processes of nutrition convert the food make up nutrition.
molecules into a form that can be used by the 2 What is the difference between the following?
organism. In humans and many other animals, a chemical and mechanical digestion
these processes take place in the alimentary canal b absorption and assimilation
(sometimes called the gut). The alimentary canal c egestion and excretion
is a specialised tube running from the front of the 3 Why are the epiglottis and the soft palate important
animal (starting at its mouth) to the rear (ending at in efficient feeding?
its anus). While the food is inside the tube it is not 4 Name three glands that add juices to the alimentary
available to the body tissues. The food molecules canal.

Nutrition is a sequence of Nutrition begins when food

and drink is taken into the
processes involving ingestion,
body through the mouth – ingestion.
digestion, absorption and egestion Mouth
The teeth and tongue break the Food
food into small pieces without
chemical change to the food molecules –
mechanical digestion.
Enzymes break down large, insoluble
molecules in the food to small,
water-soluble molecules – chemical digestion.
Digestive
Small digested food molecules enzymes
and ions cross the wall of the
intestine into the bloodstream Gut
Digested
or lymph – absorption.
food
Digested food is moved into the cells of
the body, where they become part of the
cells and are used for energy, growth and
repair – assimilation.
Anus
Faeces

Dietary fibre and other

indigestible substances pass
out through the anus – egestion.
Some excretory materials are
added to egested substances
72 and expelled from the body as
faeces during defaecation.
 O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

Mouth – here food enters

the alimentary canal. It is
converted to a bolus of
food – produced by teeth,
tongue and saliva during
Salivary glands – three
mastication (see page 74)
pairs, produce saliva and
– ready for swallowing.
pour it into the mouth
through salivary ducts. Ileum – longest part of the
small intestine, where
Oesophagus – muscular digested food is absorbed
INGESTION

tube which helps food move into the blood and

to stomach by peristalsis. lymphatic system.

Liver – produces bile, which

helps to neutralise acidic Diarrhoea is the loss of watery
chyme and also emulsifies faeces. This occurs if water is
fats. Important in assimilation. not reabsorbed by the walls
of the small and large intestine.
DIGESTION

S Cholera is a bacterial disease

Stomach – muscular bag
that affects water reabsorption.
which stores food for a The bacterium releases a toxin that
short time, and mixes food
increases secretion of chloride
with acidic digestive juices ions into the small intestine,
to form the creamy liquid causing loss of water by osmosis.
called chyme. prevents reuptake of water
and chloride ions.
Gall bladder – stores
A person suffering from diarrhoea
ABSORPTION

bile before pouring it

can be treated by ORT (oral
into the duodenum
rehydration therapy) – drinking a
through the bile duct.
mixture of water and mineral salts.
Duodenum – first part of
the small intestine, where
semi-liquid food is mixed
Large intestine – (wider
with pancreatic juice
and bile. than the small intestine).
The colon is part of the
EGESTION

large intestine. It reabsorbs

Pancreas – produces water from gut contents;
pancreatic juice (contains also absorbs some vitamins
enzymes, mucus and and minerals.
hydrogencarbonate which
neutralises acidic chyme),
which is poured into the Rectum – stores faeces before
small intestine thr ough the expelling them at a convenient
pancreatic duct. time.

Anus – exit for faeces;

defaecation is controlled
by two anal sphincters.
Constipation (the inability to
expel the faeces) can result if
there is not enough fibre in
the diet. The faeces become
too dry and hard to pass easily
out of the rectum.

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7.7 The
1.2 Ingestion
varietyprovides
of life food for the
gut to work on
OBJECTIVE
■ To understand the part played by teeth and the tongue The teeth in the skull
in preparing food for the alimentary canal

Mastication produces a bolus

The first stage in processing food for use by the Upper jaw

organism is taking the food into the gut. Once the

Incisors – for
food has been caught or collected, and perhaps
cutting and biting Lower jaw
cooked or processed in some other way, it is placed (mandible)
in the mouth. Here it is cut up by the teeth, and
Canines – for Premolars – for Molars (third one is
the pieces are mixed with saliva by the tongue. holding and chewing and crushing hidden) – for chewing
This cutting and mixing is called mastication cutting and crushing
(chewing), and produces a ball of food called a
Side view of the four types of tooth
bolus. The bolus is swallowed and passed on to the
next parts of the gut. The teeth play an important Crown
role in chewing, and it should be no surprise that:
Root
■ the structure of a tooth is closely related
to its function
Incisor Canine Premolar Molar
■ there are different types of teeth adapted
to deal with all types of food. Surface view of the lower jaw

Human teeth and their function

The structure and function of a human tooth are 3 molars
shown in the diagram below. This type of tooth is
called a molar, found towards the back of the jaw.
The diagram above right shows the four different 2 premolars 1 canine

types of human teeth, and the part each of them 2 incisors

plays in mastication.
Enamel – the hardest
Dentine – forms the major part of the tooth. Harder
tissue in the body. Produced
than bone and made of calcium salts deposited on a
by tooth-forming cells and Crown framework of collagen fibres. The dentine contains a
made of calcium salts. Once
series of fine canals which extend to the pulp cavity.
formed, enamel cannot be
renewed or extended. Neck
Gum – usually covers the junction between enamel
Cement – similar in and cement. The gums recede with age.
composition to dentine,
but without any canals. Membrane – bundles of collagen fibres,
Root
It helps anchor the tooth anchoring the cement covering of the tooth to the
embedded
to the jaw. jawbone. The tooth is held firmly but not rigidly. The
in jawbone
membrane has many nerve endings which detect
pressures during chewing and biting.

Pulp cavity contains:

tooth-producing cells Vitamin C deficiency impairs production of
blood vessels collagen fibres, including those in the
nerve endings which membrane, so that the teeth become loose and
can detect pain. may fall out – a classic symptom of
74 scurvy (see page 64).
 O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

Two sets of teeth

Humans, like other mammals, have two sets of teeth during their
life. The first set is the milk dentition, which begins to grow through
the gums one or two teeth at a time at around five months old. By
about 18 months, most children have a set of 20 teeth – there are
fewer molars (‘cheek teeth’) than in an adult because the jaw is
too small to hold any more. Between the ages of 7 and 12 years
Decay begins in enamel – no pain.
these milk teeth fall out and are replaced by larger adult teeth.
Eight new cheek teeth are added, with a further four (the wisdom
teeth) appearing at the back of the jaw by about the age of 17 years.
The individual now has the complete adult or permanent dentition
of 32 teeth.

Western-style malnutrition may cause dental decay

i
Decay penetrates dentine and
A diet that provides too much energy can cause obesity (see page 68). Much
reaches pulp – severe toothache.
of this energy-rich food will be in the form of refined sugars such as sucrose
(cane sugar) which is used to sweeten many foods. These sugars may also
be used by bacteria in the mouth to carry out their own life processes.
The bacteria produce a sticky matrix which traps food particles and forms a
coating of plaque on the teeth. The bacteria in the plaque convert sugars in
the food to acids. These acids remove calcium and phosphate from the enamel,
allowing bacteria to reach the softer dentine beneath. This is the start of
dental decay or dental caries. The dentine decays rapidly and the pulp
cavity may become infected. The tooth will need dental treatment, as shown
in the diagrams on the left.
Bacteria now infect pulp and
Dental decay, and the gum disease that often goes along with it, can be
may form abscess at base of prevented by:
tooth – excruciating pain. ■ eating food with a low sugar content
■ avoiding drinking too many fizzy drinks – the acids in these drinks
damage tooth enamel
■ regular and effective brushing of teeth at least twice a day to prevent the
build-up of plaque – plaque begins to reform after about 24 hours
■ if brushing is not convenient, finishing a meal with a crisp vegetable or
fruit, followed by rinsing with water.

Decayed part of tooth

is drilled out by a dentist.
Q
1 How do we know that a tooth is a living structure?
2 Imagine yourself on a sailing ship several hundred years ago. Explain, simply,
why the sailors were losing their teeth.
3 a What is dental caries?
b How does it begin?
c Suggest two ways in which caries can be prevented or reduced.

Hole is filled with amalgam or

plastic, and may be coated with plastic.
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7.8 The
1.2 Digestion
varietyprepares
of life useful food
molecules for absorption
OBJECTIVES
The saliva also contains mucus, which lubricates
■ To know that digestion converts large insoluble
the food, and hydrogencarbonate, which provides
molecules into smaller, soluble molecules
the ideal conditions of pH (alkaline) for amylase
■ To understand that enzymes catalyse the breakdown
of food to work. The starch is not usually all converted to
■ To list examples of enzymes involved in digestion maltose in the mouth because the food does not
of carbohydrates, proteins and fats, and to know where remain there for very long.
they perform their tasks
Passing to the stomach
■ To understand that undigested food must be expelled
Mastication produces a bolus of food, as we saw on
from the gut
page 74. The tongue pushes the bolus to the back of
The diet contains three types of food molecule the mouth, and it is then swallowed (see opposite
in large amounts – carbohydrates, proteins and page) and enters the oesophagus. The oesophagus
fats. When ingested, these molecules may be or gullet is a muscular tube leading from the mouth
too large to cross the gut wall and too insoluble to the stomach. The bolus is forced down the
to be transported in the watery blood plasma. oesophagus more quickly than can be explained by
Digestion is the breakdown of large, insoluble gravity alone. (It is even possible to swallow food
food molecules into small, water-soluble when standing on your head!) Waves of muscular
molecules. Digestion uses mechanical (chewing) contraction push the bolus down towards the
and chemical (enzymatic) processes. stomach, as shown in the diagram below. These
waves of contraction are called peristalsis, and
Digestive enzymes they occur throughout the length of the gut. The
In digestion, food molecules are broken down by reason why fibre is important in the human diet
hydrolysis reactions (breakdown with water), is that without it the gut contents are very liquid,
catalysed by a series of enzymes. There are and the muscles of the gut cannot squeeze the food
different enzymes for the hydrolysis of each food along by peristalsis.
type; each enzyme works in different regions of
Cross-section of gut showing muscle layers
the gut. The basic process of hydrolysis is the
same for all the food molecules (see page 36): Longitudinal muscles
(running down length
of gut wall)
large, insoluble enzyme small, soluble
Circular muscles
molecule molecules
(running around
+ water the gut wall)

Carbohydrate digestion begins in Longitudinal section of gut showing peristalsis

the mouth Bolus Bolus is

moved along
The saliva contains an enzyme called salivary the gut.

amylase (a carbohydrase). This enzyme catalyses

the conversion of the insoluble polysaccharide
starch to the soluble, simpler sugar called maltose:

amylase
starch maltose Circular Circular Gut wall
muscles muscles
+ water relax contract

▲ Peristalsis is a wave of muscular contraction that moves

76 food along the gut. Mucus lubricates the bolus, helping it to
move along.
 O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

Protein digestion begins in the stomach

The swallowing reflex
i
The stomach is a muscular bag with a lining that
It is important that the bolus of food travels down the
contains digestive glands. These glands produce
oesophagus and not down the trachea (windpipe), or
three important secretions: it might block the trachea and prevent breathing. A
■ mucus, which protects the walls of the stomach flap of muscle, the epiglottis, is forced across the top
from attack by gastric (stomach) juices of the trachea whenever food is swallowed, ensuring
food does not enter the trachea. We don’t have to think
■ pepsin, a protease or protein-digesting enzyme
about this swallowing reflex, but it can be overruled if
■ hydrochloric acid, which provides the we try to eat and talk at the same time!
acidic conditions needed for the action of At the bottom of the oesophagus, just where it joins
pepsin and denatures the enzymes in harmful the stomach, is a ring of muscle called the cardiac
microorganisms ingested with food. sphincter. When the bolus reaches this sphincter, the
ring of muscle relaxes to allow the bolus through into
Inside the stomach the food is churned up with the stomach. If the stomach contents pass upwards
the gastric juices. The long protein molecules are through this sphincter and make contact with the wall
broken down by hydrolysis to smaller molecules of the oesophagus, they cause a burning sensation
called amino acids, as shown in the diagram below. known as ‘heartburn’. This can be treated using an
alkaline (‘antacid’) solution.

Bolus Soft palate

protease
+
hydrochloric
acid

+ water Nasal passage

Hard palate

Mouth cavity

Food
Protein Amino acids Tongue
The pH in the stomach is too low (too acidic) Epiglottis
Oesophagus
for the action of amylase, so the digestion of
Trachea
carbohydrate comes to a halt whilst the food is in
the stomach. The churning action of the stomach
muscles mixes the food into a creamy liquid
called chyme. Once the food is sufficiently liquid,
it squeezes past a ring of muscle at the foot of the
stomach, the pyloric sphincter, and enters the
duodenum, the first part of the small intestine.

pyloric sphincter

This X-ray was taken

after the patient swallowed
a barium meal. The barium
makes the stomach show Food bolus is moved
up on the X-ray. Food is down the oesophagus.
passing through the pyloric
sphincter. 77
 7.8 Digestion prepares useful food molecules for absorption

Digestion of food molecules is Water and digestion

completed in the small intestine The digestive juices are largely made up of
The liquid chyme contains partly digested food water – this is one of the major requirements
molecules. The digestion of these food molecules for water within the body. This water is the
is completed in the small intestine, using digestive solvent for the biochemical reactions of
juices which contain: digestion and is also used in the hydrolysis
■ enzymes from the pancreas reactions that split up the large, insoluble food
■ enzymes from the intestine wall molecules. The juices also contain mucus which
■ bile from the liver. protects the wall of the gut from being digested
by its own enzymes.
The enzymes from the pancreas carry out three
tasks – amylase completes the conversion of Egestion removes undigested food
starch to maltose, trypsin (another protease) Food may contain some molecules that cannot
completes the breakdown of proteins to amino be digested by the enzymes of the human gut.
acids, and lipase converts fats to fatty acids and Examples include substances in plant cells,
glycerol. These enzymes work best at around pH 8 such as the cellulose in cell walls and the
(slightly alkaline conditions), and the juice from lignin in wood. These make up ‘dietary fibre’
the pancreas also contains hydrogencarbonate (page 64). Water is first absorbed from the gut
which neutralises the acid coming through from contents that remain after digestion, and this
the stomach. indigestible food is then expelled. This process
is called egestion. Some excreted materials,
S Lipase is helped in its action by bile, which is made
such as salts in the bile, may be added to the
in the liver and stored in the gall bladder from
indigestible foods to form the faeces. The faeces
where it is released when needed. Bile emulsifies
are stored temporarily in the rectum. When full,
the fats – it converts them from large globules into
the rectum sets off a reflex action which causes
much smaller droplets, giving a greater surface area
its muscles to contract and squeeze the faeces
for the lipase to work on, as shown in the diagram.
out through the anus. Humans have a sphincter
Bile also contains hydrogencarbonate to help at the anus which can prevent this defaecation
neutralise the acid from the stomach. Enzymes happening at an inconvenient time! The control
on the wall of the small intestine include maltase, of this sphincter has to be learned – babies
which completes the breakdown of maltose to simply fill their nappies when the rectum is full.
glucose. All the starch has now been converted
to glucose. The table opposite lists the digestive ▼ Emulsification of fats provides a larger surface
juices and their actions. for lipase to act on

Bile salts
in bile

Large fat globule – Many small fat droplets –

relatively small surface area relatively large total surface area
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S Region of gut Digestive juice Enzymes Substrate Product(s) Other substances Function of
in juice other substances
Mouth Saliva from Salivary amylase Starch Maltose Hydrogencarbonate Alkaline (pH 7.5)
salivary glands environment
for amylase
Stomach Gastric juice from Pepsin (protease) Proteins Amino acids Hydrochloric acid Acidic (pH 2)
glands in wall of environment for
stomach pepsin; kills bacteria
Small intestine Pancreatic juice Pancreatic amylase Starch Maltose Hydrogencarbonate Neutralises chyme:
(duodenum) from pancreas Trypsin (a protease) Protein Amino acids alkaline environment
Lipase Emulsified fats Fatty acids for enzymes
and glycerol
Bile from liver None Bile salts Emulsifies fats –
(stored in gall converts globules
bladder) to smaller droplets
Hydrogencarbonate Neutralises chyme
Small intestine Intestinal juice Maltase on the Maltose Glucose
(ileum) from cells on villi surface membrane
of the epithelium
lining the small
intestine

▲ The human digestive juices and their actions: note how starch and proteins are broken down in several stages catalysed by
different enzymes

Q
1 In 1822, Alexis St Martin, a Canadian fur trapper, was controlled conditions. A similar piece of beef was
wounded in his left side by a shotgun blast. Luckily the suspended on a string into the man’s stomach.’
accident occurred close to an army fort where one of the i Suggest one condition around the vial that
surgeons, William Beaumont, was able to treat St Martin. Beaumont would have kept constant.
The wound healed very slowly, and left a small hole in the ii What control experiment should Beaumont have
side of the young man. Beaumont realised that this gave performed?
him a unique opportunity to study what was happening in iii Why did Beaumont use ‘boiled, salted beef’?
his patient’s stomach. c After two hours, Beaumont recorded the following
results: ‘Beef in vial – the cellular texture seemed to be
entirely destroyed, leaving the muscular fibres loose
and unconnected, floating about in fine, small shreds,
very tender and soft. Beef in stomach – I drew out the
string, but the meat was all completely digested and
A gone.’
Use your knowledge of digestion to explain the
B difference between the changes in the vial and those in
the stomach.
C
2 The liver produces a liquid which is added directly to the
partly digested food in the small intestine.
D
a Name the liquid.
b Describe how it helps digestion.
3 Describe, in the correct sequence, how the protein and
a Which letter on the outline above represents starch in a ham sandwich are broken down
the most likely position of the hole? ready for absorption.
b Beaumont described one of his investigations as 4 Digestive juices contain enzymes, water and some other
follows: ‘Juice was extracted from the stomach and substances. Name two of these other substances. State
placed in a small vial. A solid piece of boiled, which digestive juice contains them, and state what
recently salted beef weighing three drachms function they perform.
was added. The vial was corked and kept under

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7.9 The
1.2 Absorption
variety ofand
life assimilation make
food available
OBJECTIVES Absorption of the products of digestion
Enzymes in the gut convert large, insoluble molecules to small, soluble
■ To understand that digested food
molecules. These digested food molecules are transported across the
in the gut is still ‘outside’ the body
lining of the gut into the blood or lymph, a process called absorption.
■ To know how the small intestine
They can then be distributed to the parts of the body where they will
is adapted to the function of
absorption of digested food be used.
■ To understand the part played by Most absorption happens from the ileum, the lower part of the small
the liver in the assimilation and intestine. The ileum is very well adapted to perform this task:
distribution of absorbed foods ■ It is very long, about 6 m in an adult human, so food takes a long
time to pass through it, and there is enough time for absorption to
occur.
■ The surface of the ileum is highly folded, which gives a much
larger surface area for absorption than a simple tube would.

The lining of the ileum is folded into hundreds of thousands of tiny

finger-like structures, the villi, which project out into the liquid
digested food. The structure of a villus, and its adaptations to increase
absorption, are shown in the diagram below.
Following absorption in the small intestine, the contents of the gut
are mostly water and indigestible matter. After water absorption
in the ileum, most of the remaining water is reabsorbed into the
bloodstream from the colon, part of the large intestine. Some
minerals and vitamins are also absorbed here.

S Epithelium – only one cell thick so that there

is a short distance for absorption by active tr ansport
Each villus has tiny Basement and diffusion.
foldings called membrane
microvilli on its
Goblet cell – produces mucus which protects gut
surface which
lining against digestion by body’s own enzymes.
increase cell surface
area by 20 times.
Nucleus
Capillary – transports glucose (from carbohydrate
Goblet breakdown) and amino acids (from protein breakdown).
Mucus cell

Lacteal – transports fatty acids and glycerol (the

products of fat breakdown by the enzyme lipase).
Section of ileum Longitudinal muscle layer

Gland – lined with cells which produce

Circular
digestive enzymes including maltase.
muscle
layer
Vein – delivers absorbed products to
Villi the liver via the hepatic portal vein.

Artery – delivers blood to villi.

One villus
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The liver and assimilation

Digested food is absorbed into the bloodstream. Each type of absorbed food has a
particular function in the body, so it is important that food molecules of the right
type are available at the right time in the right place. The liver ‘sorts out’ digested
food molecules, and all foods absorbed into the capillaries of the villi are sent first to
the liver.

S The liver has many functions – at least 500 different biochemical reactions go on
inside its cells. These functions include:
■ manufacture of bile, which is important for the digestion of fats
■ storage of glucose as glycogen
■ interconversion of glucose and glycogen, which keeps the glucose concentration
constant for the working tissues of the body (see page 148)
■ interconversion of amino acids – the liver can convert some amino acids into
others that the body might require in a process called transamination; these
amino acids can be built up to proteins, including plasma proteins such as
fibrinogen
■ excretion of excess amino acids – the amino part of the amino acid is removed
in a process called deamination (see page 140) and excreted in the urine as urea
excess amino acid  oxygen

ammonia  sugar acid

carbon
energy
dioxide
via
respiration

urea  water

to kidney for removal

■ removal of old red blood cells from the circulation and storage of the iron they
contained
■ breakdown of alcohol and other toxins, called detoxification.
A combination of transamination and deamination makes sure that there is always a
‘pool’ of amino acids available for use by the cells of the body.
As a result of these and other activities, the liver provides ideal concentrations of
food molecules for the working of the body tissues. Each type of tissue uses food
molecules for different purposes – for example, muscle cells manufacture muscle
protein, bone cells take up calcium and phosphate to make bone, and all cells use
glucose to release energy by respiration.

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 7.9 Absorption and assimilation make food available

The processes of moving food molecules into the cells where they are
used is called assimilation.

Alcohol and the liver

i
The liver receives all the molecules that the gut absorbs from food. As well as
useful molecules such as glucose and amino acids, this may include harmful
molecules such as drugs or poisons. Alcohol is a drug (a molecule that affects
the normal working of the body) which passes quickly to the liver after being
absorbed from the stomach and ileum. The cells of the liver convert this alcohol
to another substance which does not pass through to the rest of the body’s
circulation. Unfortunately, in working to protect the other tissues, the liver is
likely to harm itself. The substance produced from alcohol can be dangerous
to liver cells in high concentrations and can cause a serious disease called
cirrhosis of the liver. If the liver is damaged by excessive alcohol consumption,
then the whole body is affected. For example, the blood glucose concentration
cannot be controlled efficiently if the liver has been damaged.

Q
1 In what way is the blood supply to the liver unusual?
2 Name two substances stored in the liver, and two that are converted to
different substances.
3 How is the structure of the villus is adapted to its function.
4 What are goblet cells? Where else do you think they might be found apart
from in the gut?
5 Some microorganisms infect the gut lining so that water cannot be
absorbed. What effect(s) might this have on the infected person?

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and health
1 The diagram shows a group of villi from the iv Describe how this juice plays a part
alimentary canal. in the digestion of fat. [3]
b Explain what is meant by the term
assimilation. Use an example to help
your explanation. [2]
3 John and Paul were eating their school lunch.
Later, they decided to look up the nutritional
value of some of the foods in a book. The book
had a table showing what 100 g of each food
contains.
a Use Table 1 below and your biological
knowledge to answer the following
questions.
i Which food shown in the table would
be best for preventing scurvy? [1]
ii John ate a sandwich containing 100 g
bread, 50 g of cheese and 10 g of butter.
How much energy did he take in?
a Identify the parts labelled X, Y and Z. [3]
Show your working. [2]
b Suggest one function of the circular
b Paul had been complaining of pain after
muscles. [1]
eating and so went to the doctor.
c State the part of the alimentary canal
The doctor wanted to find out if Paul was
where villi are located. [1]
allergic to any foods.
d Name three substances that pass from A
She asked Paul to eat two different foods at
on the diagram into the villus. [3]
each meal and record whether he suffered
e With reference to the diagram, explain
any pains afterwards.
the significance of diffusion and active
This is what he noted down.
transport in the alimentary canal. [4]
Food eaten Pain
2 The liver performs important functions in the Bread and butter yes
digestion and assimilation of food. One of these Bread and cheese yes
is the production of an alkaline digestive juice Cheese and biscuits yes
that breaks down large globules of fat. Cheese and cucumber no
a i Name the digestive juice secreted by Bread and cucumber yes
the liver. [1] i The doctor asked Paul to complete
ii Explain how this digestive juice reaches a chart.
the food in the small intestine. [2] Using Paul’s note, copy and complete the
iii Explain why this digestive juice is chart according to the key given on the
alkaline. [2] next page. The result for bread and butter
has been done for you.
Food Energy / kJ Animal protein / g Plant protein / g Calcium / mg Iron / mg Vitamin C / mg
Biscuits 2000 2 5 100 1.5 0
Bread 900 0 9 100 1.7 0
Butter 3000 0.5 0 15 0.2 0
Cheese 1600 26 0 800 0.4 0
Cucumber 40 0 0 25 0.3 8

▲ Table 1
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it b Some of these products are carried in the

cu
Bis blood to the liver.
ad
i Name the blood vessel which carries
Bre these products. [1]
r ii Describe the processes that occur when
tte
Bu an excess of amino acids arrives at the
se Key liver. [3]
ee
Ch r no pain
e 6 The diagrams below show plans of the teeth
mb
cu pain
Cu in the upper and lower jaw. Plan A is from a
not tested 27-year-old woman called Hannah; plan B is
[3] from a 27-year-old woman called Caitlin.
ii From the chart, the doctor could identify Plan A Plan B
the foods to which Paul was allergic.
Which are they? [2]
iii Use Table 1 to identify which Upper Upper
substance in the foods was the
cause of the allergy. [1]
iii The doctor said that the substance which
caused Paul’s allergy was destroying the
villi in his small intestine. She said that Lower Lower Key
this might slow down Paul’s growth. Indicates
The reason for this poor growth is decay has
that the absorption of soluble foods is occurred

reduced. Explain why the loss of villi

The two women have different diets. One
leads to reduced absorption. [1]
consumes a lot of sugary foods and fizzy drinks,
4 Complete the following paragraph. the other prefers apples and milk.
The production of loose, watery faeces is called a State which woman has the sugary,
. This is due to reduced absorption acidic diet. Support your answer with
of water in the and . This numerical data. [2]
condition can be caused by a bacterium, and is b Suggest other reasons for the difference in
called . A person suffering from the the number of decayed teeth between the
condition can be treated by . [5] two women. [2]
5 a The table below summarises some of c Why is it important that both plans are from
the processes of digestion. The table is women, and each is aged 27? [2]
incomplete. Copy and complete the table by d Explain why decay is more likely in the
inserting the missing words. [4] cheek teeth. [2]
e How would these plans have been different
Ingested food Digestive Soluble end products if they had been taken when the women
material enzyme of digestion were 10 years old? [1]
amylase maltose
protein
fatty acids and glycerol

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7 The table below shows the effect of pH on 8 The table below shows the energy value of a
the time taken for the complete breakdown number of products from the Mars company.
of a starch solution in the presence of an a Copy and complete the table to show the
enzyme. energy value of each product in kJ per 100 g
(take care – some energy values are shown for
pH 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 9.0
25 g; others are for whole bars or packets).
Time taken / 20.00 15.00 8.00 4.00 1.25 1.25 3.00 8.00
[2]
min
b Draw a bar chart showing the products in
Rate of
reaction descending order of energy value (the one
with the highest energy value on the left). [4]
a Copy and complete the table. Assume
c For a 50 g portion, which product would be:
that the rate of reaction is the same as
i the least fattening [1]
1 .
time taken [2] ii the most fattening? [1]
b Plot the results in the form of an appropriate d A Mars bar weighs 65 g. What is its energy
graph. [4] value in kilojoules? [1]
c What is the optimum pH for this enzyme? [1] e While sitting watching television, a boy of 15
d Name one region of the gut where this uses about 6 kJ per minute.
pH would be found. How is this pH kept i How long would it take him to use all the
constant? [2] energy obtained from the Mars bar? [1]
e Suggest two chemical tests that could be ii What is he using this energy for? [1]
carried out on samples of the solution to f While playing football, the same boy uses,
show that starch is being broken down. [2] on average, 30 kJ per minute. How long
f In this experiment pH is the input or would it take him to use up the energy
independent variable, and rate of reaction obtained from the Mars bar? [1]
is the outcome or dependent variable. g A football match lasts for 90 minutes. If the
Suggest three fixed variables which must boy ran for half of the game, would he have
be kept constant if these results are to used more energy or less than the Mars bar
be valid. [3] provided? How could his body cope with
any difference between energy demanded
and energy supplied? [2]

Name of product Energy value / kJ Energy value / kJ

per 25 g, unless per 100 g
otherwise stated
Bounty, 60 g 490
Maltesers 504
Mars 454
Milky Way 490
Minstrels, 49 g 870
Snickers 504
Treets, 42 g 1040
Twix 504

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1.2
8.1 The variety systems
Transport of life in plants
OBJECTIVE Xylem and phloem
Substances need to be transported for long distances
■ To appreciate that water and throughout a plant’s body – sugars, for example, are produced
dissolved substances are in the photosynthesising cells of the leaves and may need to
transported around the plant in be transported to storage cells in the roots. The water and ions
specialised transport tissues absorbed by the roots may be required by cells at the growing
tip (the meristem) of the shoot. These long-distance transport
functions are carried out by two specialised plant tissues – the
xylem and the phloem. These are tubes running through the plant,
collected together in groups in the vascular (transport) bundles, as
shown in the diagram opposite.
S Moving vital substances from sources to sinks
The transport tissues are arranged in the stem and root as shown
opposite, to offer:
■ the most efficient transport of materials from sources (where
they are taken in or made) to sinks (where they are used or
stored)
■ the most effective support in air (the stem) and soil (the root).

The transport functions of xylem and phloem have been

investigated in a number of ways, as shown in the diagram below.

TRACING XYLEM S Transport of the products of photosynthesis

Aphids (greenfly) are serious pests of many crops.
They can take food meant for the growing regions
of plants by inserting their mouthparts (the stylet)
into the plant tissues.
Procedure
1 Cut a piece of celery
and stand it in a
coloured solution
(suitable stains include
eosin [red] and methylene
blue [blue!]).

2 Leave for a few hours.

3 Carefully (CARE! SHARP

SCALPELS) cut off about
5 cm of the celery, and If feeding aphids are anaesthetised with carbon dioxide
use a hand lens to look their bodies can be ‘flicked away’ from the plant
for the stain. The coloured surface, leaving the stylet in place. The contents of the
solution has been carried phloem, the sap, will slowly leak out of the stylet and
up the xylem. can be analysed. The results show that the phloem
transports sucrose (sugar), the main product of
photosynthesis.

Extension: You could also try:

Application: aphids eat
a Carefully (using the scalpel) scrape away the outside tissues
themselves to death!
of the celery to trace the xylem. What happens as the stem Many insecticides kill useful
branches to the leaves? insect species as well as pests.
b Use a pale-coloured (e.g. white) flower, such as a carnation. Systemic insecticides are
You can change its colour, just as florists do! sprayed onto the plant and
absorbed into the phloem
tissues, so they only kill aphids.
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The position of phloem

and xylem in the leaf is
shown on page 51.

NOTIC
E
Sugar
and do
can mo
wn ph
ve up S
at the loem Direction of transport varies with the seasons!
same ti
me.
Sucrose is transported from stores in the root to leaves
in spring, but to stores in the root from photosynthesising
leaves in the summer and early autumn.
Whatever the time of year the movement of sugars and
Stem – vascular bundles are arranged
amino acids (translocation) is from source to sink. In
in a ring with soft cortex in the centre,
other words, sucrose and amino acids are translocated
helping to support the stem.
from the region where they are made or absorbed to the
region where they are stored or used.

Phloem
Vascular Root – root hairs are extended cells of
Xylem bundle the epidermis. ▲ The transport tissues xylem
and phloem are arranged in
Epidermis – protects
Cambium
against infection by vascular bundles. They transport
fungi.
water and dissolved substances
around the plant.
Cortex – cells become Phloem Together form
turgid and help to support a strong central
non-woody parts. rod.
Xylem

Epidermis – protects against

infection by viruses and bacteria, Cortex (pith) can act as a
and dehydration. winter store for starch.

Q
1 Name the two vascular tissues in flowering plants. 4 Why must sugar be transported to sinks such as
Which tissue divides to form the vascular tissues? growing points and roots?
2 What is a source? Suggest two examples in a 5 Many dyes are water soluble. Xylem vessels reach up
flowering plant. from roots to flower petals. How could these two
3 Why does the direction of sugar transport vary from observations be useful to a florist?
season to season?

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8.2 The
1.2 Uptake of water
variety of life and minerals
by roots
OBJECTIVES
Minerals have a number of individual functions
■ To understand that water may enter and leave
and together have a great effect on the water
cells by osmosis
potential of the plant tissues. Minerals from
■ To understand that dissolved substances may enter and
the soil are absorbed in the form of ions, for
leave cells by diffusion and active transport
example, magnesium enters the root as Mg2+
Plants need water and minerals ions and nitrogen enters as nitrate NO3− ions. If
Plants need to obtain certain raw materials from the soil solution contains higher concentrations
their environment. The roots of the plant are of these ions than the root hair cell cytoplasm,
adapted to absorb both minerals and water from the ions can enter by diffusion (see page 30).
the soil. Water is essential to support the plant, However, plants can continue to take up ions
as a reagent in many biochemical reactions and even if the concentration gradient is in the
also as a transport medium (see page 256). The wrong direction, that is, if the concentration
diagram below shows how water enters the plant of the ions is higher inside the cell than in the
through root hair cells. soil solution.
Leaves have a large surface area for photosynthesis. When the stomata S
are open, water is lost by evaporation from spongy mesophyll cells Root hair cells have an
(see page 92). enormous surface area.
This helps them absorb
Roots have an enormous surface area and water and minerals from
penetrate between the particles of soil. the soil. The photograph
shows root hair cells
magnified 3300.
1 Water is drawn up the xylem to replace The root hairs are very
water lost at the leaves. This upward flow delicate and easily
of water is the transpiration stream (see damaged.
page 90). When plants are transplanted they recover much more
quickly if the r oots are kept in a ball of soil or compost
so that the root hairs are not disturbed.

 Uptake of water by root hair cells

Note: Water movement through the plant occurs in the

sequence 1–2–3–4: it begins with loss from the leaves,
and is completed with water absorption from the soil
solution.

2 Water (with any substances dissolved in it) is 3 Water crosses the living cells of 4 Water enters root hair cells by
forced to cross the membrane and cytoplasm of the cortex by (a) osmosis through osmosis, from the thin film of water
cells. The cell walls contain a waxy material the cells and (b) ‘suction’ through surrounding the particles of soil. The
which makes them impermeable to water. This the freely permeable cellulose cell soil water has a higher water
allows the membranes of the cells to select walls. Almost all of the water moves potential than the cytoplasm of the
which substances can enter the xylem and be across the cortex by route (b). root hair cell, so that water moves
distributed through the body of the plant. down a water potential gradient
(see page 32).

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Osmosis: a reminder
i Active transport: application
i
A cell’s membrane controls the entry and exit of To increase crop yields, farmers may drain fields that
materials to and from the cell (see page 30). A typical are liable to flooding. If the soil is not waterlogged,
plant cell such as that found in the mesophyll layer more oxygen in soil air spaces is available to the plants,
of the leaf has a high concentration of solutes. Therefore, so the rate of aerobic respiration in root cells is faster.
water will enter a plant cell by osmosis from an This provides more energy for active transport, so that
environment with a high water potential, until the the growing plants will more quickly absorb mineral
water inside the cell forces the cell membrane up ions present in the soil. Farmers may also cover their
against the cellulose cell wall. fields with black polythene. This absorbs heat and helps
When a plant cell contains plenty of water, the to raise the soil temperature, so that seed germination
internal pressure of the cell contents against the and ion uptake by young roots will be faster.
cell wall supports the cell. The cell is said to be
turgid, and turgidity helps support the plant. If the
plant does not have a good supply of water, the cells ‘Plateau’ suggests that active
S
transport of ions is limited by
lose their turgidity and slowly collapse. The cells
some other factor that limits
are said to be flaccid and the plant is wilted. respiration, such as
temperature.
S Experiments on the uptake of ions also
show that:
■ the cells can select which ions enter
from the soil solution
■ any factor that affects respiration,
for example lack of oxygen or low
Rate of ion uptake

temperature, can reduce the uptake of

ions. The diagram below shows some Ion uptake by active transport –
results that support these observations. energy is supplied by respiration
so ions are taken up more quickly
when more oxygen is available.
The explanation of these observations
is that the root hair cells use active
transport to carry out the selective
uptake of ions against a concentration Ion uptake by diffusion – no
energy is required so process
gradient, using energy from respiration
is not affected by the low
(see page 34). concentration of oxygen
that limits respiration.

Oxygen concentration in soil

Ion uptake depends on respiration

Q
1 Does a solution containing many molecules of dissolved sugar and amino acids have a high or a low
water potential? Explain your answer.
2 Define osmosis in terms of water potential.
3 How does the strength of the cellulose cell wall help plants to support themselves?
4 A scientist investigated the uptake of magnesium ions by the roots of young cereal plants. He made the
following observations:
a The rate of uptake was increased by raising the temperature, so long as it did not exceed 40°C.
b Uptake stopped if the roots were treated with cyanide, an ion that prevents respiration.
c Ions were taken up even if they were present at a lower concentration in the solution around the roots
than in the root cells themselves.
d If ion uptake continued for some time, the concentration of sugars in the root cells decreased.
What conclusions can be drawn from each of these observations?
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8.3 The
1.2 Transpiration: water movement
variety of life
through the plant
OBJECTIVES
■ To recall that water movement through a plant begins
Evaporation from leaves
with water loss from the leaves Water evaporates from the parts of a plant that
are exposed to the atmosphere – for example, the
■ To understand that water is lost from leaves via the
stomata, through which the exchange of gases between whole shoot system of a terrestrial plant and the
the leaf and the atmosphere also occurs upper leaf surfaces of a floating aquatic plant.
■ To describe how the leaf surface most involved in water The greatest loss of water takes place through the
loss can be identified stomata (singular stoma), minute pores on the
■ To understand how environmental conditions can affect leaf surface (see page 50). There are usually more
water movement through plants stomata on the lower surface of leaves than on the
upper surface.

Water movement through a plant begins with the diffusion of water vapour out of the leaf and evaporation from
the leaf surface (spongy mesophyll). 98% of the water taken up by a plant is lost to the atmosphere by transpiration.

S
Leaf cells have a layer of
moisture to aid diffusion of
carbon dioxide into the cells.

Water evaporates into internal

air spaces from surfaces of
leaf cells.

Stomata allow the uptake of CO2 for

Water diffuses through stomata down
photosynthesis. When stomata are open,
water potential gradient.
water evaporated from the spongy mesophyll
can diffuse out of the leaf down the water
1 Transpiration – water evaporates from leaves potential gradient.
and lowers the water potential in the leaf tissues.

2 Water moves from xylem to enter leaf tissues

down water potential gradient.

3 Water moves up the stem in the xylem as a

column of water due to the tension caused
by water loss from the leaves and the cohesion Wilting occurs if water loss exceeds
between the water molecules. water uptake – cells become flaccid,
the tissues become limp and the
plant is no longer supported.

4 Water uptake occurs by osmosis from the soil

solution (high water potential) into the root Flaccid Wilted
cells (lower water potential). cell plant

Flooding of soil with salt water lowers the water potential of the
soil solution and prevents osmosis – no water uptake by roots.
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The lower surface is less exposed to the warming effects of the Sun’s
radiation, which would speed up the evaporation rate. Loss of water
from the leaf is shown in the diagram on the opposite page.
Leaf structure may reduce transpiration
Water cannot diffuse into the leaf through the stomata, Thick,
becausewaxy the
cuticle reduces evaporation from epidermis.
air spaces inside the leaf are completely saturated. Instead, water
Stomata may be sunk into pits which trap a pocket of humid air.
Leaves maythe
must be absorbed from the soil solution and drawn up through be rolled with the stomata on the inner surface close
to a trapped layer of humid air.
plant (see page 88). This flow of water through the plant to replace
the losses by evaporation from the leaf is called the transpiration
Humid
stream, shown in the diagram on the opposite page. air

Transpiration is affected by leaf structure and by conditions inbe needle shaped to reduce their surface area.
Leaves may
the atmosphere because water is lost through the stomata to the
atmosphere (see opposite). These factors can be investigated using
the potometer shown below.

Leaf structure may reduce transpiration Atmospheric conditions may affect transpiration
Thick, waxy cuticle reduces evaporation from epidermis. Wind moves humid air away from the leaf surface and increases
Stomata may be sunk into pits which trap a pocket of humid air. transpiration.
Leaves may be rolled with the stomata on the inner surface close High temperatures increase the water-holding capacity of the air
to a trapped layer of humid air. and increase transpiration.
Low humidity increases the water potential gradient betwee
Humid leaf and atmosphere and increases transpiration.
air High light intensity causes stomata to open (to allow
photosynthesis) which allows transpiration to occur.
Leaves may be needle shaped to reduce their surface area.

USING A BUBBLE POTOMETER

Reservoir of water – connected Water uptake Water used in

to capillary tubing if the tap is
building of
Atmospheric conditions may affect transpiration opened. This is used to prevent
the air protoplasm (1%)
Wind moves humid air away from the leaf surface andbubble entering the plant,
increases
transpiration. and to move the bubble back
along the capillary tube. Water used in
High temperatures increase the water-holding capacity of the air Water ‘lost’ by photosynthesis
and increase
Rubber tubing transpiration.
connects the Capillary tube must transpiration (98%) (1%)
cut
Lowshoot to theincreases
humidity potometer. be kept gradient
the water potential horizontalbetwee
The tube should be greased to prevent
leaf and atmosphere and increases transpiration. the bubble
moving due to its Graduated scale allows
and wired to prevent any
High light intensity causes stomata tolowopen (to allow
density compared bubble movement/water
leakage of air into
photosynthesis) which allows transpiration to occur.
with water. uptake to be read.
the apparatus.
Air bubble – inserted by
removal of tube from water.
Movement corresponds to water
uptake by the cut shoot.
Procedure
1 The leafy shoot must be cut, the apparatus filled and the shoot fixed to the potometer,
all under water to prevent air locks in the system.
2 Allow plant to equilibrate (5 min) before introducing air bubble. Measure rate of End of tube
bubble movement at least 3 times, and use reservoir to return bubble to zero each (to beaker of water).
time. Calculate mean of readings. Record air temperature.
3 Rate of water uptake per unit area of leaves can be calculated by measuring leaf area.

▲ The bubble potometer measures water uptake (water loss by transpiration

plus water consumption for cell expansion and photosynthesis).

Q
1 Shops which sell flowers sometimes spray the leaves of expensive
plants with a waxy substance. Explain why they do this.
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O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

8.4 The leaf and water loss

S OBJECTIVES
can take in carbon dioxide as a raw material for
■ To understand that stomata are opened to allow
photosynthesis. Plants can open and close the
carbon dioxide to enter the leaf, and that this allows
stomata, which helps to minimise water loss
water vapour to diffuse out of the leaf
whilst allowing photosynthesis to continue. The
■ To describe adaptations of leaves to reduce
position and operation of the stomata is explained
water losses
on page 50, which also shows the adaptations of
the leaf to photosynthesis.
Stomata and water loss
Water is lost by evaporation and diffusion Adaptations of plants
from the leaf surface. This water loss happens The diagrams opposite show how plants may be
because the stomata need to open so the leaf adapted to the availability of water.
INVESTIGATION OF WATER LOSS FROM LEAF SURFACES

Cobalt chloride paper is blue when dry, and pink when wet. then left in a drying atmosphere for 48 hours, and reweighed
It is handled with forceps to avoid moisture from the fingers at intervals. Some typical results from this investigation are
affecting its colour. The paper is attached to the upper and shown in the table.
lower leaf surfaces using microscope slides. The paper
attached to the lower surface of the leaf turns pink, showing Leaf Initial Final Percentage
that water is lost mainly from the lower surface. This number mass / g mass / g change in mass
technique gives a qualitative (non-quantitative) comparison.
1 4.2 4.1
Measuring the mass changes of leaves can be used to give a 2 4.6 4.4
quantitative comparison of water loss from different leaf
3 3.9 2.5
surfaces. A number of leaves are smeared with petroleum
jelly as shown in the diagram below. They are weighed and 4 4.1 2.5

Similar leaves from same species of plant

Both surfaces Only lower Only upper Neither

smeared surface smeared surface smeared surface smeared

▲ These measurements are made on leaves which have been detached from the plant. It is difficult to measure water loss from the
leaves of an intact plant but relatively simple to measure water uptake using a potometer (see page 91).

Q
Questions 1 to 4 refer to the investigation above. 3 Why was it important that leaves of the same species
1 Copy the table above. Calculate the percentage were used?
change in mass for each leaf. 4 How could the results be made more reliable or valid?
2 Why did leaf 3 lose a greater proportion of its mass
than leaf 2?
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S Adaptations of plants to reduce water loss in different

environments
Q
1 The diagram shows a leaf of marram grass, a plant
Cacti are well adapted to hot, dry environments (deserts). They that grows in dry, windy environments on sand
are xerophytes. dunes. The photograph below shows
a transverse section of marram grass
Green stem carries
leaf as seen under a microscope.
out photosynthesis.
a Copy the diagram of the leaf, and
draw a line to show the direction in
Leaves reduced to
spines to reduce which a transverse section is cut.
surface area for water b The positions of several stomata are
loss (and deter grazing labelled on the photograph. If
animals).
sufficient light is available, oxygen
is released from the leaf through
the stomata.
i Name the process that produces oxygen.
Stomata are sunk in
grooves to avoid drying ii Which gas is consumed during this process?
winds. iii Name and define the process by which the
oxygen moves from leaf to atmosphere.
Swollen stem stores
water.
c Water vapour will also be lost from the leaf's
internal surface when the stomata are open. Use
the diagram and the photograph to suggest three
ways in which the structure of the marram grass
Shallow roots absorb leaf helps to reduce water loss.
water from lightest d Give three reasons why plants require water.
rainfall. e Why is it particularly important that a plant
growing in sand dunes should reduce water loss?
Deep roots penetrate to
very low water table. Epidermis Hairs
Stomata

Aquatic (pond) plants have leaves with:

little lignin in the xylem, because
the leaf is supported by the water
a very thin cuticle, because water
conservation is not a problem
stomata on the upper surface to
allow CO2 uptake from the
atmosphere.
These plants are hydrophytes.

Wilting and leaf fall Vascular Thick waxy

When water is in short supply, plants may reduce water loss by: bundle cuticle
wilting – leaves collapse and stomata close to reduce heat
absorption and evaporation/
diffusion of water 2 Copy and complete the following paragraph.
leaf fall – in very severe conditions, The movement of water through the plant begins at
e.g. when water is frozen during the leaf surface, and a stream of water called
winter, plants allow the leaves to fall
the is drawn up through the plant to replace
off so that no water loss can occur.
No photosynthesis can take these losses. The gas is required for
place, but the plants can remove photosynthesis, and enters the leaves through pores
chlorophyll from the leaves for
called . These pores allow the loss of to
storage before allowing leaves to fall.
the atmosphere, and leaves show many adaptations
to reduce this loss. These adaptations include ,
Modern Christmas trees are bred so that the needles don’t and .
93
fall – a disadvantage in a natural habitat, but good news when
clearing up after Christmas!
O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

Questions on plants and water transport

1 Which of the following best defines osmosis? a Copy the table. Calculate the rate at which
A The movement of solutes down a the bubble moves and complete the third
concentration gradient. column. Plot these results in the form of a
B The movement of water up a water potential bar chart. [6]
gradient. b Plants require light for photosynthesis. They
C The movement of water, using energy from ‘anticipate’ the need for carbon dioxide
respiration. uptake during photosynthesis by opening
D The movement of water down a water their stomata under appropriate conditions.
potential gradient. [1] Does this help explain the results of
experiment A? Explain your answer. [3]
2 Which of the following is the main tissue for
c Water is lost from leaves by evaporation
the movement of sucrose in a plant?
and diffusion if the stomata are open, and a
A Epidermis
suitable water potential gradient exists. Use
B Xylem
this information to explain the results of
C Phloem
experiments B and E. [2]
D Stomata [1]
d Explain the results of experiments C and D.
3 Which of the following best defines active [2]
transport?
5 Copy and complete the following paragraphs.
A The movement of solutes along a
a The cells of green plants absorb water by
concentration gradient.
. Plant cells rely on water for
B The movement of solutes against a
, as a medium for biochemical
concentration gradient.
reactions, as a and as a raw
C The movement of water using energy from
material for . [4]
sunlight.
b Water is obtained by plants from the soil
D The movement of solutes against a
solution. The water enters the plant through
concentration gradient, using energy from
its . These structures are well
respiration. [1]
adapted to the absorption of water. There are
4 This question is about water uptake by plants. growing on their epidermis which
Using the potometer shown at the bottom of greatly increase the over which
page 91, a student investigated the factors that water absorption can take place. In addition
influence water uptake by a plant. He obtained to water, these structures also absorb
the following results. such as which is required
Environmental Time taken for Rate of bubble for the synthesis of chlorophyll and
condition bubble to move movement / cm which is required for the manufacture of
10 cm / minute per minute amino acids and proteins. These substances
A High light intensity 2
are absorbed by a process called
B High humidity (plant 50
enclosed in clear
because it requires a supply of energy. [7]
plastic bag) c Water is used as a transport medium for
C Wind (electric fan 2
both ions and sugars. Mineral ions are
blowing over plant
surface) transported within the main water flow
D Dark and windy 25 through the plant in the tissue.
E Dark and low humidity 40 Sugars are transported in the living cells of
the . These specialised tissues are
grouped together into bundles. [3]
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6 Water loss by a potted plant can be investigated

using the apparatus shown below.

The plant was allowed to stand close to an open

window for 7 days, and the loss in mass each day
was measured and recorded in the table below.

Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Loss of mass / g 3.2 3.8 4.9 6.7 4.6 7.9 5.1

a Plot a bar chart of these results. Place time

on the horizontal axis and loss in mass on the
vertical axis. [4]
b Suggest the likely weather conditions on days
4 and 6. Explain your answers. [4]
c Draw two more bars, on day 2 and 7, to
suggest how the results might have been
different if the leaves were rolled rather than
flattened. Explain your answer. [3]
d State the name of the process by which a
plant loses water through its leaves. [1]

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O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

9.1 Transport systems in animals use

blood as the transport medium
OBJECTIVES
Large complex organisms, such as humans, have
■ To understand why animals need a circulatory system
a small surface area in relation to their relatively
■ To know that a transport system has four components
large volume. As a result, cells near the centre of
■ To know the structure and functions of the components
the body are some distance away from contact
of the blood
with the atmosphere, and may also be some
distance from the gut where food is digested. Cells
All living organisms require energy, which is inside such large organisms cannot gain enough
released from food and oxygen in the process of oxygen and glucose by diffusion alone.
respiration (page 122). All living cells in the body
(for example in the brain, liver, kidney and muscle) A mass flow system
need energy, and so glucose and oxygen must be To supply oxygen and glucose, as well as other
transported throughout the body. In some small substances, large organisms have a specialised
animals (especially those with a flat body such transport system. This system, called the blood
as the flatworm in the photograph), substances are system in all vertebrate animals, is an example of
transported in and out of the body, and from one a mass flow system. A mass flow system carries
tissue to another, by the process of diffusion. large volumes of fluid to all parts of the organism.
A system like this has four parts:
■ A medium – the fluid that flows in the system
and carries materials around the body. This is
the blood.
■ A system of tubes that carries the fluid from
place to place. These are the arteries and
veins.
■ A pump that supplies pressure to keep
the fluid moving through the tubes. This
is the heart.
■ Sites of exchange that allow materials
▲ The flatworm is very thin and has a high surface area to
delivered by the blood to enter the tissues that
volume ratio. Its volume is made up of working cells that
need various substances including oxygen, which can diffuse
need them. These are the capillaries.
in across the large surface. The distance from the surface to ▼ A whale has a large surface area, but its volume is too
all the cells is small. large for materials to be moved to and from its body cells by
diffusion. The blue whale has a circulatory system made up of
4000 dm3 of blood, pumped through 50 000 km of blood
vessels by a heart the size of a small car.

The blue whale’s heart beats about 30 000 times a day.

What is its heart rate in bpm (beats per minute)?
A shrew has a heart rate of about 900 bpm, a human of
about 70 bpm and a horse about 40 bpm. Including the
value for the blue whale, what pattern can you see relating
size and heart rate?

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Blood is the circulatory medium Blood cells are first formed in the bone marrow
The average adult human has about 5 dm of 3 of long bones such as the femur (thigh bone),
blood, which contains a number of blood cells although they might be transported to other parts
suspended in a watery liquid (plasma). If a of the body before they become fully developed.
sample of blood taken from the body is allowed to The structure and function of different types of
stand, and a chemical added to prevent it clotting, blood cell are shown in the table below.
it will separate into layers as shown opposite.
If a drop of blood is placed on a microscope slide Plasma: 55% of volume
and stained with a special dye, these different types
of cell can be seen, as the photograph below shows.
White blood cells
Cells: 45% of volume and platelets

Red blood cells

A 1 cm3 drop of blood contains:

5 000 000 000 8 000 000 250 000 000

(5 thousand million!) white blood platelets
red blood cells cells

▲ The red blood cells sink to the bottom, and the white
▲ Red blood cells are shown in pink; white blood cells have blood cells and platelets settle on top of the red blood cells.
purple-stained nuclei, of several different shapes (platelets The plasma forms a clear, straw-coloured layer at the top.
are not visible)
Cell type Appearance Function How the structure is suited to the function
Red blood cells Transport oxygen from lungs Contain haemoglobin, an iron-containing pigment
(erythrocytes) to all respiring tissues. Prepare which picks up oxygen at the lungs and lets go of
carbon dioxide for transport it at the tissues.
from all respiring tissues to Have no nucleus, leaving more space for haemoglobin.
lungs. Cells are small and flexible, so can squeeze through
narrow capillaries.

White blood cells Remove any microorganisms Irregular shaped nucleus allows cell to squeeze S
(phagocytes) that invade the body and through gaps in walls of capillaries.
might cause infection. Enzymes in cytoplasm digest microorganisms
The phagocyte engulfs once engulfed.
the microorganism (see Sensitive cell surface membrane can
page 116). detect microorganisms.

White blood cells Produce antibodies – Large nucleus contains many copies of genes for the
(lymphocytes) proteins that help in the control of antibody protein production.
defence against disease
(see page 118).

Platelets Cell fragments involved in Can release blood-clotting enzymes (see page 116).
blood clotting.

97
 9.1 Transport systems in animals use blood as the transport medium

Functions of the blood

The table on page 97 shows that one function of red blood cells
is the transport of the respiratory gases, oxygen and carbon
dioxide, between the lungs and the respiring tissues. The plasma
also has transport functions. This watery liquid carries dissolved
food molecules such as glucose and amino acids, waste materials
such as urea, and some control molecules such as hormones.
Because the plasma is largely water, it has a very high specific
heat capacity (see page 256). This means that the plasma is able
to distribute heat around the various parts of the body.
Defence against disease is another important function of the
blood. The different roles of the blood are summarised below.

Functions of the blood

Regulatory functions – homeostasis
Blood solutes affect the water potential of the blood, and thus the water potential
gradient between the blood and the tissue fluid. The size of this water potential gradient
is largely due to sodium ions and plasma proteins. The blood solute level regulates the
movement of water between blood and tissues.

Water plays a part in the distribution of heat between Too much alcohol in the
heat-producing areas such as the liver and areas of blood can cause water to
heat loss such as the skin. leave brain cells, causing
pain and the sensation
Blood also helps to maintain an optimum pH of thirst.
in the tissues.

Protective functions
Platelets, plasma proteins (e.g. fibrinogen) and many other plasma factors (e.g. Ca2+ ions)
protect against blood loss and the entry of pathogens by the clotting mechanism.

White blood cells protect against disease-causing organisms:

phagocytes engulf them
lymphocytes produce and secrete specific antibodies against them.

Transport functions
Soluble products of digestion/absorption (such as glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins
and minerals) are transported from the gut to the liver and then to the general circulation.
Waste products of metabolism (such as urea, creatinine and lactate) are transported from
sites of production to sites of removal, such as the liver and kidney.

Respiratory gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) are transported from their sites of uptake
or production to their site of use or removal.

Hormones (such as insulin) are transported from their sites of production in the glands to
the target organs where they have their effects.

Support function
Erection of the penis is achieved by filling large spongy spaces with blood. The penis
becomes soft when blood flows out more quickly than it flows in.

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The blood detectives

i
A scientist who specialises in the study of blood is called ■ AIDS may be detected in its early stages by the presence
a haematologist. A haematologist can tell a great deal of antibodies to the human immunodeficiency virus
from a tiny sample of blood. For example: (HIV) in the plasma – the affected person is HIV
■ Anaemia, an inability to transport enough oxygen, positive. In the later stages of the disease, the number
can be detected by noting a lower than normal number of white blood cells is very much reduced.
of red blood cells. ■ DNA fingerprinting, which can be important in
■ Sickle cell anaemia shows some red blood cells criminal investigations, can be carried out on nuclei
shaped like sickles, as the photograph below illustrates. extracted from white blood cells.
■ Leukaemia, a cancer of white blood cells, can ■ Diabetes may be detected by a high glucose concentration
be detected by high numbers of oddly shaped white in the plasma.
blood cells. ■ Eating disorders may be detected by higher than
normal concentrations of urea in the plasma.

▲ Using modern techniques of biochemistry, a ▲ Sickle-shaped red blood cells show the
single drop of blood can yield information about person has sickle cell anaemia. A sickle is a long
all the conditions described in this box hooked tool used for cutting crops.

Q
1 Why do large organisms require a transport system? b Which person would be the most likely to become ill
2 A sample of human blood is collected and placed in a if exposed to a virus? Explain your answer.
tube and centrifuged. The blood separates into two c Which person’s blood is least likely to clot efficiently?
distinct layers. Explain your answer.
a What are the two layers? d Which person is likely to have an iron deficiency in
b Suggest one dissolved food substance found in the her diet? Explain your answer.
upper layer. Choose a substance for which there e These three samples were all taken from 23-year-old
is a simple chemical test. Describe the test for women. Explain why this makes comparisons
this substance, and state what a positive result between them valid.
would be. 5 Use words from this list to complete the following
c There is a third, rather thin, layer between the two paragraphs. The words may be used once, more than
main components. What is this layer made of? once or not at all.
3 ‘The structure of a cell is closely related to its function.’ Is epidermis, tissues, specialised, cells, blood, red blood
this statement correct for blood cells? Explain your answer. cell, division of labour, organ
4 The table shows the cell composition of three samples
Large numbers of . that have the same structure and
of blood.
Sample from function are grouped together to form ., for example
. Several separate tissues may be joined together to
Cell count / Jill Jenny Jackie
form an . which is a complex structure capable of
number per mm3
performing a particular task with great efficiency.
Red blood cells 7 500 000 5 000 000 2 000 000
The structure of cells may be highly adapted to perform
White blood cells 500 6000 5000 one function, i.e. the cells may become . One
Platelets 250 000 255 000 50 excellent example is the . which is highly adapted
a Which person is most likely to have lived at high to carry oxygen in mammalian blood. If the different
altitude recently? Explain your answer. cells, tissues and organs of a multicellular organism
perform different functions they are said to show .

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O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

9.2 The circulatory system

OBJECTIVES at these on page 102. In humans (and in many
other animals), the main artery is called the aorta
■ To understand that the blood is directed around
the body in a set of vessels and the main vein is called the vena cava. The
structure and functions of arteries and veins are
■ To know the structure and function of arteries
and veins shown in the table below.
■ To understand why humans have a double circulatory S The human double circulation
system The human circulation is outlined at the top of
■ To know the names of the main arteries and veins in the page opposite. The arrangement is called a
the human body double circulation because the blood passes
through the heart twice for each complete circuit
Blood vessels – arteries and veins of the body. The blood flows to the lungs under
Blood flows around the body in a system of
high pressure (so a large volume of blood flows
tube-like blood vessels, arranged in such a way
past the lung surfaces in a short time). Then,
that they all eventually lead back to the heart.
having picked up oxygen at the lungs, the blood
The blood flows away from the heart in vessels
receives another ‘boost’ of pressure from the
called arteries, and it flows back towards the
heart to drive it out to the tissues, where the
heart in vessels called veins. Joining the arteries
oxygen is needed.
and veins are the capillaries, and we shall look
Structure
Type of Transverse section Longitudinal section Adaptations of structure to function
vessel (‘cut across’) (‘cut along’)
Artery Thicker ■ Carries blood away from the heart to the tissues.
outer wall ■ Blood is at high pressure.
■ Blood is rich in oxygen, low in carbon dioxide (except in the
pulmonary artery).
■ Elastic walls expand and relax as blood is forced out of
S the heart. This causes the pulse that you can feel if you
press an artery against a bone, for example in the wrist.
■ Thick walls withstand the high pressure of blood. Rings
Narrow
of muscle can narrow or widen the artery and control the
Thick layer central blood flow in it according to the body’s needs.
of muscle tube Smooth lining so
and elastic (lumen) no obstruction to
fibres flow of blood

Vein Thin Flap of watch ■ Carries blood from the tissues to the heart.
outer wall pocket valve ■ Blood is at low pressure.
■ Blood is low in oxygen, high in carbon dioxide
(except in the pulmonary vein).
■ Valves prevent the backflow of blood. Blood is at low
S pressure, but nearby muscles squeeze the veins and help
push blood back towards the heart.
■ Large diameter and thin walls reduce resistance to the flow
of blood.
Thin layer
of muscle
Wide central and elastic
tube (lumen) fibres

100 ▲ The structure and functions of arteries and veins

 O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

S High pressure – both ventricles pump out blood at high pressure, but the ‘body’ circuit has a
pressure about 5 that in the ‘lung’ (pulmonary) circuit. This is because blood in the body circuit
Pulmonary artery – unlike other has so far to travel, and there are many branches in the circuit to take the high-pressure blood.
arteries, this vessel carries
deoxygenated blood which also has
a high carbon dioxide concentration. Too high! If pressure in the pulmonary
Head artery is too high, tissue fluid or plasma
can leak into the lungs. This sometimes
The heart (see also page 104) happens to climbers at high altitude.

Right Left Arms

atrium atrium
Pulmonary vein – unlike other
veins, this vessel carries oxygenated
Right Left blood. It has the highest oxygen and
ventricle ventricle Lungs lowest carbon dioxide concentration
in the circulation.

Aorta – the main artery of the

This wall (the septum) separates
Heart body; supplies oxygenated blood,
oxygenated blood from
at high pressure, to the organs and
deoxygenated blood.
tissues of the body.

Vena cava – the main vein of the

body; returns deoxygenated blood
Hepatic artery – carries
at low pressure from organs and
oxygenated blood to the liver.
tissues to the heart. Liver

Hepatic portal vein – carries

Hepatic vein – returns blood with blood containing variable amounts
a regulated, optimum concentration of the absorbed products of
of food substances to the circulation. digestion from the digestive system
Digestive system to the liver.

Renal vein – blood with reduced

urea concentration is returned to the Renal artery – carries oxygenated
circulation. blood with a high concentration of
urea to the kidneys.
Kidneys
Key

Blood at low pressure

Blood at high pressure

Legs
Q
1 State two differences between
Capillaries link arteries and veins.
arteries and veins, and say how
They are present in all organs and
tissues and are the site of exchange these differences are related to
of materials between blood and the functions of these blood
tissue fluid (see next page). vessels.
2 Look at the diagram above.
Follow the path of the red
Ventricle Atrium Fish have a single circulation –
blood flows through the heart blood cell in the renal artery
only once for each complete around the circulation and back
circuit of the body:
Gills but there is to the renal artery. How many
rapid fall in velocity and times does it pass through the
pressure as blood leaves
the gills heart? List the blood vessels
pressure too low for efficient and chambers of the heart that
kidney function as in mammals.
the cell passes through.
Other organs

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9.3 Capillaries: materials are

exchanged between blood and
tissues, and tissue fluid is formed
OBJECTIVES
■ To understand that substances carried in the blood S every body cell is near to a capillary. The capillary
beds are adapted to their function of exchange of
must leave the circulation to reach the tissues
substances in a number of ways:
■ To know that materials are exchanged between tissues
■ the walls of the capillaries are only one cell
and blood in the capillary beds
thick – substances do not have very far to
■ To know how the structure of the capillaries is suited to
diffuse through them
the transfer of materials between blood and tissues
■ the capillaries are highly branched so they
cover an enormous surface area, giving more
Tissue fluid leaves the capillaries
‘space’ for diffusion to occur
To reach the cells that need them, dissolved
■ the capillary beds are constantly supplied with
substances carried in the blood must leave the
fresh blood, keeping up the concentration
blood vessels and enter the tissues. At the same
gradients of dissolved substances between
time, waste materials produced by the tissues
blood and tissues. Without these concentration
need to enter the blood to be carried away.
gradients diffusion could not occur.
Dissolved substances move between the blood and
tissues by diffusion across the walls of very fine The diagram shows how materials are
blood vessels called capillaries. Networks or beds exchanged between the blood and the tissues,
of capillaries extend through all the tissues, so and how tissue fluid is formed.
Artery – delivers oxygenated blood, Cells of tissue Vein – carries away deoxygenated blood,
rich in nutrients and at high pressure. Need: oxygen and nutrients such as glucose low in nutrients and at low pressure. Has
Can be narrowed or widened to control and amino acids. high concentration of waste products.
blood flow (for example, during Produce: wastes such as carbon dioxide and
exercise). Continuous supply of blood some useful products such as hormones.
keeps up the concentration gradients
of substances between the blood
plasma and the tissue fluid.
Tissue fluid
formed from plasma
contains no blood
cells or plasma
proteins.
Capillary has:
wall only one cell thick
very large surface area.

Formation of lymph

Useful substances Substances

move out from plasma – collected from
formation of tissue fluid. cells

Capillary walls are about 1 μm

thick. The central tube (lumen) Remember how substances cross membranes
may only be the same diameter
as the red blood cells, so they Diffusion is: Osmosis is:
have to squeeze through the the movement of molecules the movement of water
capillary in single file as they down a concentration gradient down a water potential gradient
until equilibrium is reached. across a partially permeable membrane.
102 unload their oxygen.
 O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

S Problems with the return of tissue fluid

The diagram below shows in detail how tissue fluid is formed and
returned to the blood. This tissue fluid is essential for the transport
of dissolved substances between blood and cells. If anything goes
wrong with this return of tissue fluid, the tissues swell up.
In elephantiasis, for example, a parasitic worm lodges in the lymph
vessels in the groin and causes fluid to build up in the legs.

Tissue fluid is formed Tissue fluid is returned to the blood: x must

Artery when blood plasma is be the same as y + z or the water balance in
squeezed out of the capillaries. the body will be affected.
Tissue fluid returns to
the capillaries by
osmosis – if the blood
plasma has a high water
potential (the concentration
of solutes such as glucose x cm3 of fluid
and plasma protein is too
low), water cannot return
quickly enough. The tissues
swell up with fluid. If the
body is short of plasma y cm3 of fluid z cm3 of fluid
proteins, as in malnourished
children affected by
kwashiorkor (see page 69),
the body swells up.

Substances diffuse between cells and tissue fluid –

Vein if the blood contains the correct concentrations of
vital substances, the tissue fluid and cells will automatically
receive the correct balance.

Lymph vessels collect lymph

from around the body and
return it to the blood, close Lymph node – as lymph
to the heart. Blockage of the returns towards the blood
lymph vessels can produce vessels it is ‘filtered’ through
severe swelling of tissues lymph nodes. These contain
and organs on the side of cells called lymphocytes that
the blockage furthest from can remove any harmful
the heart. microbes that have infected
the body (see page 118).
Elephantiasis – the lymph vessels
Swollen glands caused by
are blocked by swellings caused
inflammation of lymph
by parasitic worms
nodes

Q
1 This diagram represents a group of body cells and some parts
B
of the circulatory system. The arrows show movement of fluids. A
a Name the fluids contained in spaces A, B and C. C
b Name two substances that the cells remove from the fluid in B.
D
Suggest two substances that the cells might add to the fluid in B. Blood
c Describe how the fluid in C is returned to the circulation. capillary
Lymph
d Give a reason why the process shown at D might be vessel
inefficient. What would be the result of this for the body?
How could it be corrected?

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9.4 The heart is the pump for the

circulatory system
OBJECTIVES
■ To know that the blood is pumped around the
A double pump
circulatory system by the action of the heart The heart is divided into two sides, each of which
acts as a pump. The right side of the heart pumps
■ To know that the heart is a muscular organ with four
chambers deoxygenated blood coming from the tissues out
■ To understand how the flow of blood through the to the lungs. The left side pumps oxygenated blood
circulation is maintained coming from the lungs out to the tissues. A much
greater pressure (about five times as much) is
needed to force blood out to the extremities of the
The heart of a mammal pumps blood through
body than is needed to drive blood to the lungs.
the circulatory system. It provides the pressure
Because of this, the left side of the heart is much
that forces the blood through arteries, capillaries
more muscular than the right side.
and veins. The pressure is generated by the
squeezing of the walls of the heart against the Even though the two sides of the heart generate
incompressible fluid blood. The heart walls can different pressures, they work in the same way and
squeeze the blood because they are made of have the same parts, as shown in the diagram below.
muscle, and the muscle contracts rhythmically.
Aorta – the main artery of the body; Pulmonary vein – returns
carries oxygenated blood out to the oxygenated blood from the lungs.
Pulmonary arteries – carry tissues. Blood pressure is at its highest A vein from each lung join together
deoxygenated blood to the lungs. in the aorta, and the strongest pulse before entering the left atrium.
is felt here.
Left atrium – receives oxygenated
Semilunar valves – prevent
S blood returning from the lungs. Atria
blood running back into the
S have thin walls because they need only
ventricles when pressure falls
pump blood to the ventricles.
during relaxation.

Two flaps of left atrioventricular valve –

when this valve is closed and the
Vena cava – the main vein of
ventricle contracts, the blood must
the body; returns deoxygenated
leave through the aorta.
blood from the head and lower
body to the right atrium.
Chamber of left ventricle.

Right atrium – receives Wall of left ventricle – thick

deoxygenated blood from the S and muscular because it must force
vena cava. The pacemaker is blood through the arteries to all
found in the wall of the right the tissues of the body.
atrium.
Think about it! The left ventricle
Three flaps of right can push out about 70 cm3 of blood
atrioventricular valve – with each beat, and in a normal healthy
prevent blood flowing back person at rest the heart beats 70 times
from ventricle to atrium during per minute. How much blood is pumped
contraction. out of the heart per hour? How much
per day?
Tendons which are tightened to
make sure that the valve does
not turn inside out when the
Key
ventricle walls contract.
Deoxygenated blood Blood at low pressure
Chamber of right ventricle. Oxygenated blood Blood at high pressure

Wall of right ventricle – less Septum – wall between

muscular than left ventricle because left and right sides of the heart.
S it needs only force blood along the This separates oxygenated and
104 pulmonary arteries to the lungs. deoxygenated blood.
 O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

Remember that:
■ The atrium receives blood at low pressure Artificial pacemakers – help for i
from the veins (coming from the lungs or the heart
tissues). The beating of the heart is controlled by the natural
■ The ventricle pumps blood at high pressure pacemaker in the wall of the right atrium. If this
out to the arteries (to the lungs or tissues). pacemaker is damaged, pumping goes on automatically
■ Valves make sure that the blood flows in the at about 30 beats per minute. This is less than half the
right direction. normal rate, and is only enough to keep a very inactive
person alive.
The beating of the heart is controlled An artificial pacemaker can help people whose natural
by a pacemaker pacemaker does not work well. This artificial pacemaker
In a healthy person, the heart beats about 70 is made up of a box containing batteries and an electronic
timing device. It is placed in a cavity under the muscle
times a minute during normal levels of activity.
of the upper chest as shown below, and a wire is fed
This rate is enough to supply blood containing
down a vein into the right ventricle. The timing device
oxygen and nutrients to tissues. sends a small electrical charge which triggers the
The muscular walls of the heart differ from beating of the heart. This is set to give a basic rate of
other muscles in that they never become tired or 72 beats per minute. The latest pacemakers can sense
fatigued, because each contraction of the heart is changes in breathing, movement and body temperature,
and make exactly the right adjustments to heart rate.
immediately followed by a relaxation. Even when
The battery in the pacemaker is usually replaced every
the heart is beating at its fastest during severe year or so, under local anaesthetic.
exercise (see page 132), the period of relaxation
allows the muscle to recover so it does not fatigue. Vein
The pattern of contraction and relaxation is kept
going by electrical signals sent from a region of the Battery-powered
heart called the pacemaker. This is a specialised pacemaker under
muscle of chest
piece of tissue in the wall of the right atrium. It is
sensitive to the swelling of the heart wall as blood
enters the heart from the main veins. The signals
from the pacemaker make sure that:
■ the atria contract just before the ventricles, so
that blood flows from atria to ventricles
■ the heartbeat is fast enough to meet the
demands of the tissues for oxygen and Electrode inside
nutrients, and for the removal of wastes. right ventricle

If the pacemaker does not work as well as it

▲ An artificial pacemaker
should, an artificial electronic pacemaker can be
fitted inside the chest (see box on the right).

Q
1 a Name the chamber of the heart that receives blood 2 A doctor listening to the heartbeat through a
from the lungs. stethoscope hears two sounds as the blood flows
b Explain what happens to the blood in the ventricles through the heart: ‘lup-dup lup-dup lup-dup’.
when the muscle in the ventricle walls contracts. a From your knowledge of the working of the heart,
c The muscle around the atria is thinner than the suggest how these two sounds are produced.
muscle around the ventricles. Suggest a reason b The doctor records 72 beats per minute. How long a
for this. period would there be between two consecutive
‘lup’ sounds? Explain your answer.

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9.5 Coronary heart disease

OBJECTIVES through coronary veins which pour blood into
the vena cava. The coronary circulation is shown
■ To know that the heart muscle requires a supply below left. The activity of the heart can be
of oxygen, glucose and other nutrients checked in a number of ways:
■ To know that the heart muscle has its own blood supply
■ making an ECG (electrocardiogram).
through the coronary arteries
There should be a regular pattern of the flow
■ To understand that factors such as lifestyle, diet
of electric current through the heart muscle.
and family history may affect the efficiency of the
coronary arteries
■ To know that coronary heart disease is one of the major
causes of death in the developed world Any irregularity
could be a sign
of heart disease.
The supply of blood to the heart muscle
Heart muscle contracts to push blood through the
vessels of the circulation. This contraction is work,
and it requires energy. The energy is made available ■ measuring pulse rate. This should be
by aerobic respiration, so the working cells of the regular, allowing for exercise or activity. Any
heart need glucose and oxygen for respiration. unusual changes could indicate problems in
The blood passing through the chambers on the the heart’s nervous system.
left side of the heart carries oxygen and glucose, ■ heart sounds. The regular ‘lub-dup’ sound
but the heart cells cannot use these because the of the heart is caused by the heart valves
muscular walls are very thick and the blood is closing in sequence (atrioventricular then
too far away. The heart muscle has its own blood semilunar). Leaking valves can make the
supply, delivered to capillary beds in the walls sound less clear.
of the heart through the coronary arteries. The
Coronary heart disease
coronary arteries branch off from the aorta, just
The supply of blood to the heart muscle may
where the aorta leaves the left ventricle. The heart
be interrupted if any of the coronary arteries
therefore has a high-pressure supply of blood
become blocked. The heart muscle cells are
loaded with oxygen and glucose. Once these useful
deprived of glucose and oxygen, and poisonous
substances have been removed by the heart muscle
wastes such as lactic acid build up (see page
cells and replaced with wastes such as carbon
124). Part of the heart muscle stops contracting,
dioxide, the blood returns to the circulation
causing a heart attack. This can be damaging
or even fatal, because other tissues in the body
no longer receive their supplies of oxygen and
nutrients if the heart stops beating.
What causes the coronary arteries to become
blocked? A healthy coronary artery may be
Left coronary
artery narrowed by atheroma so that blood flow
through it is restricted. This person has
coronary heart disease (CHD).
The risk of developing CHD is increased by:
■ poor diet – high levels of cholesterol or
saturated fatty acids in the blood
■ poor lifestyle – smoking, lack of exercise,
Right coronary artery
stress
▲ The coronary arteries branch off the aorta, supplying the ■ genetic factors – being male, having a
106 surface of the heart with oxygenated blood at high pressure
family history of heart disease.
 O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

Anyone with a genetic risk of developing heart If a doctor suspects that a patient has CHD, an
disease should obviously take care that he or angiogram is carried out. This gives a picture of the
she does not have a poor diet or lifestyle. Many state of these arteries (see below). If the coronary
middle-aged men, the highest risk group, help to arteries are blocked, a coronary artery bypass
prevent heart disease by taking half an aspirin a operation may be carried out, as shown below.
day (this seems to help stop small clots forming
which could block the arteries) and/or by drinking
a small quantity of alcohol (red wine may be the Avoid the
problem!
most beneficial).
Don’t smoke
Avoid fatty foods
Aortic arch Take regular
aerobic exercise

Grafted 'bypass'
Men are more at risk of CHD than women – but men
can’t avoid CHD by changing their gender!

Blocked part of S In a coronary artery bypass operation a blood vessel is

coronary artery removed from another part of the body and stitched into
place between the aorta and the unblocked part of the
coronary artery. Sometimes an artificial vessel is used. The
bypass increases blood flow and reduces the likelihood of
angina (chest pain).
Coronary artery

S Angioplasty can also help.

A special cable is passed into The metal
the narrowed artery and ‘cage’ (stent)
used to insert a metal ‘cage’ is placed in
which forces the artery open the artery
and the cable
Blood can now flow more easily is withdrawn.

Q
1 a The heart muscle has its own supply of blood from vessels that
from coronary heart disease

Graph A
run all over its surface. What is the name of these vessels? 20
Percentage death rate

b In some people these vessels can become blocked with a 15

fatty substance containing cholesterol. Explain the effects
that blocking these blood vessels would have. 10

2 Look at the graphs. Graph A shows the relationship between 5

the death rate for CHD and the blood cholesterol level. Graph
B shows the relationship between cholesterol levels and age, 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
for men and women.
Blood cholesterol / arbitrary units
a At which ages do men and women show the same blood
cholesterol level? Graph B
7
b Use the information in the graphs to explain why the death
Blood cholesterol /

6
arbitrary units

rate from CHD is higher for men than for women between
Men
the ages of 25 and 45 years. 5
c Use the graphs to determine the level of blood cholesterol 4 Women

that would keep the death rate from CHD at a minimum. 3

d What does your answer to c suggest about cholesterol 0
as the only cause of CHD? 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
e What sort of person is most at risk from CHD? Age / years

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Questions on circulation
1 Which is the correct pathway taken by blood to the lungs [1]
flowing through the human circulatory system? ii the vessel taking blood from the heart
A body → vena cava → left atrium → left to organs such as the liver. [1]
ventricle → lungs
5 Diagram A shows a sample of human blood,
B left ventricle → aorta → body → vena cava →
collected and spun to separate the different
right atrium
components.
C lungs → pulmonary artery → left atrium →
left ventricle → aorta
D right ventricle → aorta → lungs → body →
Plasma
right atrium [1]
Standard test tube
2 In a single circulation of a fish, the blood flows
through the heart once during a complete
circulation of the body. What type of blood White blood cells
leaves the heart?
A Deoxygenated blood at high pressure Red blood cells
B Deoxygenated blood at low pressure
C Oxygenated blood at high pressure fat
D Oxygenated blood at low pressure [1] ▲ Diagram A
3 Management of coronary heart disease may
a Diagram A is drawn to scale.
involve a number of actions. Which one of the
Calculate the percentage of red cells,
following is the treatment of CHD?
white cells and plasma in whole blood.
A Angioplasty
Show your working. [3]
B Eating more saturated fats
b Name two dissolved substances that
C Putting stents into coronary arteries
would be present in the plasma. [2]
D Taking more exercise [1]
c Diagram B shows three types of cell
4 The diagram below shows a section through a found in human blood.
human heart.

A B C

▲ Diagram B

d Use the letters to identify:

i a cell which manufactures and releases
antibodies [1]
ii a cell which contains a high
concentration of hemoglobin [1]
iii a cell which identifies and engulfs
bacteria [1]
iv a cell which transports oxygen around
a Name the structures labelled A, C and E. [3] the body. [1]
b State the function of the structure 6 The following diagrams are concerned with
labelled B. [1] the exchange of materials between the blood
c State the letter which represents: and tissues.
i the vessel taking blood from the heart

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Part of the circulatory system A US citizen is almost three times as likely

From heart To heart
to develop CHD as a French citizen. Medical
scientists suggested that this difference could be
A F
due to
B C D E either diet or inheritance. They set up a study of
Artery Vein 1000 French nationals who had emigrated to the
Small artery Small US, and who had taken up the American lifestyle,
Capillaries vein including diet.
Sections through blood vessels (not to scale) a How many of these people would you expect
Thick wall, muscle Single layer Thin wall, muscle to develop CHD if:
and elastic fibres of cells and elastic fibres
i diet is responsible [1]
ii inheritance is responsible? [1]
b All the people in this study were male, and
Pore non-smokers. Why was this important to the
Artery Capillary Vein validity of the results? [2]
Average blood pressure at different 8 The following tables show the effects of
positions in the circulatory system smoking and blood cholesterol levels on the
risk of developing CHD.
Blood pressure / kPa

20
16
12
Cigarettes smoked per day Relative risk of CHD
8 0 1
4 5 1.2
0 10 1.5
A B C D E F
15 2.0
Position in circulatory system
20 2.5
25 2.9
a What happens to the blood pressure as the 30 3.2
blood travels from A to F? [1]
b The highest pressure is found in the artery. ▲ Effect of smoking
Why is this important for the delivery of
Cholesterol level Relative risk of CHD
materials to the cells? [1]
Male, normal 1
c Veins have structures along them, not shown Female, normal 0.3
in the diagram, to help return blood to the Male, 30% above normal 1.4
heart. What are these structures called? [1] Male, 45% above normal 2.0
d How can the small arteries help control the Male, 75% above normal 3.1
distribution of blood to tissues which have
▲ Effect of blood cholesterol level
a high demand for oxygen and nutrients? [2]
e Use information shown in the diagrams to explain a Plot the two sets of results in an appropriate
how the structure of capillaries allows substances way. [4]
to pass from them to surrounding cells. [3] b i Which appears to carry greater risk, smoking
7 The bar chart below shows how the risk of CHD 10 cigarettes per day or having a blood
varies in different parts of the world. cholesterol level 45% above normal? [1]
ii How much more likely is a man who
smokes 30 cigarettes per day and has a
600
75% higher than normal blood cholesterol
England + Wales
number per 100 000 people

400 Men level to develop CHD than a non-smoking

France

woman with normal blood cholesterol

Death from CHD /

Scotland

Australia

Japan

level? [2]
Finland

200
USA

0
9 Suggest how:
a lifestyle b diet c inheritance
200 may cause problems with the circulatory system.
Women [3]
400
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O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

10.1 Diseases and immunity

OBJECTIVES Classification of diseases
There are two main classes of disease – infectious
■ To understand what is meant by disease
and non-infectious. Infectious diseases are
■ To appreciate that disease may have a number
caused by some other living organism, usually a
of causes
microorganism. They can be ‘caught’, or passed
■ To understand that some microorganisms may
on from one individual to another and so are
cause disease
also called transmissible diseases. These diseases
are caused by a living organism, called a
What is disease? pathogen. Infectious diseases can be classified
The process of homeostasis maintains optimum according to how the disease-causing organism
conditions for body function (see page 144). is passed from one individual to another, as
However, sometimes the mechanisms of illustrated below.
homeostasis cannot cope with changes in the Non-infectious diseases are not ‘caught’ from
internal environment of the body. A person another individual. These diseases may have a
in this situation will show signs (such as a number of causes, illustrated opposite.
raised body temperatures) and experience
symptoms (such as feeling tired). The person Patterns of disease vary in time and
is no longer ‘at ease’ but is ‘dis-eased’. Disease, space
then, is the state of the body when it cannot In the eighteenth century, many British children
cope with changes by the normal homeostatic died from bacterial infections. With the development
methods. of antibiotics, immunisation programmes and
Infectious diseases
These are caused by organisms, called pathogens, which may spread in a number of ways:

In infected water e.g. Cholera bacteria In droplets in the air e.g. influenza virus,
SARS-CoV-2 (coronavirus)

By direct contact (contagious) In contaminated food (causes food

e.g. athlete’s foot – fungus or poisoning) e.g. Salmonella bacteria
head lice – insects or pork tapeworm

By animal vectors e.g. Plasmodium Via body fluids e.g. hepatitis B virus or
protoctist (causes malaria) via Anopheles human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
mosquito (causes AIDS)

Typical symptoms of disease include:

sweating/fever due to resetting of body’s thermostat
vomiting/diarrhoea due to body’s attempts to clear gut of irritants
pain due to release of toxins by pathogens.
A doctor might use a thermometer to recognise a sign such as raised body temperature.

▲ Infectious diseases. Parasites such as tapeworms and head lice are not considered to cause ‘diseases’ by some
people, but they do cause distress to the person affected by them and the body is less ‘at ease’ when it has been
110
colonised by such a parasite. Parasites may be thought of as causing long-term disease.
 O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

Non-Infectious diseases

Degenerative – organs and tissues work less well as they age. This
is thought to be due to changes in body chemicals caused by free
radicals such as the peroxide ion e.g. heart attacks, cataracts,
hardening of the arteries.

Deficiency – poor diet may deprive the body of some essential

substance e.g. scurvy is caused by lack of vitamin C – see page 64.

Allergy – sensitivity to some antigen in the environment, e.g. hay

fever (pollen is the antigen) – see page 118.

Environmental – some factor in the environment may trigger a

dangerous or abnormal reaction e.g. overexposure to ultraviolet
radiation may cause abnormal cell division leading to skin
cancer.

Inherited/metabolic – some failure in the body’s normal set of

chemical reactions, e.g.
sickle cell anaemia (abnormal haemoglobin, page 223)
cystic fibrosis (production of thick mucus)
diabetes (failure to produce enough insulin, page 149).
These conditions are due to alterations in the genes.

Psychological/mental – changes in the working of the brain may

lead to abnormal behaviour, e.g. schizophrenia, depression.

Self-induced – some abuse of the body may affect its function,

e.g. lung cancer caused by cigarette smoking, cirrhosis of the liver
caused by alcohol abuse.

improved public hygiene, deaths from infectious the vector can live and breed. In the same way,
diseases in the UK are now much less common. diseases spread by the number of people likely
Smallpox was a major killer worldwide until the to meet an infected individual. In recent years,
1960s, but effective vaccination has now eliminated there has been concern over the possible spread of
this disease (see page 114). infectious diseases because:
In the Western world, the major killers are now ■ Easier travel by air means that diseases can
‘diseases of affluence’, caused by our relatively be carried from one country to another before
wealthy lifestyle. Along with accidents, coronary the infected person develops any symptoms,
heart disease and cancer cause most deaths in the e.g. COVID-19 caused by coronavirus infection.
UK, largely the result of smoking, eating too many ■ Global warming has increased the range of
sugary and fatty foods, and lack of exercise. some insect vectors.
Infectious diseases that are spread by vectors ■ A greater dependence on communal eating and
(e.g. malaria spread by mosquitoes) are naturally fast food has led to the easier transmission of
confined to those parts of the world in which organisms that cause food poisoning.

Q
1 Suggest three ways in which microbes might 4 What is the difference between the signs and the
be harmful to humans, and three ways in which symptoms of a disease? What are the causes of
they might be helpful. Give examples to support ‘typical’ disease symptoms?
your suggestions. 5 Suggest why measles is very rarely fatal in the UK yet
2 Suggest three causes of non-infectious diseases, and still ranks among the top five killer diseases in the
give one example of each. developing world.
3 How can infectious diseases spread? Give examples to 6 How have changes in human lifestyle contributed to
support your answer. the spread of infectious diseases?

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O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

10.2 Pathogens are organisms

that cause disease
OBJECTIVES Viruses
Viruses are responsible for many of the most
■ To recall that a pathogen is an organism that serious human diseases. Viruses differ from the
causes disease true living organisms in that they cannot survive
■ To give examples of different types of pathogen and the and reproduce outside the cells of their host –
diseases they cause every virus is a parasite. The structure of viruses
was described on page 18. Remember that viruses
Pathogens are parasites are so small that they can pass through filters and
Any organism that affects the body to cause screens which will trap any other organism. We
disease is a pathogen (or pathogenic organism). use an electron microscope to study viruses.
Pathogens are parasites, that is, they live on the Bacterial diseases
body of a host and cause it some harm: The structure of bacteria and their importance to
■ by secreting poisons (toxins) – this is
humans are outlined on page 292. Some bacteria
especially common from bacteria. The cause serious human diseases, cholera (see page
toxins have different effects, for example the 110) and TB for example.
organism Clostridium botulinum produces
TB is now the infectious disease that causes most
a deadly nerve poison, whereas bacteria of
deaths worldwide, due to:
the Salmonella group release a toxin which
■ poor disease control programmes
irritates the lining of the gut.
■ resistance to antibiotics (see page 174)
■ as a result of multiplication – the organism
■ co-infection with HIV
may reproduce quickly and produce such a
■ a rapid increase in the population of young
large colony that it damages cells directly, as
adults, the age group most at risk from TB.
in malaria, or it uses up compounds which
should be used by the host cell, as in polio. Any bacterial disease can be treated with
Many viruses multiply and cause host cells antibiotics.
to burst.
■ as a result of the immune response – when
Controlling the spread of disease
the host detects pathogens, it directs more Transmissable diseases are caused by pathogens
blood to the site of infection. This can cause so controlling these diseases often involves
swelling and soreness, and usually causes a preventing the spread of these organisms.
rise in body temperature. Important techniques include:
■ hygienic food preparation (see opposite)
There are many pathogens that are parasites on ■ good personal hygiene
humans, causing diseases. The following table ■ waste disposal (page 286)
illustrates the range of pathogenic organisms. ■ sewage treatment (page 282).
Pathogen type Size Disease in Individuals and communities all contribute to the
humans control of disease.
Virus About 1 nm Influenza
(1/1000 μm) AIDS
Bacterium (prokaryote) About 1 μm Cholera
Food poisoning
Protoctist Up to 1 mm Dysentery
Malaria
Fungus May be Athlete’s foot
extensive Ringworm
‘Worms’ Up to several Tapeworm
112 meters Toxocara
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O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

10.3 Preventing disease: safe food

OBJECTIVES
A number of bacteria can cause food poisoning,
■ To understand how microorganisms can affect human
including Clostridium botulinum (found in soil,
food supplies
fish and meat – it makes the most deadly nerve
■ To understand the dangers of food poisoning toxin produced by a living organism), Listeria
■ To understand how the risks of food poisoning can monocytogenes (found in soft cheeses and pâtés,
be minimised and becoming more common as we eat more
‘convenience foods’) and the Salmonella group.
Human foods need to be protected from
The diagram below shows some questions and
microorganisms for two reasons:
answers about bacteria and food poisoning.
■ the microorganisms might be decomposers
Thorough cooking kills any bacteria in food,
and spoil the food
but food may become contaminated after being
■ the microorganisms might be pathogenic and
cooked, or may not be cooked well enough.
cause disease.
The following principles of good food hygiene
Food poisoning help to prevent food poisoning:
Food poisoning is caused by eating contaminated ■ Avoid contamination of food by bacteria –
food which contains harmful numbers of food- wash hands, cooking utensils and surfaces
poisoning microbes. The symptoms of food carefully during food preparation, and package
poisoning may be due to: food carefully during transport and storage.
■ the microorganism ‘feeding’ on the host tissues ■ Prevent any bacteria that do gain entry to food
as it reproduces from multiplying.
■ toxins released onto the food by the ■ Destroy any remaining bacteria – cook the food
microorganism or released inside the host as thoroughly.
the microorganism reproduces.
The causes and symptoms of food poisoning
How do the bacteria get Which are the What are the characteristic
into the food? high-risk foods? symptoms?

Contaminated water Poor hygiene, e.g. undercooked meats abdominal pain

used during preparation unwashed hands and poultry diarrhoea
during preparation cooked rice vomiting
shellfish
dishes made
with raw eggs,
e.g. custard,
ice cream

Symptoms usually develop 8 – 36 hours

Contamination during storage, e.g. uncooked after eating the food, and diarrhoea and
foods stored alongside cooked foods vomiting may lead to dehydration.

Q
1 State which of the following is least likely to cause 2 One of the symptoms of food poisoning is diarrhoea.
food poisoning. Explain what causes this condition. Suggest why the
A Raw crabmeat condition is so dangerous.
B Ice cream
C Roast meat
D Raw fish

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10.4 Individuals and the community

can fight disease together
OBJECTIVES Community responsibility
Living close together in towns and cities means
■ To understand that the fight against disease involves
we share many facilities which affect our health.
several levels of responsibility
■ To provide examples of individual, community and Community health responsibilities include:
worldwide responsibilities ■ Providing safe drinking water and treating
sewage (see page 282)
■ removing refuse (see diagrams below and
The fight against disease has three levels: opposite)
■ personal – for example, each individual can take
■ providing medical care for the unwell
responsibility for his or her own social habits ■ monitoring standards of health and hygiene.
■ communities – for example, local health
services must be correctly managed and Worldwide responsibility
financed The World Health Organization (WHO) aims to
■ worldwide – for example, many nations carry raise the level of health of all the citizens of the
out vaccination programmes (see page 119). world so that they can lead socially productive
lives. They have had some successes:
Personal responsibility ■ reduction in infant mortality, by providing a
The individual can reduce his or her chances of better diet for mothers and their infants
contracting some diseases by: ■ elimination of smallpox, by a well-coordinated
■ having good personal hygiene
vaccination programme
■ eating a balanced diet
■ reduction in malaria, by a variety of control
■ taking regular exercise
measures such as draining swamps
■ not smoking
■ improved provision of safe water, by the
■ controlling alcohol intake.
construction of water-treatment plants.
Refuse disposal in land-fill sites
Advantages Disadvantages
Can help land reclamation, e.g. in filling Sites can attract pests, such as flies,
old quarry workings. rats and gulls. These might spread disease
Can be made economical in terms of space: (e.g. flies contaminate food) or leave a mess
– lorries use rams to compress rubbish (e.g. gulls leave droppings).
– very deep pits can be used. Ecologically important areas such as marshes and
Can be situated well away from residential heathland may be used as dumps.
areas, reducing impact of smells and
unsightly rubbish. Refuse may be buried under 0.5m of soil. This
reduces access by pests
allows bacteria and fungi to decompose
organic compounds
generates biogas which can be used to fuel
machinery.

Refuse that can be decomposed by microbes

is biodegradable. Non-biodegradable materials
are inert (like plastic and glass) or inhibit
decomposition (like acidic peel from oranges
and lemons).

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Refuse disposal by incineration

Advantages Disadvantages
Incineration plant is quite small May generate toxic fumes
so valuable land not used. (especially from burning plastics).
No attraction to pests so less Can be very expensive to build.
risk of disease. Seepage of wastes may
Heat generated can be used – pollute groundwater.
incinerators built as part of Fuel is consumed to begin the
housing projects can save energy. combustion process.

▲ Open rubbish dumps are a source of infection. Waste food is infected with harmful microbes,
which may be spread by rats, birds such as the Marabou stork, and humans.

Q
1 Suggest two steps an individual can take to reduce the 3 Name one viral and one bacterial sexually transmitted
risk of a named disease. infection (STI).
2 What are the responsibilities of a community 4 For any one named STI suggest how individuals, local
health service? communities and scientists worldwide might be
involved in its control.

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CH
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E TR II O
SNTIC
ANS DA N
MDA ICNLTAESNSAINF C
I CE AO
T IFOO
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GFA NL I S
V IMNSG O R G A N I S M S

9.4 The
10.5 Combating
heart is the
infection:
pump for
blood
the
circulatory
and defencesystem
against disease
OBJECTIVES
Physical defences against the entry of
■ To recall what is meant by disease
microorganisms include the cilia and mucus-
■ To recall that disease can be caused by pathogens,
secreting cells of the respiratory pathways (see
which must first invade the body
page 129). If the potential pathogens do penetrate
■ To understand that the body may be able to defend
these first lines of defence, they might reproduce
itself against pathogens
quickly in the warm, moist, nutrient-filled tissues.
Further defence depends upon the blood.
Disease is often caused by the invasion of the
body by another organism. Organisms that cause Bleeding and clot formation
disease in this way are called pathogens and their Blood clotting seals wounds. The blood clot limits
attacks on the body result in infections. the loss of blood and also prevents entry of any
pathogens. Clotting depends on platelets and
The skin and defence against disease blood proteins, as outlined in the diagram below.
The outer layer of the skin, the epidermis, is waxy
and impermeable to water and to pathogens White blood cells and defence
(although microorganisms can live on its surface). Organisms that gain entry to the tissues are
Natural ‘gaps’ in the skin may be protected by removed or destroyed by white blood cells.
chemical secretions, for example: These white blood cells must attack only invading
■ the mouth leads to the gut which is protected organisms and not the body’s own cells (although
by hydrochloric acid in the stomach this does happen sometimes, see page 119). The
■ the eyes are protected by lysozyme, an enzyme white blood cells recognise foreign particles such
that destroys bacterial cell walls, in the tears as bacteria, or perhaps large molecules such
■ the ears are protected by bactericidal as proteins in snake venom, and react against
(‘bacteria-killing’) wax. them. These foreign particles are called antigens.
Potential pathogens have antigens on their
Blood clotting reduces loss of blood and seals the wound against pathogens
Exposure to air
S
Damaged platelets Torn capillaries

Release enzymes
Inherited defects
in blood protein
production cause
severe bleeding
(haemophilia).
Fibrinogen, an
inactive blood Fibrin, an activated
protein blood protein

Beneath a scab, the tissue may become

red and inflamed. Certain white blood Forms a mesh of fibres which
cells release histamine, a chemical traps red blood cells. These dry
messenger which allows plasma to leak out to form a scab which closes
out of the capillaries. The extra plasma the wound and prevents the Fibrin fibres trap blood cells to form a scab
dilutes any toxins which may have entry of pathogens.
entered the wound.
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S Phagocyte action

Sometimes phagocytes die as

Blood vessel Digestive enzymes are they accumulate toxins from
poured into the sac. the pathogens. The pus
The pathogen is destroyed. underneath a scab, or in
The phagocyte may absorb a spot, contains many of
the digested products, these dead phagocytes.
and use them for
its own metabolism.

Infected tissue

Phagocytes are large white blood cells.

They are attracted to wounds or sites
of infection by chemical messages. Phagocyte recognises pathogen and
The long, lobed nucleus allows them flows round it, enclosing it in a sac
to squeeze out between cells which
line the capillaries. Some pathogens escape the phagocytes by:
They contain sacs full of powerful hiding inside the host´s cells, e.g. Plasmodium in liver cells
digestive enzymes. staying in phagocyte-free areas, e.g. inside the gut.

surface, and they are recognised and destroyed by disorganised. They can destroy lung tissue rather
phagocytes and by antibodies. Phagocytes engulf than foreign particles, leading to the disease
and then destroy the pathogens with digestive emphysema (see page 135).
enzymes, as outlined above. Antibodies are
described on page 118.
Q
1 Suggest how the skin may limit the entry of
There are many phagocytes present in areas of pathogens to the body. Why is it necessary to
the body likely to suffer infection. The exposed prevent the entry of pathogens?
surfaces of the lungs, for example, are patrolled 2 This question concerns the process of blood clotting.
a Why might blood clotting be necessary?
by phagocytes. If the lungs are regularly attacked
b When could blood clotting be a disadvantage?
by the free radicals in tobacco smoke, large c Blood clotting occurs in a number of stages. This is
numbers of phagocytes collect and may become quite common in biological processes, because it

First aid can save lives

i allows amplification. Each step produces a
product which can trigger many repeats of the next
Severe blood loss, or haemorrhage, can cause a number step – for example, each enzyme molecule released
of problems. Following an accident there may be so from a platelet can catalyse the conversion of 100
much blood loss that the blood pressure falls to inactive protein molecules to their active form.
dangerously low levels. This may affect the function i Suggest how this amplification might be an
of vital organs such as the heart, brain and kidney.
advantage in a rapid response to wounding.
If the victim has no pulse or is not breathing, steps are ii If there were five steps, each allowing an
taken to restart these essential functions. amplification of 100, how many ‘product’
If there is considerable bleeding, the first-aider applies molecules would be present at the end of the
firm pressure to the site of the injury. The victim should complete process for each ‘signal’ molecule
not be moved unless he or she is in danger. No attempt released at the start of the process?
should be made to clean wounds – this may force 3 Describe the process of phagocytosis. Suggest two
a foreign body such as a glass fragment deeper into ways in which the structure of a phagocyte is related
the wound. to its function. Suggest two ways in which a
Organisations such as St John Ambulance in the UK pathogen might avoid phagocytosis.
provide training in first aid.
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O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

10.6 Antibodies and the immune

response
S OBJECTIVES
Once the lymphocytes have learnt to make a
■ To know what an antibody is
particular type of antibody in response to the
■ To understand how antibodies are involved in defence
antigens on an infective organism, the body
against disease
begins to recover as the organisms are destroyed.
■ To understand how memory cells protect
It takes a few days to produce antibodies, so the
against infections
infected individual will show some symptoms of
■ To know how the immune response can be enhanced
the disease (a high temperature, for example).
■ To understand the production and use of
monoclonal antibodies Immunity
After an infection, some lymphocytes are kept
An antibody is a protein as ‘memory cells’, which help the body to defend
An antibody is a protein produced by the body itself against further attacks by the same antigen.
in response to an antigen. Each different antigen This ‘memory’ may last for years, and the body
stimulates the production of the particular type of is said to be immune to the disease. There are
antibody that will destroy that antigen. Antibodies different types of immunity, as shown opposite.
are made by white blood cells called lymphocytes.
They defend the body as shown below.

The action of white blood cells – lymphocytes

Scientists estimate that humans can make This end of the antibody acts
up to 1 000 000 different antibodies – as a signal to destroy
enough to account for every pathogen or the pathogen.
‘foreign’ substance we might ever meet!

The forked end

of the antibody
recognises and
binds to the
surface antigen
on the pathogen
to ‘label’ it.

ymphocytes are a type of white blood cell: Antibodies are:

found in circulating blood and in the proteins produced by lymphocytes
lymph nodes (see page 103) able to recognise, bind to and help
have a large nucleus and no granules to destroy pathogens An antigen is:
in the cytoplasm always Y-shaped. a protein or carbohydrate on the
stimulated by contact with pathogens surface of the pathogen
oduce antibodies. able to provoke the immune system
‘Labelled’ pathogens may be destroyed by:
of the host.
sticking together in clumps so they can
be ingested by phagocytes
T-lymphocytes, which burst membranes Pathogens may evade the immune
around the pathogen system by mutation – they change
antibodies directly – a few antibodies and produce different antigens
may actually destroy the pathogen's cell which the host has not learned to

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S Immunity may be Natural Individual contracts disease but survives,

Pathogen makes antibodies and is now immune to
Active: individual infects further infection by the same pathogen,
Immunity is the body’s use of
makes his or her individual e.g. immunity develops to different
antibodies to combat invasion by
own antibodies. strains of the common cold.
pathogens. It may be enhanced
This gives long Artificial by a vaccine – a chemical or cell
term (even lifelong) Vaccine does not cause disease but which provokes the body’s
immunity because there Weakened lymphocytes do produce antibodies immune system to make the
are now memory cells pathogen – individual is now immune to this appropriate antibodies.
which retain the ability (vaccine) pathogen, e.g. vaccination against
to produce antibodies. Rubella virus (which causes German
measles) in teenage girls.
Vaccination reduces the spread
Natural Mother’s antibodies cross the placenta of disease. If many individuals
and are in breast milk – newborn child are protected by their antibodies
temporarily immune to pathogens for there will be very few new host
Passive: individual organisms where the pathogen
which mother produced antibodies, e.g.
is given ready- can multiply. There will therefore
gut infections.
made antibodies. be fewer pathogens to infect new
This only gives short individuals.
term immunity Artificial
Injection
because no memory
cells are produced. Adult is now immune to disease. Used if disease is too
fast-acting for the immune system to deal with, e.g.
Antibodies collected injection of anti-tetanus antibodies following a deep,
from blood of dirty cut or wound. This offers only a temporary
laboratory animal immunity, because the body is not producing any of its
and stored as serum own antibodies.

Some problems with the immune ■ matching tissues wherever possible, for example
response by seeking out relatives of people needing bone
The activity of the immune system saves all our marrow transplants, because relatives are more
lives, many times over. There are occasions, likely to have similar antigens to the recipient.
however, when it may actually reduce the
Monoclonal antibodies
likelihood of survival. These are described below.
Scientists need a good supply of ‘pure’ antibodies
Autoimmune diseases are caused by the body to work with. They produce these by combining
producing antibodies which destroy its own cells. the properties of two types of cell:
Why this should happen is not known. An example
■ lymphocytes are very efficient at producing
is Type I diabetes where the body destroys its own
anitbodies but cannot be grown in large
insulin-producing cells by an immune reaction.
numbers outside the human body
Transplant rejection – the most common organ ■ tumour cells cannot produce antibodies but
transplant in Britain is the kidney transplant divide very well in artificial culture.
(see page 143), but heart, intestine, lung, liver Cells formed by joining together lymphocytes and
and pancreas transplants are becoming more tumour cells – called hybridomas – can produce
common. The recipient’s lymphocytes may enormous quantities of one desirable kind of
recognise antigens on the surface of the donor antibody and survive for long periods in artificial
organ as foreign and slowly destroy it. This culture. The antibodies produced in this way are
problem of rejection is being overcome by: called monoclonal antibodies (‘mono’ means
■ drugs that suppress the immune system of the one type and ‘clonal’ means a group of identical
recipient long enough to allow the transplanted dividing cells). They have many uses in medicine,
organ to become established industry and research.

Q
1 How do antibodies recognise pathogens?
2 State one difference in structure between a lymphocyte and a phagocyte.
3 Explain how a single infection by a pathogen can provide lifelong protection against a disease.
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 Questions on blood and defence
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against disease
1 A pathogen is an organism that: d Mr Jones landed at the airport after a
A feeds on dead and decaying organisms holiday abroad. He read in a newspaper that
B lives in an organism and causes disease typhoid had broken out in the town where
C lives inside a host organism without he spent the last three days of his holiday.
causing harm Typhoid is a dangerous disease which
D spreads disease organisms from infected to usually causes illness between 7 and 14 days
uninfected people [1] after infection.
2 During an immune response: The graphs below show two ways in which a
A lymphocytes and specific phagocytes divide person can acquire artificial immunity.
to make antibodies Method A involves the injection of an
B all lymphocytes divide to produce cells that antigen, method B an injection of antibody.
make antibodies Which of the methods shown in the graphs
C phagocytes engulf and completely digest would provide the best protection, from
bacteria typhoid, for Mr Jones? Give a reason for
D specific lymphocytes divide to produce your answer. [2]
cells that make antibodies [1]
antibody / arbitrary units

Method A
3 Some microorganisms, such as the bacteria
Concentration of

that cause cholera, enter the body in our food

and cause disease.
Level of antibody
a State the term given to a disease-causing needed for immunity
organism. [1]
b State two ways in which food can become 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
contaminated with microorganisms. [2] Time / days
Injection Second
of antigen injection of antigen
c Some diseases are transmitted in food and
antibody / arbitrary units

Method B
water. State four other ways in which
Concentration of

infectious diseases can be transmitted. [4]

4 a Give three natural ways in which the body
Level of antibody
can prevent the entry of pathogens. [3] needed for immunity
b How can a baby acquire immunity from its
mother after birth? [2]
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
c The diagram below shows how the human Injection Time / days
of antibody
body can respond to the entry of a pathogen
by producing B and T lymphocytes.
5 Read the following article carefully, then answer
i Explain how the B lymphocytes protect
the questions based on it.
the body from pathogens. [2]
Blood plasma carries red blood cells, white blood
ii Describe one way in which the T
cells and platelets to all parts of the body. It also
lymphocytes protect the body after a
carries many solutes (dissolved substances)
second infection by the same pathogen. [2]
– these include oxygen, carbon dioxide, urea,
hormones, glucose and amino acids.
Bone marrow cell
In a normal healthy person the number of white
Lymphocytes
blood cells may vary, but is usually no more
than 8000 per mm3 of blood. If a person has an
B lymphocytes T lymphocytes infection, the number of white blood cells may
rise to 40 000 per mm3 of blood.
120 B memory cells Plasma cells Four different types of T cells
 O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

In a healthy person living at sea level, there a Explain why no antibodies were present in
are about 5 000 000 red blood cells per mm3 of the blood for the first week. [2]
blood. The cells are regularly replaced from the b The response to the two injections of the
bone marrow. Old, worn-out red blood cells are vaccine is different.
removed from the blood by the liver, after about Use the information in the graph to describe
120 days of carrying out their function. Each and explain how the response to the booster
cell carries oxygen from the lungs to the tissues, at eight months differs from the response to
combined with a protein called haemoglobin. the first injection at four months. [2]
Haemoglobin will also combine with carbon c Suggest why further boosters of this vaccine
monoxide, a gas in car exhaust fumes and may be given. [2]
cigarette smoke. Carbon monoxide combines with 7 The diagram below shows four different
haemoglobin about 250 times more readily than antigens and an antibody molecule.
oxygen does, and the combination does not break Z
W X
down. Y
a Name two soluble substances transported
in the blood plasma. For each substance you
name, suggest where it might be coming
from and where it might be going to. [4]
b What is the maximum number of white blood
cells normally found in 1 mm3 of blood?
What can cause this number to increase? [2]
a The antibody forms a complex with one of
c In a healthy person, what is the ratio of
the antigens.
red blood cells to white blood cells? [1]
State which one and explain your answer. [2]
d Name two sources of carbon monoxide. [2]
b There is no vaccine for chicken pox. A child
e What happens to the amount of oxygen
has been vaccinated against several diseases
transported if a person breathes in carbon
including measles, tetanus and rubella.
monoxide? Explain your answer. [2]
The child catches chicken pox and has the
f How long would it take the blood of the
symptoms of the disease.
person in part e to regain its full ability
i Use the information in the diagram to
to carry oxygen? Explain your answer. [2]
explain why it is possible to be immune
g Liver is a good dietary source of iron. Why?
to many diseases, but still be ill with
[1]
another disease, such as chicken pox. [3]
6 A child received a first vaccination against ii Some people see that certain diseases
measles at four months of age and then a are becoming rare and believe that there
booster at eight months. The concentration of is no longer any need for vaccination.
antibodies to measles is shown in the graph. Suggest why vaccination against diseases
must continue to be carried out even
if there are no cases of the disease for
Antibody concentration in

many years. [2]

blood / arbitrary units

8 Which row in the table shows the correct

functions of the components of the blood?
Plasma Red blood cells Platelets
A transport of ions clotting oxygen transport
B antibody formation oxygen transport clotting
C transport of ions oxygen transport clotting
D oxygen transport clotting antibody formation
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Time / months
[1]
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O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

11.1 Respiration provides the

energy for life
OBJECTIVES
is described in greater detail on page 46, but in
■ To understand that energy is needed to carry
energy terms it can be described simply as:
out work
■ To appreciate that different forms of energy can
light energy from the Sun
be interconverted
⇓
■ To be able to list some of the energy-demanding
converted in green plants
processes in living organisms
■ To describe how the process of respiration releases
⇓
energy from chemical foods chemical energy in organic molecules

A second energy-conversion process releases

Energy conversions in living things the chemical energy stored in organic food
Energy can be defined as ‘the capacity for doing molecules and converts it to energy forms that
work’. The processes that keep organisms alive organisms use to stay alive. This process is called
(for example, pumping ions from one side of a respiration. Respiration is the set of chemical
membrane to another) usually require work to be reactions that break down nutrient molecules in
done. It is clear, therefore, that life requires energy. living cells to release energy. Respiration involves
Life also depends on energy conversions. The the action of enzymes in cells (see page 40).
first and most important energy conversion in The diagram at the bottom of the page shows
living things is photosynthesis. This process some of the uses of energy by living organisms.
Growth: uses energy to synthesise
Living organisms obtain their food by nutrition (see page 72). large molecules from smaller ones
They release energy from food in the process of respiration, and (e.g. protein synthesis from amino
acids).
use it to carry out the work needed for life.
Maintenance of body temperature:
all chemical reactions in the body
release some heat, particularly
reactions in the liver.

Passage of nerve impulses:

pumping ions in and out
of nerve cells.

Photosynthesis Respiration
in green plants in all cells
Active transport: moving molecules
Light against a concentration gradient,
energy ENERGY
e.g. ion uptake by roots.

This energy can be used

‘Food’
to do the work needed to Cell division: replication and
(chemical
keep cells and organisms separation of chromosomes is very
energy)
alive. Much of the energy energy demanding. A human
will eventually return to replaces billions of cells every day.
the environment as heat.
Q Movement: contraction of muscle
1 True or False. requires energy. The supply of
energy will run out if food or
a Most of the energy in our diet is used for movement. oxygen is limited.
b Ions only move from the intestine to the blood by diffusion.
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What is respiration? The energy is released in small ‘packets’ which

Respiration involves the oxidation of food can then drive the reactions that keep the cell
molecules, and energy is released during the alive. These energy packets act as a short-term
process. These food molecules all contain carbon, store of energy. The one used most commonly by
hydrogen and oxygen and the complete oxidation cells is a molecule called adenosine triphosphate
process converts these to carbon dioxide and (ATP).
water. Complete oxidation occurs only if oxygen is The reactions are summarised in the following
present. For example: equation.

carbon glucose + oxygen

words: glucose + oxygen energy + + water
dioxide

⎯→
⎯→ ATP ‘work’ in cells
S symbols: C6H12O6 + 6O2 energy + 6CO2 + 6H2O
carbon + water
dioxide
Definition: respiration is the release of energy
from food substances, and goes on in all living This process, which releases energy in the
cells. So much energy is released in this process presence of oxygen, is called aerobic respiration
that, if it was all released at once, the cell might (‘aerobic’ means ‘in air’), and takes place in the
be damaged. mitochondria (see page 24). The reactions involve
enzymes, and some energy is ‘lost’ as heat.
VACUUM FLASK EXPERIMENT

A B

Vacuum flasks:
prevent heat loss from
contents or gain from
surroundings

Equal masses
of peas

Cotton wool
plugs: support Dead peas, killed by
Living peas, boiling or by strong
thermometers and allow
previously soaked disinfectant
gas exchange between
in water and washed
flask contents and
with dilute disinfectant
surroundings

Thermometers: positioned so
that they can be read without
removal from flask

Apparatus is assembled as shown.

Temperature readings are taken immediately, and then every day for 4–5 days.
In an experiment like this one, the following results were obtained:

Time / days Temperature / °C

a Explain these results.
A B b Why is it important to include flask B?
0 20 20 c Disinfectant kills bacteria – why is this important?
1 23 20
2 25 20
3 27 21
4 28 21
5 28 21

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O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

11.2 Contraction of muscles requires

energy supplied by respiration
OBJECTIVES
The word equation is:
■ To know that respiration is the source of energy
for muscular work glucose energy + lactic acid
■ To understand that anaerobic respiration is less efficient
than aerobic respiration and produces a toxic product Anaerobic respiration has two drawbacks:
■ To understand that exercise is limited by the build-up of ■ It gives only about one-twentieth of the energy
lactic acid
per glucose molecule that aerobic respiration
yields.
How muscles contract
■ Lactic acid is poisonous – if it builds up in the
Muscles contract and pull on bones to move the
cells it inhibits muscular contraction, which
skeleton. Muscles are collections of very long
leads to fatigue and, eventually, death.
muscle fibres. When lots of fibres shorten at the
same time, the muscle contracts. S This harmful lactic acid is carried out of the
Muscular work requires energy muscles in the blood. It is transported around
the body to the heart, liver and kidneys where
Aerobic respiration it is oxidised to pyruvate, which can be used to
Work must be done to contract muscle. The release energy by aerobic respiration. The heart,
energy for this comes from aerobic respiration, the liver and the kidneys will need extra oxygen
defined as chemical reactions that use oxygen to to get rid of this lactic acid, provided by the deep,
break down nutrient molecules to raise energy. fast breathing that follows hard exercise. This
The word and chemical equations are: extra oxygen is the oxygen debt.

carbon
glucose + oxygen energy + + water
C6H12O6 + 6O2
dioxide
energy + 6CO2 + 6H2O
Q
1 One of the comparisons between aerobic and
anaerobic respiration shown below is incorrect.
The oxygen comes from the air. It is taken in at Which one?
the lungs and carried around the body in the
blood, pumped by the heart. Glucose comes from Respiration
food digested in the gut, and is also carried in the Aerobic Anaerobic
blood. Muscles have extensive capillary beds to A Uses oxygen gas Does not use oxygen gas
supply glucose and oxygen for respiration, and to B Produces ethanol or Produces no ethanol or
carry away carbon dioxide. The blood also carries lactic acid lactic acid
away heat that is produced during respiration. C Large amount of energy Small amount of energy
released released
Anaerobic respiration D Mitochondria involved Mitochondria not involved
When we work very hard our muscles use up a lot E Carbon dioxide always Carbon dioxide sometimes
of energy. The heart and lungs, even working flat produced produced
out, cannot supply enough oxygen to provide this
energy by aerobic respiration. Muscles can release 2 What is meant by energy transformation? Briefly
energy from food without using oxygen by a describe one energy transformation that is important
process called anaerobic respiration: the release to living organisms. What eventually happens to all
of energy from glucose in the absence of oxygen. of the energy taken in by living organisms?

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The diagram below shows the part played by aerobic and anaerobic respiration during rest, exercise and recovery.
Rest – all respiration is aerobic. Hard exercise – respiration is Recovery – paying off the oxygen debt. The
Normal breathing and heart art mainly
m ainly anerobic. Very high b reathing and
breathing d hea art rate
heart tes rema
rates ain
remain i high
high,h, evven
even
rates can supply the tissuess breathing
b reathing and heart rates still though the m usccles aare
muscles re at rest.. TThe
he extxtra
extra
with all the oxygen they need,
eed,
ed, ccannot
annot provide the muscles o xygen is us
oxygen sed tto
used o cocon
onvertt the
convert the lac
llactic
tic
ic ac
aacid
id
d
Glucose 1 oxygen energy gy 1 with
w ith enough oxygen for in
nto carbon
into n diooxidde and
dioxide nd water, pa payin
payingng offff
carbon dioxide + water aaerobic
erobic respiration. the oxygen n deebt..
debt.
Glucose
G lucose energy 1 lactic
Heart rate acid H eart ratee
Heart
70 beats per minute 1 40 beat
140 ts p
beats er m
per in
nutte
minute
ffalling
alling to
o noormmal
normal
Heart
Heart rate
ratte
Breathing aafter
fter somme min
some nuttess
minutes
140 beats per
perr minute
minu
ute
15 breaths per minute
Breathing
Breathing B reathin
Breathingng
50
50 breaths
breatths perr minute
minute
ue 5 0 breat
50 ths perr m
breaths inu
ute
minutee
ffalling
alling to
o noorm
mal aft
normal ter
after
ssome
ome min nuttes
minutes

The muscles
The musccles aree getting
g tti
ge t ngg energyy
without ‘paying‘
without ‘p
payin
ing‘‘ for
for it with
wit
ithh
oxygen. They
oxygen. The
hey are
are running
ru
unnning
in up
an oxygen debt.
an debt
bt. Panting
Panting and d rapid
pid heartbeat
rap heartbeat
ea t continue
continue until
tin untill
the
the lactic acid
id has
as been
ha bee n removed.
een remov
re d. Physically
oved
ed. Phys
ysical
ally
fit
fi people recover
recoover faster.
f ter.
fas

S
Blood levels of oxygen and lactic acid

Rest Exercise Recovery

This is the ‘extra’

oxygen required to
Anaerobic respiration
No lactic acid builds pay off the oxygen is important in other organisms
up because there is debt. such as yeast, for brewing and
enough oxygen for baking (page 298)
aerobic respiration.
Glucose alcohol + carbon dioxide
C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2
This is the shortfall
Oxygen in oxygen – making
lactic acid builds up
Lactic acid an oxygen debt.

Time / min

▲ Trained athletes can exercise for longer than people who do not usually exercise before they build up an oxygen debt

Q
3 The concentration of lactic acid in the blood of a a Plot this information in the form of a graph.
runner was measured at intervals before, during and b What was the lactic acid concentration at the end of
after she ran for 10 minutes. The results are shown in the run?
the table below. c For how long did the concentration of lactic acid
increase after the end of the run?
Time / Concentration of
minutes lactic acid / arbitrary units d Why did the blood still contain lactic acid after
0 18 the run?
10 18 e In which tissues was the lactic acid produced?
15 56 f How long after the run was it before the oxygen
25 88 debt was paid off?
35 42
50 21
65 18

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O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

11.3 The measurement of respiration

OBJECTIVE
■ To explain how it is possible to detect and measure the 1 MEASUREMENT OF RESPIRATION
process of respiration IN YEAST

An obvious ‘sign of life’ is that respiration is taking measuring cylinder

thermometer to measure volume
place because we know respiration is essential for of carbon dioxide

life (page 2). We can demonstrate that respiration

layer of liquid
is happening, and we can even measure how paraffin keeps
oxygen out of
quickly it is going on. yeast suspension

The equation for anaerobic respiration in yeast (page yeast suspansion

in boiled, cooked
125) shows that carbon dioxide is released. The sugar solution

volume of CO2 released at different temperatures can water bath at Diagram 1

constant temperature
be measured using the apparatus opposite. Glucose Carbon dioxide + Ethanol
Enzymes gas
Ideally, the temperature of the water bath would be
controlled by a heater and thermostat.
To investigate aerobic respiration we need to use some different living organisms.
Germinating seeds are useful for this experiment because they are chemically very
active (the fast growth during germination requires a great deal of energy). Animals
such as blowfly larvae (maggots) or woodlice can also be used, although they are rather
more difficult to handle.

2 MEASUREMENT OF OXYGEN
CONSUMPTION USING A RESPIROMETER
S The effect of
The apparatus shown in the diagram on the next page is used.
temperature on
a A measured mass of living organisms is put in the chamber.
b First, the spring clip is open, so that an equilibrium of temperature and respiration can be
pressure is set up between the chamber and the surroundings. investigated using
c After five minutes or so, the spring clip is closed and the movement of the this apparatus. The
coloured liquid along the capillary tube is observed. The time taken for it to respiratory chamber
move a measured length along the tube is noted.
can be placed in a
d The living organisms are removed and the experiment is repeated.
thermostatically
Using this apparatus, a group of students obtained the following data.
controlled water bath
Experiment Distance Time Relative oxygen consumption / and the measurements
moved / mm taken / s mm per s made at a series of
1 Seeds 39 100 temperatures (see Q.3).
2 Seeds 42 100
3 Seeds 24 60
4 Maggots 46 90
5 Maggots 55 100
6 Maggots 30 60

126
 Principle: Carbon dioxide produced during
respiration is absorbed by potassium hydroxide
O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S
solution. If the system is closed to the atmosphere,
a change in volume of the gas within the chamber
must be
Principle: due todioxide
Carbon the consumption of oxygen.
produced during
The change
respiration in volume,
is absorbed i.e. thehydroxide
by potassium oxygen consumption,
is measured
solution. as the
If the system movement
is closed to the of a drop of coloured
atmosphere,
liquidinalong a capillary Graduated scale Coloured liquid – narrow-bore
a change volume of the gastube.
within the chamber
must be due to the consumption of oxygen. against which capillary tube means that any
The change in volume, i.e. the oxygen consumption, movement of small change in volume of gas
Spring clip – when open, coloured liquid in chamber produces a
is measured as the movement of a drop of coloured
contents of chamber are in Graduated scale Coloured liquidlarge
can be measured. – narrow-bore
movement of liquid.
liquid along a capillary tube.
equilibrium with atmosphere. against which capillary tube means that any
movement of Gauzesmall change
basket in volume
to hold of gas
respiring material
Spring clip – when open, coloured liquid
Rubber
contents stopper are
of chamber – canin be made mustinbechamber
porous produces
to allow afree exchange of gases.
can be measured. large movement of liquid.
more airtight
equilibrium by smearing petroleum jelly
with atmosphere.
along seal between chamber Gauze basketRespiratory chamber
to hold respiring has relatively
material
andstopper
Rubber stopper. – can be made low to
must be porous volume, so that
allow free changes
exchange in volume
of gases.
more airtight by smearing petroleum jelly due to respiration are significant
along seal between chamber
Filter paper wick ensures that enough has
Respiratory chamber to be measured.
relatively
and stopper. low volume, so that changes in volume
maximum surface area of potassium
due to respiration are significant
Weighed amount of respiring material
hydroxide solution is available enough to be measured.
Filtertopaper wick ensures
contents that
of chamber. – the mass, m, of the respiring material
maximum surface area of potassium should be known so that results can be
hydroxide solution is available Weighed amount of respiring material
compared with other experiments.
to contents of chamber. – the mass, m, of the respiring material
should be known so that results can be
Potassium hydroxide solution absorbs Glass
compared with rodexperiments.
other to keep respiring material
carbon dioxide evolved during respiration. out of direct contact with potassium hydroxide solution.
Potassium hydroxide solution absorbs Glass rod to keep respiring material
carbon dioxide evolved during respiration. out of direct contact with potassium hydroxide solution.

3 MEASUREMENT OF CARBON DIOXIDE RELEASE

To detect carbon dioxide released by
respiring organisms, we can use an
indicator solution. For example
hydrogencarbonate indicator is
purple at high pH (alkaline), red
around neutral pH and orange-
yellow at low pH (acidic).
The diagram shows the apparatus. A B C D
A
Potassium C
hydroxide B Hydrogencarbonate D Hydrogencarbonate
Potassium hydroxide
solutionHydrogencarbonate Hydrogencarbonate indicator
indicator
solution indicator indicator
Using limewater Clear Turns cloudy/milky

Q
1 a In experiment 1 why did the students take more than a Plot these results on a graph, and explain the shape
one set of readings for each group of organisms? of the curve.
b Calculate the mean relative oxygen consumption for b In this investigation, identify the independent
the seeds and for the maggots. Suggest a reason (input) variable and the dependent (outcome)
for the difference. variable.
2 The students repeated the experiment with no living c Suggest any fixed variables. (Refer to page 312 if
organisms in the chamber. The coloured liquid did not you are unsure about these terms.)
move at all. Why was this important? In experiment 2:
3 In an extension of this investigation, the students 4 What is the purpose of the potassium hydroxide
measured the effect solution?
Temperature / Relative oxygen
of temperature on 5 What does the indicator solution in flask B show?
°C consumption /
the rate of oxygen mm per s 6 How can you explain the change in flask D?
consumption by the 7 Suggest a control for this investigation, and explain
15 0.3
maggots. They why it is a suitable control.
obtained the 25 0.6
8 Suggest any visible change that might happen in
following results: 35 1.1 flask C. Explain your answer.
45 0.8
55 0.2
127
65 0.0
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O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

12.1 Gas exchange supplies oxygen

for respiration
OBJECTIVES Property of surface Reason

■ To understand why living organisms must obtain oxygen Thin (ideally one cell Gases have a short distance over which
thick) to diffuse.
from their environment, and why they must release
carbon dioxide to their environment Large surface area Many molecules of gas can diffuse across
at the same time.
■ To know the properties of an ideal gas exchange surface
Moist Cells die if not kept moist.
■ To be able to identify the parts of the human gas
Well ventilated Concentration gradients for oxygen and
exchange system
carbon dioxide are kept up by regular
fresh supplies of air.
Exchanging oxygen and carbon dioxide Close to a blood supply Gases can be carried to and from the
Respiration uses oxygen to ‘burn’ (oxidise) food cells that need or produce them.
and so release the energy that cells need to stay Gas exchange in humans
alive. Respiration produces carbon dioxide and Like other mammals, humans are active and
water vapour as waste products: maintain a constant body temperature. This
means they use up a great deal of energy.
carbon
glucose + oxygen energy + + water Mammals must have a very efficient gas exchange
dioxide
system.
Living organisms must be able to take oxygen from
The gas exchange system in humans is shown
the air and get rid of carbon dioxide to the air.
opposite and is made up of:
Swapping oxygen for carbon dioxide in this way is
■ a respiratory surface – membranes lining the
called gas exchange (or gaseous exchange).
alveoli (air sacs) in the lungs
Gas exchange takes place through a gas exchange ■ a set of tubes to allow air from the outside to
surface, also known as a respiratory surface. reach the respiratory surface. This set of tubes
The diagram below shows how the process has many branches, and is sometimes called
happens. The properties of an ideal respiratory the ‘bronchial tree’
surface are given in the table above right. ■ a blood supply (carried by the pulmonary
Gas exchange surface is Layer of water on artery and pulmonary vein) to carry dissolved
thin – dissolved gases can gas exchange surface.
pass through it easily.
gases to and from the respiratory surface
Carbon ■ a ventilation system (the intercostal muscles
Oxygen dioxide and the diaphragm) to keep a good flow of air
over the respiratory surface.
Oxygen dissolves
in moist layer
Carbon dioxide
is changed to a gas Q
1 What are the properties of an ideal gas
exchange surface?
2 List the structures through which a molecule of
oxygen passes to get from the atmosphere to the
Carbon dioxide
cytoplasm of a named working cell.
produced by respiration 3 Most larger animals transport oxygen in red blood
dissolves in body fluids
to form hydrogen- cells. What are the advantages of transporting
carbonate ions (HCO3–). oxygen in this way? How is a red blood cell adapted
to its function of oxygen transport?
4 What is the difference between respiration and
▲ A gas exchange surface allows cells to obtain the
gas exchange?
oxygen they need for respiration, and get rid of the
128 carbon dioxide they produce
 O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

Larynx (voice box) – air passes S Cilia – fine ‘hairs’ on

through here during breathing. When surface of cell. These
breathing out, the vocal cords can be can beat in a
made to vibrate. The sounds produced Nucleus
coordinated way to
create our speech. carry mucus (with
Basement
trapped microbes
membrane –
and dust) away from
holds the cells
the lung surfaces.
in place
Trachea (windpipe) – tube that
carries air towards the lungs. C-shaped Goblet cell – produces
rings of cartilage prevent the trachea sticky mucus and releases
collapsing during inhalation. Mucus it onto the surface of
the cells.

S Cells like these form the mucous

Bronchus – first branch from membrane which lines the whole
the trachea. There is one bronchus
to each lung.
bronchial tree.

Ribs
External intercostal
Bronchiole – final, very fine branch
muscles Structures
leading into the alveolus.
Internal intercostal involved in
muscles ventilation
(see page 130)
Pleural
membranes
Alveoli (air sacs) – these are lined
by the membranes where gas Diaphragm
exchange takes place. The surface
is moist, thin and has an enormous
area. (In humans, the total surface
area is about as big as a tennis court!)

When oxygen is in short supply in the air the right

ventricle has to work very hard. It may beat so
powerfully that plasma leaks into the lungs – the
person may ‘drown in their own blood’. This can
Branch of pulmonary artery – happen to mountaineers at high altitude.
delivers deoxygenated blood at high
pressure from the right ventricle of
the heart. Air moves in and out of
alveolus during breathing
Bronchiole

Deoxygenated Oxygenated
blood blood
Alveolus

Oxygen
diffuses into Carbon dioxide
red blood diffuses out of Red blood
cells. blood plasma. cell
Capillary network
around alveolus Plasma
Only a thin membrane separates
the air in the alveolus from the
blood in the capillaries.

Branch of pulmonary vein –

returns oxygenated blood to The protein haemoglobin in red blood cells carries oxygen (as
the heart for pumping out to oxyhaemoglobin). Packaging haemoglobin in cells means it does
the tissues. not affect the water balance between plasma and tissue fluid.

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O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

12.2 Breathing ventilates the lungs

OBJECTIVES
S The pleural membranes ‘stick’ the outside of the
■ To understand the muscular movements involved
lungs to the inside of the chest cavity. The lungs
in the ventilation of the lungs
themselves do not have any muscles, but the
■ To know how the efficiency of breathing can
‘stickiness’ of the pleural membranes means that
be measured
the lungs will automatically follow the movements
■ To understand how breathing is affected by exercise
of the chest wall. If the volume of the chest cavity
■ To appreciate that the function of the lungs may
increases, the volume of the lungs will increase at
sometimes need to be supported
the same time. The pressure inside the lungs will
Breathing is the set of muscular movements decrease as the volume gets bigger.
that gives the respiratory surface a constant Air always moves down a pressure gradient,
supply of fresh air. This means there is always a from a region of higher air pressure to a region
concentration gradient between the blood and of lower air pressure. If the air pressure in the
the air in the alveoli for both oxygen and carbon lungs is less than the pressure of the atmosphere,
dioxide. As shown below, breathing is brought air will move into the lungs along a pressure
about by: gradient. In the same way, if the air pressure
■ the action of two groups of muscles – the in the lungs is greater than the pressure of the
intercostal muscles and the diaphragm atmosphere, air will move out of the lungs along a
■ the properties of the pleural membranes that pressure gradient.
surround the lungs.
4. Air rushes in to fill the extra
space and equalise the pressures.

Vertebrae of backbone –
1. External intercostal muscles ribs pivot on these.
contract and pull the
rib cage upwards and 3. Lung volume increases
outwards. and the pressure falls.
Breathing
in Summary:
Pleural membranes
2. Diaphragm muscles Extra lung volume created by
and pleural fluid – these
contract and diaphragm rib cage moving up and out
are sticky, but also slippery
moves downwards. diaphragm moving down
enough to reduce any
friction during breathing
movements. pressure falls

4. Air is forced out. air rushes into lungs

1. Internal intercostal muscles

contract and rib cage falls
There are two sets of intercostal
downwards and inwards. Breathing muscles. The external intercostal
out muscles contract during breathing
3. Lung volume decreases in. The internal intercostal muscles
2. Diaphragm muscles and pressure increases. are used during coughing and
relax and diaphragm sneezing, for example.
returns to its dome shape.

▲ The intercostal muscles (‘intercostal’ means ‘between the ribs’) and the diaphragm work together to alter the volume of the
chest cavity. Changing the volume of the chest cavity will automatically change the pressure of air inside it. (It is a law of physics
that pressure × volume is a constant – in other words, if pressure increases then volume must decrease, and vice versa.)
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 O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

Air is breathed in, gas exchange happens in the therefore different from the composition of the
alveoli, and the air is breathed out again. The expired (breathed-out) air, as shown in the table.
composition of the inspired (breathed-in) air is

Component of air Inspired (inhaled) Expired (exhaled) Reason

air / % air / %
Oxygen 21 18 Oxygen has diffused from the air in the alveoli into the blood
Carbon dioxide 0.04 3* Carbon dioxide has diffused from the blood into the air in the alveoli
Nitrogen 78 78 Nitrogen gas is not used by the body
Water vapour Very variable Saturated Water evaporates from surfaces in the alveoli
Temperature Very variable 37°C Heat is lost to the air from the lung surfaces

▲ Composition of inhaled and exhaled air

* The increase in carbon dioxide concentration can be detected with limewater (turns milky/cloudy)
or hydrogen carbonate indicator (turns from red to yellow-orange), as shown on page 127.

Asthma* Measuring the efficiency of the lungs

Breathing is difficult, and an asthma sufferer may The amount of air that enters and leaves the
become very distressed. Air cannot easily move lungs is measured using a spirometer. A person
along the pressure gradient because: breathes in and out of a mouthpiece connected
■ the muscles in the wall of the bronchi contract to a chamber. Inside the chamber a piston
■ the lining of the bronchi ‘leaks’ a sticky mucus. moves up and down, and its movements are
measured electronically. The changes in volume
An asthma attack can be brought on by various
during breathing are plotted on a graph called a
factors including allergy to pollen or dust (or fur),
spirogram, shown below.
emotion, breathing in cold air, smoke (page 134),
air pollution (page 270) and exercise. Treatment
involves:
■ removal of the factor causing the asthma
■ use of a bronchodilator – usually a spray
containing a drug which relaxes the bronchial
muscles.

S ▼ A spirogram gives a great deal of information about someone’s breathing and the efficiency of their lungs. The lung
volumes are expressed in the SI unit dm3. 1 dm3 is the same as 1 litre.
3
Tidal volume – the volume Vital capacity – the maximum volume of
2 of air breathed in and out air breathed in and out from deepest
Volume of air per breath / dm3

during one normal, resting inhalation to deepest exhalation

breath
1

0
Time / minutes
0.5
1
Breathing rate (number
of breaths per minute) At rest:
2 can be calculated Rate = 16 bpm (breaths per minute)
Tidal volume = 0.5 dm3
Total minute volume = 16  0.5 = 8.0 dm3
3

131
 12.2 Breathing ventilates the lungs

S Exercise and breathing

During exercise the muscles work hard, and need to release more
energy by respiration. Greater volumes of air must therefore be
Q breathed in and out, by:
1 Explain the part played by the ■ increasing the breathing rate – more breaths per minute
intercostal muscles and ■ increasing the tidal volume – more air per breath.
diaphragm in breathing.
2 What can be learned from a These two changes can increase the volume of air passing in and out
spirogram? of the lungs from the typical 8 dm3 per minute at rest to 50–60 dm3
3 Why are there differences in per minute during strenuous exercise.
the oxygen and carbon dioxide
compositions of inhaled air and
exhaled air?

▲ The effect of exercise on breathing can be measured after a race

Any alteration in blood CO2

concentration is detected by
sensors in the brain. Nerve
impulses are then sent to muscles
in the chest and the heart.

At rest: CO2 concentration Exercise: deeper, more rapid breathing

in blood, and blood pH, are (so more CO2 lost from lungs) Changes in breathing and
kept at safe levels (see page deeper, more rapid heartbeat bloodflow keep CO2 concentration
144 – homeostasis) (so more blood pumped to tissues and blood pH at safe levels.
to carry CO2 away)

Other factors affecting breathing rate

As well as exercise (see also page 125), some other factors affect breathing rate:

Factor Effect
Smoking Increase, due to the effect of carbon monoxide (see page 135).
Anxiety Increase, due to the effect of adrenaline (see page 168).
Drugs Some cause an increase, e.g. amphetamines because they are stimulants.
Some cause a decrease, e.g. alcohol and barbiturates because they are depressants (sedatives).
Environmental Increased by high CO2 concentration (see page 270).
Sometimes increased by high temperature or humidity, as an attempt to lose body heat by panting (see page 146).
Altitude Increased by low O2 concentration in the atmosphere. Climbers at high altitude breathe quickly and with a low tidal
volume – this can cause problems of dehydration.
Weight Can increase because fat makes lung ventilation harder (i.e. tidal volume falls).
Can decrease if excess body weight is a symptom of low thyroid gland activity.
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Questions on exercise and breathing

1 Two boys were asked to take part in an c What is the ratio of the volume of a breath
investigation into the effect of exercise on during exercise to the volume of a breath at rest?
breathing. The number of breaths they took in [2]
each half minute was measured and recorded, d Calculate the rate of breathing, in breaths
first of all while sitting still, then when recovering per minute, during strenuous exercise. [1]
from two minutes of hard exercise. The results are e Using the data gathered, describe two
shown in the table below. effects of exercise on breathing. [2]
f The computer could also measure the effects
Time / Activity Number of breaths
of exercise on heart rate. Suggest what these
minutes in each half minute
effects might be. [2]
Tom Alan
g What is the benefit to the body of the
0.0 7 8
effects described in e and f ? [2]
0.5 7 8
2 On a visit to a sports physiology laboratory, a
1.0 Sitting still 7 8
1.5 7 8
student underwent a series of tests. He was made
2.0
to exercise on a treadmill, and the following
2.5
information was collected.
3.0 Exercise (step-ups) Heart rate / beats Total heart output / Output
3.5 per minute dm3 per minute per beat / cm3
4.0 24 24 55 4.0
4.5 23 17 70 4.8
5.0 18 13 80 5.2
5.5 15 10 90 5.6
6.0 Recovery (sitting) 12 10
120 6.0
6.5 12 9
140 6.0
7.0 10 8
150 5.8
7.5 8 8
170 4.6
8.0 8 8
8.5 7 8 a Copy the table and complete it by calculating
the output per beat for each heart rate value. [2]
a Draw a graph to show the changes in breathing b Plot a graph of total output (vertical axis) against
rate over the time period of this investigation. heart rate (horizontal axis). On the same graph
Plot both lines on the same axes. [5] plot output per beat (vertical axis) against heart
b Which boy appears to be fitter? Explain rate. [4]
your answer. [3] c Describe the relationship between:
The teacher of the class was interested in the i heart rate and total output [1]
changes in breathing during the exercise period. ii heart rate and output per beat. [1]
She used a sensor, computer interface, monitor d i Even during severe exercise, the
and printer to obtain the following information heart rate seldom rises above
on another member of the class. 140 beats per minute. Use the data
in the table to explain why this is so. [2]
Start of ii Well-trained athletes can keep up a heart
3 exercise rate of 170 beats per minute. Suggest how
Volume of air in lungs / cm3

their output per beat may be different from

2 that of an untrained person such as the
1 student. [1]
e Distance runners often have low resting heart
0 rates. How might this be of advantage to
them? [2]
1
f Increased total output means that more blood
2 can be delivered to active tissues. As heart rate
increases, so does breathing rate. Suggest why. [2]
3
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
Time / seconds 133
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O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

12.3 Smoking and disease*

OBJECTIVES
tobacco produces tiny droplets of water too, and
■ To understand that smoking tobacco is harmful
these carry the harmful chemicals deep into the
to health
lungs in just the same way as a medicine spray.
■ To list some of the harmful components of tobacco It would be hard to find a more efficient way of
smoke and the damage they cause delivering harmful chemicals to the lungs than
■ To understand why it is so difficult to give up smoking smoking! Some of these dangerous chemicals, and
the effects they have on the body, are shown on
The risks of smoking the opposite page.
Many national advertising campaigns stress
that smoking is harmful. At the same time,
Why is it so difficult to give up
i
the manufacturers of cigarettes emphasise
the ‘glamorous’ side of smoking. However, smoking?
manufacturers have to include, by law, a statement In many ways, nicotine is the most dangerous of the
chemicals in tobacco smoke. As well as affecting the
on their advertisements and cigarette packets that
heart and blood pressure directly, nicotine makes a
‘smoking can seriously damage your health’.
person become addicted to smoking. Addiction comes
Life insurance companies routinely ask ‘Do you in two forms:
smoke?’ because they are aware that smokers are ■ in physical addiction, the body cannot function
more likely to die younger. Whether or not to take properly in the absence of the chemical because it
up smoking is the most important health decision has partly replaced a natural body chemical
that many of us will ever make. For this reason, ■ in psychological addiction, the addicted person
everyone should know about the possible effects links smoking with comfort or lack of stress – when
they feel stressed they may automatically reach for
of smoking. Nobody who starts smoking now can
a cigarette.
say ‘But I didn’t know the risks’ when they suffer
the effects of their smoking habit later in life.
How is smoking harmful? Q
Smoking is inhaling the smoke from burning 1 How is smoke harmful to the lungs?
tobacco (and paper). This smoke can harm the 2 What is the difference between physical and
lungs and respiratory passages for a number of psychological addiction? How can smokers be helped
reasons: to overcome their addiction?
■ it is hot
3 Suggest three harmful effects of smoking other than
■ it has a drying effect
damage to the lungs and breathing passages.
■ it contains many harmful chemicals.
4 Why are smokers more likely to develop infections of
The heat and dryness irritate the lungs, but the lungs than non-smokers?
the main dangers of smoking come from the 5 Draw a single cube with a side of 10 cm, and then
chemicals in the burning tobacco. There are over the same cube divided into smaller cubes each with a
1000 known chemicals in tobacco smoke. These side of 1 cm.
include tars, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, a How many small cubes fit into the large cube?
nicotine and even small quantities of arsenic and b What is the surface area of each small cube?
plutonium! When doctors treat lung diseases c What is the total surface area of all of the small
with medicine, the molecules of the medicine cubes?
are delivered in a spray; the droplets of water in d What is the surface area of the large cube?
the spray carry the medicine down through the e Use your answers to explain why emphysema
respiratory tubes and deep into the lungs. Burning sufferers are often very breathless.

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Free radicals are extremely dangerous

chemicals that damage proteins and DNA. They
cause ageing of cells (smokers are often
‘wrinkled’, inside and out!) but smokers can
reduce their effects with high doses of
vitamin C.

Cilia are destroyed which means

that mucus accumulates in the
Nicotine is the chemical that causes addiction.
respiratory tubes. Dust and microbes,
It is also a stimulant which makes the heart beat
trapped in the mucus, slide
faster and at the same time makes blood vessels
down towards the lungs
narrow. Together these two effects raise blood
making the person
pressure (causing long-term damage to the
cough. This coughing
circulation). The increased heart rate increases
inflames the lining
the demand for oxygen, but carbon monoxide
of the bronchi, causing
(see below) reduces oxygen availability – so heart Mucus,
bronchitis. A smoker is 20
muscle is more likely to be damaged. microbes
times more likely to develop
and cell
bronchitis than a non-smoker.
fragments
build up

Emphysema results
when the walls of
the air sacs are
destroyed. This
happens because
Carbon monoxide reduces the oxygen supply smoke affects white
Oxygen combines with haemoglobin to form blood cells which
then destroy lung Healthy Alveoli in
oxyhaemoglobin in red blood cells. Carbon
tissue. When the alveoli person with
monoxide (CO) reduces oxyhaemoglobin
walls break down emphysema
formation because it binds very tightly to
haemoglobin, and the effect is permanent because there is less surface for gas exchange, and
breathing becomes very difficult. Somebody
carboxyhaemoglobin is very stable. This:
with emphysema may only be able to walk
reduces aerobic respiration (bad for sport)
2 or 3 metres before becoming breathless.
reduces oxygen transport across the
Emphysema is almost unknown in non-smokers.
placenta (babies born to smokers have
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
low birth-weight). can be a result of emphysema. Its symptoms are:
Carbon monoxide poisoning is especially likely very poor airflow
when car engines are allowed to run in enclosed worsens over time
spaces (such as garages) and when the does not respond to anti-asthma drugs.
atmosphere is of poor quality (e.g. in smog).

Tar causes cancer, which is uncontrolled division Lung cancer is 10 times more likely in a smoker
of cells. These cells, usually those lining the lower than a non-smoker. The tumour invades other
part of the bronchus, grow through the basement tissues. This causes pain and loss of function of
membrane and invade other tissues. other tissues, often resulting in death.
Tar is also an irritant which makes coughing
more likely. This causes physical damage to the
lungs, and makes the effects of emphysema even
worse. Other irritants in tobacco smoke include
smoke particles, ammonia and sulfur dioxide.

Smoking causes other diseases including:

cancer of stomach, pancreas and bladder
loss of limbs – amputated because of
poor circulation
coronary heart disease
p The lung of a smoker destroyed by cancer
lower sperm counts in men. (right), and a normal lung (left)

135
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O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

12.4 How do we know that smoking

causes disease?*
S OBJECTIVES
Some disturbing data i
■ To understand the statistical evidence linking smoking Fewer boys are taking up smoking in the UK than
to disease 20 years ago (good news) but more girls are now smoking
■ To be able to design an epidemiological investigation (bad news). Can you suggest reasons for these changes?

Key Boys Girls

in 15–17 year age group

Percentage of smokers
Sir Richard Doll’s research into 30

smoking 20

We know today that smoking causes disease, but 10

how have we found this out? The diseases could

2000 2005 2010 2015
result from living in a polluted environment, or Year
exposure to chemicals at work, or diet, or any
Cigarette sales in the UK have fallen because people
number of other factors.
are becoming more aware of the health risks of smoking.
Sir Richard Doll was an epidemiologist – he studied Advertising campaigns emphasise the dangers, and
patterns in the distribution of diseases. He was smoking is banned in many public places to reduce
particularly interested in comparing the habits and ‘passive smoking’ (breathing in someone else’s cigarette
smoke). Tobacco companies are focusing on selling to
environment of people who developed lung disease
developing countries where people are less aware of
with people who did not. His results were very
the health risks. The rise in lung disease in the UK
valuable because he collected data in a scientific in the 1980s and 1990s was repeated 20 years later in
way, removing many variables from his studies. these countries.
For example: The number of cigarettes sold in the UK and in Mexico,
■ he carried out many of his studies on doctors, 1960–1995.
so he could rule out profession as a cause of 250
lung disease
Cigarette consumption

200 Mexico
(% of 1960 level)

■ he separated data for people living in cities

150
from those living in the countryside, so
environment was not causing large differences 100
between people in one study group. 50 UK

Some examples of epidemiological studies that 0

1960 1970 1980 1990
related lung disease and early death to smoking
Year
tobacco are shown on the opposite page. The box
shows some data about smoking in the UK and
other countries.

The cigarette companies are now targeting countries

such as some of those in Africa to increase their profits.
136
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S Evidence linking smoking with lung cancer

35
Increase in risk of death from lung cancer

Results of a prospective study – looking

forward and suggesting that if smoking was
30
an important cause of lung disease
and death, then early death would be more
25 likely in smokers than in non-smokers

20

15

10 A correlation between two variables does not

necessarily prove that one of the variables
5 causes the other – it might be that heavy
smokers develop lung cancer because they
1 Non-smokers are exposed to some other environmental
0
factor, or that individuals with a genetic
0 10 20 30 40
make-up that carries a risk of lung cancer
Cigarettes smoked per day are also ‘genetically’ more likely to smoke.
The work of Richard Doll and others is so
convincing because it has eliminated many
100 other environmental factors. However, it is
Doctors alive / % of number alive at age 55

likely that the development of lung cancer

90 is a complex process. It is probably
80 multifactorial, involving both genetic and
Non-smokers lifestyle factors.
70
60
Smokers
50
40

30 Results of a retrospective study –

looking back at the lifestyle, occupation
20 and environment of people who have died
10 from lung cancer

0
55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95
Age / years

▲ In 1962, the Royal College of Physicians published a report on smoking and health, which suggested a clear link
between cancer and smoking. For example, among a sample of doctors living in similar-sized cities, those who smoked
regularly were more likely to develop cancer of the lung.

Q
1 What is meant by the term epidemiology? Which sex?
■
2 Suggest two factors other than cigarette smoking that Which occupation?
■
might increase the risk of developing lung cancer. ■ How about their diet?
3 How much more likely to die of lung cancer is a person In what way do you think the results of your study
who smokes 25 cigarettes a day than someone who might be useful?
does not smoke at all? 5 In a typical laboratory experiment, data are collected by
4 One epidemiological study has suggested that living manipulating one variable and measuring the responding
close to power lines can cause leukaemia. How would change in another, with all other identifiable variables
you try to prove this link? kept constant (see page 318). Why can this approach not
■ Which populations would you study? be used to investigate the effect of smoking on the
■ How old would they be? development of lung disease in humans?

137
 Questions on respiration and gas
O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

exchange
1 Copy the following paragraph and complete it by follows, and then placed into sterilised vacuum
filling in the missing words. flasks.
Use words from the following list. Each word
may be used once, more than once or not at all.
oxygen, carbon dioxide, pulmonary, energy, Vacuum flask
hydrogencarbonate, thin, capillaries, alveoli,
diffusion, respiring, left atrium, surface area
Deoxygenated blood arrives at the lungs in the
artery. Oxygen has been removed from the
blood by cells that are to release
needed to carry out their functions. This blood Germinating peas
also contains a relatively high concentration of
the gas , which is carried dissolved in the
plasma as ions. Each artery branches
many times to form , which are well
adapted to allow the exchange of gases because Cotton wool
they are -walled and have a very large Thermometer
. These small vessels lie very close to
the of the lungs, and it is here that gas
exchange takes place. The gas moves out • Sample 1 was soaked in water at 15°C for
of the blood and the gas moves into the 24 hours and then placed in flask A.
blood. Both gases move by the process of . • Sample 2 was soaked in water at 15°C for
Oxygenated blood then leaves the lungs in the 24 hours, boiled, cooled again to 15°C and
vein that returns blood to the heart at the then placed in flask B.
chamber called the . [10] • Sample 3 was soaked in water at 15°C for
2 The table below provides information about the 24 hours, washed with a mild disinfectant and
composition of inhaled and exhaled air. then placed in flask C.
The thermometer was used to measure the
Air breathed in Air breathed out temperature in each of the flasks over a period
(inhaled air) (exhaled air)
of 72 hours. The results are shown in the table
Nitrogen 79.0% 79.0% below.
Oxygen 20.97% 16.9%
Time / h Flask A / °C Flask B / °C Flask C / °C
Carbon dioxide 0.03% 4.1% 0 (start of 15 15 15
Water vapour variable saturated experiment)
12 25 15 18
a State which sample contains the most oxygen. 24 40 15 22
Explain why. [2] 36 48 15 25
b Explain the results for the percentage of 48 50 15 28
nitrogen gas. [1] 60 52 15 32
c Name the process which results in the 72 54 15 38
changes in the percentage of carbon dioxide.
[1] a On the same axes, plot a graph of the three
d Suggest why the percentage of water vapour sets of results. [5]
in inhaled air varies. [1] b Name the process that caused the rise in
3 The apparatus shown was used to investigate temperature in flasks A and C. [1]
whether living organisms release heat energy. c Suggest why the pea seeds were soaked before
Some pea seeds were divided into three samples being placed in the flasks. [2]
of equal mass. The samples were treated as d Explain the results for flask B. [2]

138
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e Explain the difference between the results for The photographs below show normal lung
flasks A and C. [2] tissue and lung tissue from a person with
f Suggest a reason for the inclusion of flask B. [1] emphysema.
4 These diagrams show apparatus that can be i Describe two differences between the
used to explain the mechanism of breathing. normal lung tissue and the lung tissue from
Air goes in and out here a person with emphysema. [2]
ii How will these differences affect the supply
of oxygen to the blood in the person with
‘Trachea’
Glass tube emphysema? [2]
‘Bronchus’

Balloon ‘Lung’

Glass
wall ‘Chest wall’
of a 1
bell jar
Pulled down

Rubber
2
sheet
Diagram A Normal lung tissue (×40). Lung tissue from a person
3
with emphysema (×40).

6 A test tube containing some yeast and sugar

4 solution was placed in a water bath as shown in
the diagram below. After ten minutes, the rate
Diagram B
of bubbling was measured. The experiment was
Look at diagram A.
then repeated with the water bath at each of the
a What does the rubber sheet represent? [1]
temperatures shown in the table below.
b What will happen to the balloons when the
rubber sheet is pulled downwards? [1]
c What phase of the breathing cycle is
represented when the rubber sheet is allowed
to return to its resting position? [1]
d In what way is this model an incomplete
Water bath
demonstration of the mechanism of breathing? Delivery tube
[1] Liquid paraffin
Yeast and sugar Bubbles of gas
Look at diagram B.
e What parts of the human ventilation system do
the labels 1– 4 represent? [4]
Tube A Tube B
5 This table shows the causes of death of cigarette
smokers in Great Britain. Temperature / °C 10 20 30 40 50 60
Number of gas 5 12 20 26 28 14
Cause of death Percentage of deaths bubbles per minute
Lung cancer 8
a Draw a graph of these results. [4]
Bronchitis and emphysema 17
b Suggest the function of the liquid paraffin. [1]
Circulatory diseases 20 c Name the process in the yeast cells which
Other causes (not related to smoking) 55 produces the bubbles of gas. [1]
a What percentage of smokers dies from d Write a word equation for this process. [2]
smoking related diseases? [2] e Explain the results at 60°C. [2]
b Present the data in the form of a bar chart or a f Suggest two reasons why the yeast cells would
pie chart. Which will display the information die in tube A after about one week at 40°C. [2]
in the best way? Explain your answer. [4]
c Emphysema is a disease caused by smoking. 139
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O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

13.1 Excretion: removal of the waste

products of metabolism
OBJECTIVES
Excretion is the removal of toxic materials, the
■ To understand that living cells produce wastes
waste products of metabolism and substances in
■ To name some human waste products
excess of requirements.
■ To name the organs involved in excretion
■ To understand the functions of the kidney The role of the kidney
The kidneys are specialised organs that:
■ remove the toxic waste product urea from the
Homeostasis (page 144) means keeping a constant
circulating blood – they carry out excretion
environment around the cells of the body. This
■ regulate the water content of the blood – they
involves providing cells with essential raw
carry out osmoregulation.
materials, but also means removing waste products.
These waste products can be very toxic (poisonous), The structure of the kidneys is well adapted to
for example: enable them to carry out these processes.
■ Carbon dioxide, produced during respiration, ■ Each kidney receives a good supply of blood at
dissolves in plasma and tissue fluid to form a high pressure through the renal artery.
weak acid (carbonic acid, H2CO3) which can ■ Each kidney contains hundreds of thousands
denature enzymes and other proteins at high of tubes, the nephrons (kidney tubules), that
concentrations. can filter substances from the blood.
■ Urea, produced in the liver during deamination ■ Each kidney has an exit tube, the ureter, to
of excess amino acids (see page 81), can carry away the urine (a solution of wastes
denature enzymes. dissolved in water).
■ Salts, which can be in excess in the diet, can have ■ The kidney is under close control by a
an effect on the water potential of the blood. feedback system so that water saving is
always exactly balanced to the body’s needs.
Inferior vena cava

Aorta
Adrenal gland

Cortex – contains glomeruli which filter excess

Adrenal artery and vein
fluid and waste products out of the blood
Renal artery – contains blood
with high urea concentration Medulla – contains long regions of kidney
Right kidney tubules which can vary the amount
and composition of the urine
Renal vein – contains blood
with lower urea concentration

Ureter – carries urine

from kidney to bladder

Bladder – stores up to about 500 cm3

of urine before expelling it from body
In pregnant women the bladder is
Sphincter – ring of muscle compressed by the expanding uterus.
which controls flow of urine This reduces its storage capacity so
from bladder to urethra that these women have to urinate
more frequently than normal.
Urethra – carries urine from
bladder to outside

▲ The kidneys receive blood from the renal artery, remove urea and a variable amount of water from it and
return the ‘modified’ blood to the circulation through the renal vein. The wastes removed from the blood are
140
eventually expelled from the body through the urethra after being stored in the bladder.
 O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

The structure of the kidney The functional unit – the kidney tubule
The kidneys and their blood vessels are located in (nephron)
the abdomen, as shown in the diagram opposite. Each kidney contains hundreds of thousands of
The kidneys constantly produce urine which then long tubes called nephrons, each with its own
passes to the bladder. branch of the renal artery and vein. Each nephron
works in exactly the same way, so the function of
▼ The kidney is made up of many nephrons (kidney
tubules). Substances are filtered out of the blood into the the kidney can be explained by considering the
nephron. Useful molecules and most of the water are working of just one of these kidney tubules, as
S reabsorbed into the blood. shown below.

Branch of renal artery –

Branch of renal vein – blood containing
contains glomerulus; About 180 dm3 of water filters through to the nephrons every
useful molecules and water but cleared of
blood containing wastes plus day. Only about 1.5 dm3 is lost as urine because the rest of it
wastes is now returned to the circulation.
useful molecules plus water is is returned to the blood.
delivered from the circulation.

Key
water
waste
useful molecules

Glomerulus – (ball of capillaries) –

blood is filtered under high pressure
(ultrafiltration). Wastes plus some
useful molecules plus some water
are filtered into the nephron
(kidney tubule).
First coiled tubule –
useful molecules plus most of Collecting duct – kidney
water are selectively reabsorbed can reabsorb water from here
blood. and return it to the blood
according to the body’s
demands, under the influence
of anti-diuretic hormone (ADH).

The volume and concentration of

Urine containing
the urine is affected by:
wastes dissolved in
• water intake a small volume of
• temperature water.
• exercise.

Q
1 Define the terms excretion and osmoregulation. receives materials from the blood after filtration in the
2 Name two waste products of metabolism. State their capsule. The tubules then remove useful
source and how they are removed from the blood. substances such as from this filtrate by the process
3 Copy and complete the following paragraph. of . The remaining waste or excess materials pass
The main excretory organ in the mammal is the . down the tubule and leave the excretory organ via the
There are two of these, each supplied with blood . They are collected for temporary storage in the
through the and each composed of many . Eventually a dilute solution of these wastes, the
thousands of tubules called . Each of these tubules urine, leaves the body through the .

141
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O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

13.2 Dialysis and the treatment of

kidney failure*
S OBJECTIVES
■ To explain how body water is regulated
Kidney failure
Damage to the kidneys, perhaps through infection
■ To explain how kidney disease can be treated
or following an accident, can stop the nephrons
working efficiently. The body can no longer
Osmoregulation control the composition or amount of urine
The final part of each nephron, the collecting formed, so the content of the blood plasma and
duct, removes water from the filtered solution tissue fluid is not kept at its optimum. Death may
passing down inside the tubule and returns it to follow quite quickly if the kidney failure is not
the blood. The body can control the amount of corrected. Two types of treatment are available:
water that is returned to the blood in this way, ■ dialysis using a kidney machine (an artificial
and balance it with the amount of water taken kidney)
in in the diet and the amount of water lost from ■ kidney transplant.
the body by other means. This vital control of
water balance is called osmoregulation. Water Dialysis and the artificial kidney
A kidney machine takes a patient’s blood, ‘cleans’
is the most common substance in the body, and
it and returns the blood to the circulation.
has many functions (see page 256). The average
This process is called dialysis. Wastes diffuse
daily intake and loss of water by different
out of the blood, across a partially permeable
methods is outlined in the diagram below.
membrane, into a fluid that is constantly renewed.
In this way urea is removed from the blood
without altering any of its other features. The
diagram on the opposite page shows the workings
of a kidney dialysis machine.

Intake varies greatly

depending on the type
of food available. Some
desert animals gain 90%
of their water from
respiration. Camels don’t Body contains
store water in their hump, Water intake about 40 dm3 Water loss
but fat. Water is released of water
Drinks 1500 cm3 Urine 1500 cm3
when the fat is respired.
3
Water in foods 800 cm Sweat 500 cm3
From 200 cm3 15 dm3 in 25 dm3 Exhaled air 400 cm3
respiration tissue fluid inside Faeces 100 cm3
and blood the cells
plasma

Isotonic sports drinks Volume of urine is greatly reduced if

provide rapid rehydration. more water is lost through sweating,
They contain: for example during exercise.
glucose and salts,
which are quickly
absorbed so that Diarrhoea can greatly increase water
water follows by osmosis. loss. Severe cases can cause death by
dehydration.

142 ▲ The water excreted in the urine is adjusted so that total water intake and total water loss are balanced
 O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

Blood returns to body Chamber – removes any blood

S A patient usually has three dialysis
through vein – this is clots and re-warms blood to
easier because blood in body temperature so body is not sessions per week, each lasting 6–8 hours,
vein is at low pressure. ‘shocked’ when blood returns. which disrupts the person’s life. There
are never enough machines and trained
staff to treat all the people who need
dialysis, so difficult decisions have to be
made about who receives treatment.

Dialysis fluid has a composition

which means that urea and salts
diffuse into it from blood but useful
Dialysis fluid in solutes and water do not.
Overall, dialysis:
maintains blood glucose concentration
balances salt intake and removal
Blood taken from removes urea from the blood.
artery – leaves body
under high pressure.

Membrane is partially permeable

so that urea can cross it but blood
cells and large molecules such as
proteins cannot.
Dialysis fluid out
– the fluid can be
cleaned and then
Pump controls re-used. Diffusion of urea out of blood is aided by
pressure and flow countercurrent flow of plasma and dialysis
rate so that blood is fluid – they flow in opposite directions,
‘cleaned’ in 6–8 hours. maintaining the concentration gradient.

Kidney transplants
A kidney transplant involves surgically
Q
1 The body must maintain a water balance.
transferring a healthy kidney from one person
a Why does the body need water?
(the donor) to a person with kidney failure (the b How is water gained by the body?
recipient). It is relatively simple to connect c How is water lost by the body?
up the donor kidney in the recipient’s body, but 2 The water balance of the body is maintained by
a problem arises with tissue rejection. The negative feedback. Explain what this term means.
recipient’s immune system will attack the donor 3 Why is a kidney transplant considered better than
kidney and slowly destroy it (see page 119) dialysis? What problems are associated with kidney
unless the recipient takes drugs to stop this transplantation?
happening. Blood groups and tissue types of
donors and recipients are carefully matched to
reduce the likelihood of rejection. Successful
kidney transplants have advantages over dialysis
treatment:
■ In the long term, a transplant is much cheaper.
■ The patient’s life is less disrupted once they
have recovered from the operation.

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14.1 Homeostasis: maintaining

a constant internal environment
OBJECTIVES
Cells change the
■ To be able to define the term homeostasis
composition of the
■ To understand why the body must keep constant tissue fluid as they
conditions around its cells remove food and
oxygen and add
■ To remember that tissue fluid surrounds all cells carbon dioxide
■ To understand the principle of negative feedback and other wastes.
■ To know the organs involved in homeostasis
Heart supplies the
constant pressure
The cells in any living organism will only function needed to deliver
properly in the correct conditions. The conditions blood to the tissues,
and to form the
outside the body (the external environment) are tissue fluid.
continuously changing – for example, temperature
on a cool day might vary from 0°C out of doors Skin – the main
organ for control
to 20°C indoors. The body has mechanisms for of heat exchange
adjusting conditions within the body (the internal (see page 146).
environment) so that conditions around the cells
Kidneys regulate
remain constant.
levels of water
Keeping the internal environment and salt
(osmoregulation)
constant and remove urea
The blood cells lie in the blood plasma, and other and other wastes
(excretion) (see
cells are surrounded by tissue fluid (see page 102). page 140).
Conditions in the blood (and therefore in the
tissue fluid) are maintained at an optimum – Lungs regulate
exchange of carbon
the best values for the cells to function. The dioxide and oxygen.
maintenance of a constant internal environment
is called homeostasis. Intestines supply
Liver regulates soluble foods and
Homeostasis involves several organs, but the basic the levels of many water.
solutes in the blood,
principle is always the same, as shown below. The and removes poisons (see page 81).
diagram on the right shows some of the organs
▲ Many organs play a part in homeostasis. (A more accurate
involved in homeostasis, and the particular
diagram of the human circulation is given on page 100.)
conditions in the tissue fluid which they regulate.

Homeostatic
External systems even out
environment has variations in the
Varying conditions conditions
many factors which
may be experienced experienced by
can vary greatly, e.g.
by the body. the body, e.g.
amount of food
available. the liver can store
or release glucose.

Tissue fluid surrounds working

Blood is now at a cells with constant, ideal
constant, ideal state, conditions, e.g. an optimum
e.g. glucose concentration glucose concentration for
of 1 mg per cm3. respiration.
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S How is homeostasis brought about?

The work of these organs must be coordinated to achieve homeostasis. Flying with ‘George’
i
Information about the conditions in the body is continuously fed to the An aeroplane may be flown by an
brain from sensory receptors around the body. automatic pilot, sometimes called
‘George’. This involves a series of
For example, if the body temperature rises, temperature receptors in feedback controls that correct any
the skin send information to the brain. In response, the brain starts slight deviation from the aircraft’s
off mechanisms that will lower the body temperature again. The flight path. For example, if the plane
same temperature receptors ‘inform’ the brain when the temperature tips to one side, a gyroscope detects
the deviation and sends an
is back to normal. Homeostasis depends on this continual feedback
electronic signal to the computer.
of information, as explained in the diagram below.
This computer then sends out
To summarise: another signal to the plane’s ailerons
■ Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal (levelling flaps) and the flight path
environment. is corrected.

■ Homeostasis involves control by negative feedback.

■ In negative feedback, a change sets off a response that cancels
out the change.
Level of factor in blood

Deviations outside the normal range may Any change from the set point is a deviation.
not be controlled by homeostasis and can This deviation acts as a signal to the control
lead to disease. centre.

This is the range of

this factor that can
be controlled by Control centre sets off
homeostasis. Cells Time
the correct responses.
work well within
this range.

This is the norm or set point for the

homeostatic control system. This would
be the ideal level of this factor for
cells to work. Response cancels out the
deviation and returns the
factor towards its set point.

▲ In homeostasis, deviation from a set point acts as the signal that sets off the correction mechanism.
This negative feedback keeps variable factors within the narrow range suitable for life.

Q
1 Copy and complete the following paragraph. Homeostatic organ Factor controlled
Cells work best when conditions around them remain Liver
constant. Cells are bathed in fluid, and many
systems work to keep the composition of this fluid Lungs
constant. Each system has , which detect any Water content of blood
changes from the (the ideal conditions for the Heat loss or gain
cells). The changes are then communicated to the
, usually along neurones. The central Intestines
control area then sets off the correct responses. These 3
Use the principle of feedback control to compare
responses cancel out the original change and so this the regulation of blood glucose level in humans
sort of control is often called . (see page 148) with the maintenance of a stable
temperature in an aircraft cabin.
2 Copy and complete the following table.
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14.2 Control of body temperature

OBJECTIVES
S
■ To understand why body temperature must Heat and temperature
i
be controlled Heat is a type of energy, so it can be ‘held’ by an object
■ To know the difference between heat and temperature or passed from one object to another. Temperature is
■ To understand the part played by the skin in control a measure of how concentrated the heat energy is in
of temperature an object, such as the human body. A body will rise in
temperature if it gains heat energy.
■ To appreciate that control of body temperature is an
example of negative feedback
Birds and mammals are endotherms (‘inside
The importance of a constant heat’) – they can maintain a constant body
temperature by generating heat internally.
temperature
Humans have several mechanisms which work
Many biological and physical processes are
non-stop to balance heat production against heat
affected by temperature. For example:
loss, as shown in the diagram below. This balance
■ enzymes work best at their optimum
is achieved by a temperature control centre in
temperature, and are denatured by wide
the hypothalamus, a region of the brain. The
deviations from this
diagram opposite shows the negative feedback
■ cell membranes become more fragile as
systems that control body temperature in
temperature rises
an endotherm.
■ diffusion rates are increased by higher
temperatures, and decreased by lower ones The role of the skin
■ liquids such as blood become more viscous As the barrier between the body and its
(thicker) as the temperature falls. environment, the skin is also the main organ
▼ An endothermic animal maintains an ideal body concerned with heat loss and heat conservation.
temperature by balancing heat losses and heat gains

Metabolism – many biochemical Heat is lost when water evaporates

reactions, especially respiration, from the lungs and sweat evaporates
in the liver generate heat. from the skin.

Convection – transfer of heat to and

Movement generates heat by from the body on air currents. Can be
respiration and friction within increased by ’fanning‘ air past the body.
the muscles.
Radiation – transfer of heat in the Heat can be
form of rays, usually infra-red rays. gained or lost
by these processes.
Excretion: urine and faeces are Conduction – transfer of heat by
at body temperature. Heat is lost direct contact with another object
when they are expelled from such as a cold rock or a hot
the body. oven door.

Fat! Fat is an important

compound in temperature Heat losses
control: Heat gains Evaporation
each fat molecule provides Respiration Excretion
about twice as much energy Conduction Conduction
in respiration as a molecule of Convection Convection
either protein or carbohydrate If heat gains exceed Radiation Radiation If heat losses exceed
fat stores under the skin heat losses, the body heat gains the body
insulate against heat loss. temperature will rise – temperature will fall –
may cause hyperthermia. 37˚C may cause hypothermia.

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S Skin increases heat loss by:

During fever, to the hypothalamus Radiating heat
the body’s through vessels at the back Evaporation (sweat)
temperature of the neck. A nosebleed can
may be reset be stopped by placing a cold
2–3°C higher. object on the back of the
neck – the hypothalamus Radiation (vasodilation
reacts to the ‘cooled’ blood of arterioles leading
Higher temperatures denature
by closing down skin blood to surface capillaries)
proteins of infecting bacteria
more rapidly than they affect vessels. As a result, the
human proteins. Blood flows nosebleed stops. Convection (relaxation
of hair erector muscles
so hair lies flat)

The structure of the skin is adapted for temperature control

Epidermis protects Hair erector muscle
against water loss Nerve ending – receptor
and entry of that detects temperature
disease-causing changes on the skin
organisms Hair surface

Integrator
Detector in brain
Corrective mechanisms:
Increase attempt to increase
heat loss

The optimum
Norm temperature for Norm
the body’s activities
is about 37°C

Corrective mechanisms:
Decrease attempt to
conserve heat ...
Detector
Integrator
in brain Subcutaneous (‘under the skin’) Capillary beds
fat insulates against heat loss – Sensory neurone carries
only involved in long-term impulses to the hypothalamus
(e.g. seasonal) temperature in the brain
control
Dermis
Sweat gland - produces sweat

Skin reduces heat loss by reducing:

… and to generate more heat
shivering – muscular activity Convection (contraction
generates heat of hair erector muscles
adding extra clothing – insulation raises hairs and traps a
reduces heat loss layer of still air)
eating more – eating stimulates heat Radiation (vasoconstriction
production by respiration … of arterioles leading to
… or turn on the central heating! surface capillaries shunts
(Humans can control their external blood away from skin)
environment too.)
Evaporation (sweat glands
do not secrete sweat)

▲ The structure of the skin is adapted for temperature control 147

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O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

14.3 Control of blood glucose

S One of the functions of adrenaline is to increase the concentration
of glucose in the blood for respiration. However, constant high
concentrations of glucose in the blood are harmful.
The ideal concentration of glucose in the blood is normally
maintained by two further hormones, insulin and glucagon. These
are secreted by cells in the pancreas in response to changes in blood
glucose concentration. They affect liver, fat tissue and muscle.
■ Insulin is released when blood sugar is too high. It stimulates the
removal of glucose from the blood.
■ Glucagon is released when blood sugar is too low. It stimulates
the release of glucose into the blood.

Insulin controls the conversion of glucose to glycogen; glucagon

controls the conversion of glycogen to glucose. Glucose is a simple
sugar and is soluble in blood plasma and cell cytoplasm. Glycogen
is a polysaccharide (see page 36) and is insoluble. Glucose is
therefore the usable form of carbohydrate and glycogen is the
storage form of carbohydrate. The way in which the blood glucose
level is kept within safe limits is shown in the diagram below.

Pancreas produces
Liver converts more of the
glucose hormone
glycogen insulin

Too high
= hyperglycaemia

Blood glucose level

measured as blood
Normal blood passes through the
glucose level pancreas

Too low
= hypoglycaemia

Pancreas produces
Liver converts more of the
glycogen hormone
glucose glucagon

148 ▲ Blood glucose level is under feedback control by the hormones insulin and glucagon
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S Blood glucose level S What is diabetes?

Glucose is the cells’ main source Diabetes is a condition in which the blood
of energy, and it must always be glucose concentration is higher than normal.
available to them for respiration … ■ Type I diabetes is usually the result of

… so the body keeps a constant the pancreas failing to secrete enough

amount of glucose in the blood. insulin.
This blood glucose level is usually ■ Symptoms include

maintained at about 1 mg of glucose – excessive thirst, hunger or urine

per cm3 of blood. production
– sweet smelling breath
Glucose 1 oxygen – high ‘overflow’ of glucose into urine (test
with Clinistix).
Carbon dioxide 1 water
■ Long–term effects if untreated include
1
– premature ageing
– cataract formation
Energy
– hardening of arteries
– heart disease.
■ Treatment is by regular injection of pure
Cells can carry out work
insulin – much of this is now manufactured
by genetic engineering (see page 292).
■ A diet that contains too much fat and
too much sugar can also cause a form of
diabetes. This Type II diabetes can be
Clinistix are thin strips of plastic controlled by adjusting the diet to limit
with a small pad at the bottom. fat and sugar, and does not need injection
The pad contains an enzyme and of insulin. This ‘non–insulin–dependent’
a dye. If glucose is present, the
diabetes is a common problem for obese
enzyme uses it to change the
people.
colour of the dye. A Clinistix
dipped into a urine sample from
a diabetic person will give a positive Q
result within seconds. Clinistix ar 1 This list contains a number of statements about
an excellent example of the medical diabetes. Complete the statements by matching
uses of enzymes (see page 294). a letter from the with a number.

a A hormone which reduces blood

1 glucagon
glucose concentration
b Clouding of the lens in the eye 2 pancreas
c Organ which secretes hormones
responsible for controlling blood 3 cataract
glucose concentration
d A hormone which increases
4 respiration
blood glucose concentration
e Process which releases energy
5 Insulin
from glucose, for example

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Questions on excretion and homeostasis

1 a What is hypothermia? [1] b Sometimes a transplanted kidney is rejected.
b Why are old people particularly at risk Explain why rejection may occur. [2]
from hypothermia? [1] c Below is a record of how much urine a
c Why do you think children lose heat healthy man produced each day during one
very quickly? [1] week. The man’s diet included the same
2 This diagram shows how body temperature amount of water each day.
is controlled.
Day Volume of urine produced / cm3
Body Sweating, Body Monday 1540
temperature rises Sensor in dilation temperature falls
brain of blood Tuesday 1470
vessels in skin Wednesday 1510

Normal body Normal body

Thursday 1240
temperature temperature Friday 1450
Saturday 1770
Shivering,
Sensor in constriction Sunday 1520
Body brain of blood Body
temperature falls vessels in skin temperature rises i Calculate the average (mean) volume of
urine produced each day. [2]
a Use this information to explain how humans ii Suggest, with reasons, why the amount
control body temperature. [4] of urine produced was quite different on
b Explain how shivering affects body two of the days. [2]
temperature. [1] 4 A person who suffers kidney failure may be
c How does the liver contribute to body treated every few days by dialysis. This uses an
heat? [2] artificial kidney machine. The diagram shows
d Use the diagram to explain the meaning of the working of a kidney machine. In this
‘negative feedback’. [2] machine a special solution flows around the
3 If a person’s kidneys are diseased he or she may outside of an inner tube which carries the
have a kidney transplant. The transplanted kidney patient’s blood.
is connected to blood vessels which go into and out Special solution of glucose, salts and amino acids
of the leg. at the concentration found in normal blood
a Copy and complete the diagram on the next
page to show clearly how the artery, vein and
tube carrying urine should be connected in a Blood to Blood from
patient’s patient’s
transplant operation. [2] vein artery
Vena cava
Artery Aorta

Partially permeable Special solution 

membranes excess wastes from
the blood

a How is the waste substance urea removed

from the blood by dialysis? [1]
b It is better for the body if a kidney transplant
Bladder operation is performed instead of having to
undergo dialysis every few days. Apart from
the improved convenience, why is a kidney
Tube carrying Vein transplant better than dialysis treatment? [2]
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5 The diagram below shows a kidney and its c Explain why:

blood supply. i four of the substances shown in the table
are present in the filtrate, but protein
is not [2]
ii glucose and amino acids are not present
in the urine [1]
iii the concentration of urea and mineral
ions is higher in the urine than in the
filtrate [2]
iv the blood in the renal artery has a higher
concentration of urea than blood in the
renal vein. [2]
6 During an investigation into heat loss,
four tubes were set up as shown in the
a i Name parts A to E. [5]
diagram below.
ii State the functions of structures C
The same volume of very hot water was placed
and D. [2]
in each tube.
b Ammonia is produced by all animals as
The temperature of each tube was recorded
a waste product of their metabolism.
every two minutes for 10 minutes.
Ammonia produced by humans is converted
The results are shown in the table below.
to urea. Explain why this is necessary. [2]
The table shows the composition of blood Temperature / °C
plasma in the renal artery, filtrate in Time / mins Tube A Tube B Tube C Tube D
Bowman’s capsule and urine. 0 83 84 82 83
2 81 83 81 80
Concentration / g per dm3
4 80 82 80 75
Substance Blood plasma Filtrate in Urine
in renal artery Bowman’s 6 78 82 79 71
capsule 8 75 81 78 66
Urea 0.2 0.2 20.0 10 72 80 76 61
Glucose 0.9 0.9 0.0
a i During the investigation, the
Amino acids 0.05 0.05 0.0
thermometers were kept in the middle of
Mineral ions 8.0 8.0 16.5
the tubes and did not touch the glass.
Protein 82 0.0 0.0
Suggest a reason for this. [1]
ii Explain the difference in the rate of
temperature fall in tubes A and B. [2]

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b i A new born baby is sometimes wrapped in aluminium

foil. Use the results of the investigation in part a and your
own knowledge to explain why this is done. [2]
ii Explain why it could be harmful to go out in wet clothing on
a windy day. [2]
c Sweating is an important method of controlling the
temperature of the body. Use the results of the investigation in
part a and your own knowledge to explain how sweating helps
to keep the body cool. [3]
d i On a hot day, we sweat more but produce less urine than on
a cold day, even if we drink the same amount of liquid. The
change in the volume of urine produced is controlled by anti-
diuretic hormone (ADH).
Explain how ADH helps to maintain the correct amount of
water in our bodies. [3]
ii The control of the water level in the body by ADH is an
example of negative feedback.
What is meant by negative feedback? [2]

A B C D

Thermometer
Cotton
wool

Aluminium Dry absorbent Fan blowing Wet absorbent

foil paper cool air paper

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7 a What is homeostasis? [1]

b Copy and complete this table to explain how the kidneys,
lungs, liver and skin are involved in this process. [2]
c For any one of the organs that you have described in your table,
suggest how negative feedback is involved in its operation. [4]

Name of organ One body ‘factor’ controlled by this organ

8 The graph shows information about kidney transplants.

5000

4500
Number of transplants / size of waiting list

4000

3500

3000

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014

Key
transplants waiting list

Use this information to answer the following questions.

a Calculate the percentage increase in the number of people
on the waiting list in 2014 compared to 1998.
Show how you work out your answer. [3]
b What problem does the graph show? [1]
A big problem with all organ transplants is that the person
receiving the organ may reject it.
c What type of cell is involved in rejecting the organ which
has been transplanted? [1]
d How do these cells lead to the transplanted organ
being rejected? [2]

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O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

14.4 Coordination: the nervous

system
OBJECTIVES
■ To understand that different cells and tissues
Working together
must work in a coordinated way There are millions of cells and many different
tissues and organs in the body of an animal
■ To know that there are two systems of coordination in
mammals such as a mammal. The cells and organs do
■ To understand that the structure of a neurone is highly not all work independently – their activities
adapted to its function are coordinated, which means that they work
together, carrying out their various functions at
certain times and at certain rates, according to the
needs of the body.
Brain
(inside skull) Coordination in mammals is achieved through
Central two systems, each with its own particular role.
nervous The nervous system deals with rapid but short-
system
Spinal cord (CNS) lasting responses, whereas the endocrine system
(inside vertebral brings about slower, longer lasting responses. The
column)
two systems are compared in the table below.
The nervous system
Nerves carrying information In mammals and other vertebrates, the nervous
to and from the CNS –
peripheral nervous system system is arranged as shown in the diagram on
the left. It consists of a brain and spinal cord,
which together form the central nervous system
(CNS), connected to the various parts of the body
by the peripheral nervous system. This is made
Sensory nerves Motor nerves
carry information carry information up of nerves, collections of many long thin nerve
to the CNS from the CNS cells called neurones.
Information flows along the nervous system as
follows. A receptor detects a change in conditions
(a stimulus). A message is carried from the
receptor to the CNS by a sensory neurone. After
processing, a message is sent from the CNS to an
▲ The arrangement of the human nervous system organ (an effector) that carries out a response.
A motor neurone carries this message.
The endocrine and nervous systems compared
Comparison Nervous system Endocrine system (see page 166)
Speed of action Very rapid Can be slow
Nature of message Electrical impulses, travelling along nerves Chemical messengers, travelling in the bloodstream
Duration of response Usually completed within seconds May take years before completed
Area of response Often confined to one area of the body – the response Usually noticed in many organs – the response is widespread
is localised
Examples of processes Reflexes such as blinking; movement of limbs Growth; development of reproductive system
controlled
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Nerves and neurones

All the information carried by the nervous Cell body controls
the metabolism of Dendrites ‘collect’
system travels along specialised cells called
the nerve cell. information from
neurones (sometimes just called nerve other cells.
cells). The structure of a single neurone, Axon is a long fibre
is well adapted to its function of carrying which carries information
away from the cell body,
information, as shown on the right. sometimes over long
distances.
Nerve impulses
Messages pass along neurones in the form
Fatty sheath made of myelin
of electrical impulses, called action gives electrical insulation
Direction of impulse
potentials, which travel very quickly from between neighbouring cells
and makes impulses travel faster.
one end of a nerve cell to the other. In a
living mammal the impulses always travel
End plate which synapses
along a neurone in a certain direction. with another nerve cell,
They are then passed on to another a muscle or a gland.
neurone, to a muscle cell or to a gland cell. ▲ A nerve is made of many neurones. This motor neurone
S The end of the neurone is separated from carries information from the CNS to an effector.
the next cell by a tiny gap, visible under a
microscope, and the impulses can only cross
this gap in one direction. This gap, called a
synapse, acts like a valve as explained in the
diagram below.
End of one 1 The synapse is the junction
neurone between the end plate of
one neurone and the
2 dendrite of the next.
3
1 An impulse arrives at
4
the synapse.
2 At the end plate are
tiny vesicles containing
a chemical
Cell body of (neurotransmitter).
next neurone 3 The chemical is released
into the gap.
E 4 The chemical diffuses
Many drugs, such as heroin,
have their effects by changing across the gap and the
the way neurotransmitters impulse restarts on the
diffuse across this gap. other side when the
Often the effects depend neurotransmitter binds to
on the relative shapes of the correct receptor
the drug and the molecule.
neurotransmitter, and how
they ‘fit’ the receptor.
▲ Impulses travel along a neurone in the direction that
allows the mammal to respond to changes in its environment.
They can only pass across the synapse in this direction.

Q
1 Suggest two similarities and two differences 3 Explain the difference between:
between the endocrine system and the nervous a motor and sensory neurones
system. What is the importance of these b central and peripheral nervous systems.
differences? 4 How does a nerve impulse:
2 Explain how the structure of a neurone is related to a pass along a neurone
its function. b cross a synapse? 155
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O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

14.5 Neurones can work together

in reflex arcs
OBJECTIVES
■ To understand that neurones work together in a
Reflexes and survival
reflex arc All reflex actions have evolved to help us survive.
The table below lists four reflexes, and shows how
■ To understand that all reflex arcs are important
for survival each helps us survive.
The size of the pupil can change quickly and
Neurones act together in many complex ways to automatically in response to changes in the
bring about the correct response to a stimulus. The intensity of light. This reflex action, described
simplest type of response is called a reflex action. in more detail on page 163, prevents damage to
A reflex action is a rapid automatic response to a the retina.
stimulus, for example jerking your hand away
from a sharp or hot object. The nerve pathway S A reflex is an involuntary action. Voluntary
actions only take place if the brain is involved in
involved in the reflex action is called a reflex arc,
initiating the action (see page 158).
shown in the diagram on the opposite page.

Name of reflex Stimulus Response Survival value

Coughing Particles making contact with the Violent contraction of the diaphragm Prevents lungs being damaged or
lining of the respiratory tree and internal intercostal muscles infected, so that gas exchange remains
efficient
Pupil reflex Bright light falling on the retina Contraction of the circular muscles of Prevents bleaching of the retina so that
the iris vision remains clear
Knee jerk Stretching of the tendon just under Contraction of the muscles of the upper The leg can support the body’s weight
the knee, holding the kneecap in thigh so that the leg straightens during walking
place (a doctor may tap this tendon
to test the reflex)
Swallowing Food particles making contact with Contraction of the muscle of the Prevents food entering the respiratory
the back of the throat epiglottis, which closes off the entrance pathway, so that the lungs are not
to the trachea damaged

Q
1 The diagram opposite shows the route taken by nerve
impulses to bring about the knee-jerk reflex.
C
a Name the structure tapped by the hammer. How does
this set off the reflex action?
b Name the structure that carries impulses towards the
spinal cord. D
c Which structure A–E is responsible for the response in B E
this reflex action? A
d The distance between structure B and the spinal cord
is about 30 cm. Assuming that the impulses travel at
100 m per s, how long should it take for an impulse
to travel through this reflex arc?
e Careful measurement suggests that the actual time
taken for the impulse to travel through this arc is
2 or 3 times this value. Can you explain why?
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Cross-section of the spinal cord – showing

2 Sensory neurone the path of a spinal reflex arc
– carries impulse
from the receptor
to the CNS.
The synapses act like valves
(page 155) so impulses only
travel in one direction in the
Cell body is not at one end
reflex arc.
of the cell. Has myelin sheath.

White matter contains

the nerve fibres.
Grey matter contains the cell
bodies of the motor neurones.
Dorsal (‘back’)
branch of
spinal nerve

5 Effector – the structure

that carries out an action
(the response) to deal with
the initial stimulus. Can be a
muscle – in this example it is
the biceps – or a gland. Spinal cord

Spinal
nerve – has
both sensory
and motor neurones,
so carries impulses
into and out
of the CNS.
Galen, a surgeon who worked
with the gladiators of Rome,
dicovered that each spinal
nerve had two branches.
Gladiators wounded in the
back often lost the power of
sensation but could still move,
Direction whereas those wounded on
of impulse the front could not move
although they could still
1 Receptor – a cell or an organ
feel pain.
that receives a stimulus and Ventral (‘belly’)
converts it into an branch of
electrical impulse. spinal nerve

4 Motor neurone
– carries impulse
from the CNS to 3 Connector or relay neurone
the effector. – carries impulse slowly across
the spinal cord. No myelin sheath:
this gives time for the action to
Cell body at one end of the cell. be modified by impulses carried
Has myelin sheath. down the spinal cord from the brain.

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O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

14.6 Integration by the central

nervous system
OBJECTIVES
The central nervous system (CNS) processes
■ To understand that the central nervous system
information from receptors and passes
integrates and coordinates the responses of the body
instructions to effectors to tell the organism how
■ To understand the difference between voluntary and
to respond. This complex series of operations,
involuntary actions
referred to as integration, is outlined below.
Sense organs
send information
about the organism’s Effectors in the head can bring
environment to the about a response. For example, the
central nervous systems. eyelids may blink. Reflexes that use
the brain as a relay centre without
conscious involvement are cranial
e.g eyes reflexes.

Many learned reflexes operate

through lower regions of the brain.
These often need to be set off by a
stimulus from a higher region, but
once started always lead to the
The brain can process same response.
information very quickly.
It can communicate with
other parts of the body Some reflexes help to keep a constant
via the spinal cord. internal environment in the body.
These do not involve any conscious
thought, and can rarely be ‘overruled’.
These reflexes are controlled by the
autonomic nervous system and
include breathing, heartbeat and
peristalsis.

e.g skin

A reflex that uses relay neurones in

the spine cord is a spinal reflex,
e.g. withdrawing the hand from a
hot object.

Voluntary actions require a conscious

decision by the brain – the organism has a
choice in the selection of the response. Effectors include muscles (which are
made to contract) and glands (which
are made to secrete).

Involuntary actions do not involve any

conscious decision by the brain. The organism
has no choice – the response automatically
follows the stimulus.

In simple terms:

158 Stimulus Sense organ Central nervous system Effector Response

 O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

S Involuntary actions Voluntary actions

Reflexes concerned with the ‘housekeeping’ tasks During evolution, the front of the spinal cord
of the body, such as breathing, do not reach the became highly developed to form the brain.
conscious level of the brain. They are dealt with The advanced development of the brain,
by the autonomic branch of the nervous system. particularly those parts that deal with learning,
Responses may be more complex than a simple sets mammals (and especially humans) apart from
reflex arc. For example, the CNS may store ‘lower’ animals. The brain is involved in voluntary
information as memory and then compare an actions, in which a conscious choice is made about
incoming stimulus with a previous one. It chooses the response to a particular stimulus.
the correct response for this particular situation,
Conditioned reflexes i
and sends information out to the effectors to
Conditioned reflexes are learned reflexes in which
bring about the appropriate action. Each time a the final response has no natural relationship to the
particular stimulus leads to a certain response, stimulus. In an experiment, a Russian scientist, Ivan
the impulse passes along the same route, so that Pavlov, rang a bell when he fed dogs. The dogs then
salivated in response to the bell, even when no food
reflex actions become learned reflexes. Talking was given. The natural stimulus (the food) had been
and cycling are examples of learned reflexes. replaced by an unnatural one (the sound of the bell).
Whether or not a reflex has been learned, it is an Conditioned reflexes can be ‘unlearned’ if the unnatural
stimulus is not repeated with the natural one – if the
involuntary action – a particular stimulus always
food was produced without the bell over a period of
leads to the same response. time, the dogs would no longer salivate at the sound
of the bell.

Q
1 Reaction times for a class were measured using a
Attempt 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
computer to calculate the time taken for each student
Reaction
to press the space bar after seeing a light. 330 340 290 320 320 280 270 290 400 260
time / ms
The table opposite shows the results for student 1.
a Calculate the mean reaction time of this student. b Place the students’ reaction times into groups by
Why is the mean value useful? copying and completing the table below. Draw a bar
The mean class results are shown in the table below. chart of the results.
(You have just calculated the result for student 1.) Reaction time / ms Number of
students in group
Student Reaction Student Reaction
number time / ms number time / ms 110–150

1 16 150 160–200

2 220 17 300 210–250

3 130 18 140 260–300

4 220 19 230 310–350

5 210 20 150 c The teacher suggested that this reaction time could
6 250 21 190 affect driving ability – a motorcycle travelling at
55 km per h would cover about 15 m in a second.
7 190 22 180
How far would the motorcycle travel before:
8 200 23 240 i the student with the shortest reaction time
9 220 24 120 pulled the brake lever
10 240 25 170 ii the student with the longest reaction time pulled
the brake lever?
11 140 26 160
d In a further experiment a loud noise was made at
12 280 27 190 the same time as the light was shown. Eventually
13 210 28 210 the student began to respond when just the noise
14 330 29 270 was made. How does this result explain the meaning
15 270 30 200 of the term ‘conditioned reflex’?

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O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

14.7 Receptors and senses: the eye

as a sense organ
OBJECTIVES
■ To understand that receptors are the first stage
Receptors are transducers
in reflex arcs All receptors are transducers, which means they
convert one form of energy into another. They
■ To know the different types of stimulus to which
a mammal is sensitive convert the energy of the stimulus (such as light
■ To know that a sense organ combines receptors with energy) into the kind of energy that the nervous
other cells system can deal with (electrical impulses). The
■ To know the structure and function of the eye general principle of receptor action is outlined in
the diagram opposite.
Receptors detect changes in the The senses
environment Our senses are our ability to be aware of different
A stimulus is a change in the environment that aspects of the environment. For example,
affects an organism. All living organisms are the sense of sight allows us to be aware of
sensitive – they can respond to stimuli. Animals, light stimuli, detected by photoreceptors. The
including mammals, have a nervous system which photograph opposite shows the different human
receives information from the environment, senses, and the stimuli to which they are sensitive.
decides how to respond and then tells the body.
The receptor cells that provide our senses do
A receptor is a part of the nervous system that
not work on their own. They need a supply of
is adapted to receive stimuli. Receptors can be
blood to deliver nutrients and oxygen and remove
classified according to the type of stimulus they
wastes. Receptors may need help in receiving the
respond to, as shown in the table.
stimulus, and receptor cells are often grouped
Receptor type Responds to Example in together with other tissues to form a sense organ.
stimulus humans The other tissues allow the receptor cells to work
Photoreceptor Light Rod cells in retina of efficiently.
eye
The working of the eye illustrates the involvement
Chemoreceptor Chemicals Taste buds
of other tissues in the operation of a sense organ,
Thermoreceptor Changes in Thermoreceptors in as described opposite.
temperature skin
Mechanoreceptor Mechanical changes Hair cells in ear Note that the senses are detected by receptors in
such asCentral
changesnervous
in (hearing and structures on the outside of the body, and mainly
lengthsystem – can balance), touch around the head. This is because the stimuli
‘understand’ electrical
receptors in the skin
Sensory neurone – carries come from outside the body, and the head is
impulses and ‘choose’
information as electrical impulses.
▲ Classification of receptors
what to do with them. often the first part of the body that goes into a
new environment. There are also many internal
Think about it! We are not aware of any receptors inside the body. These detect blood
stimulus until the impulse reaches the
correct area of the brain. The receptor can temperature and pH, for example, and are vital in
be working perfectly but unless the sensory the process of homeostasis (see page 144).
nerve and brain are working, the ‘sense’
will be incomplete – we ‘see’ with our brain Receptor – Central nervous
Stimulus
receives stimuli and system – can
as much as our eyes. – a change
converts them into ‘understand’ electrical
in the Sensory neurone – carries
electrical impulses impulses and ‘choose’
environment. information as electrical impulses.
(transduces them). what to do with them.

▲ All receptors work in the same way – they convert one form of energy (the stimulus) into it!
Think about another form
We are not that
aware of any
160 the nervous system can understand
stimulus until the impulse reaches the
correct area of the brain. The receptor can
be working perfectly but unless the sensory
nerve and brain are working, the ‘sense’
 O R G A N I S AOTRI G
O ANN A
I SNADT I M
OAN IA
NNT D
E NMAANI N
C TEE O
NAF NOCRE GOAFN O
I SR M
GASN I S M S

The eye as a sense

organ
The eye is an example of
Taste depends on chemical Temperature sensitivit
stimulation of the tongue. depends on heat a sense organ. It contains:
stimulation of the skin. ■ receptors – the rod
and cone cells on the
retina
■ systems for making
Smell depends on chemical Balance and hearing
stimulation of the nose. depend on mechanical the most of the light
stimulation of the ear stimulus, including
the lens and the iris
Sight depends on ■ its own blood
Touch depends on light stimulation supply and physical
mechanical stimulation of the eye.
of the skin. protection via the
choroid and the sclera.

The body also has a sense of position. Each muscle and tendon sends information about The diagram below shows
how stretched it is to the central nervous system (CNS). The CNS interprets this so that we the arrangement of the
‘know’ where each part of the body is in relation to the other parts (see how easy it is to
structures in the eye.

Together control light intensity on the Together control light focusing

retina (see page 163) on the retina (see page 162)

Pupil – the Iris – the coloured Ciliary Suspensory Lens

circular opening part of the eye muscle ligament
which lets light which can expand Retina – contains the light-sensitive
into the eye. It and contract to cells, the rods and cones.
appears black control the
because the amount of light
choroid is visible that enters the eye.
through it.

S Yellow spot (fovea) – this area has the

Cornea – a highest density of cones and thus offers
transparent layer maximum sharpness but only works at
responsible for full efficiency in bright light.
most of the
refraction Optic nerve – composed
(bending) of of sensory neurones
light rays that which carry nerve
enter the eye. impulses to the visual
centre at the rear of the
brain.

Blind spot – at the exit point of the

optic nerve. There are no light-sensitive
▲ A horizontal section through the eye. The eye is a sense organ, containing cells here so light falling on this r egion
cannot be detected.
different tissues working together to perform one function.
161
 14.7 Receptors and senses: the eye as a sense organ

Rods and cones are photoreceptors on the retina

Sclera
('white' of eye)

Opening of tear duct

(tears wash the surface
of the eye, and contain
Pupil
a mild antiseptic)
(transparent – 'black'
is the choroid at
Iris the back of the eye)
('colour' of eye)

Eye:front/surface
▲ Eye: front/surface view
view

How a sharp image is Retina

Cornea
formed on the retina
An image is formed when rays
of light from an object are Lens
brought together (focused)
Light rays from
onto the retina, as shown here. a single point
The image formed on
the retina is inverted
S
Accommodation – on the object.
A sharp image (upside down) and diminished
adjusting for near and is formed when
light from a single
(smaller than the object).
The brain ‘corrects’ this
distant objects Cornea and lens point on the object inversion and reduction
The amount of refraction together refract reaches a single in size. This process is called
(bend) the light rays. point on the retina. integration.
(bending) of the light is
adjusted depending on the
distance between the object and
the eye. The light rays coming Ciliary muscle Ciliary muscle

from very distant objects are

Suspensory
parallel. They only need to be
ligaments Suspensory
refracted a little to form a single,
ligaments
sharp, focused image on the
retina. However, the lens does Parallel
not need to be very powerful light rays
for this. The light rays coming Diverging
light rays
from close objects are diverging.
They need to be refracted more
to form a sharp image on the
retina, and the lens needs to Distant object Close object
Light needs to be refracted (bent) less. Light must be greatly refracted (bent).
be more powerful. The ability
Ciliary muscles relax , eyeball Ciliary muscles contract, pull eyeball
of the lens system to produce becomes spherical. inwards (eyeball ‘bulges’ forward).
a sharp image of objects at Ligaments are tight. Ligaments relax .
different distances is called Lens is pulled long and thin. Lens becomes short and fat.
accommodation. As people
get older the lens becomes less Relaxed or waking eyes are set for Eyestrain is caused by long periods
elastic and loses its ability to viewing distant objects so that images of close work. The ciliary muscles are
change shape. This makes it of close objects (such as alarm clocks!) contracting against the pressure of fluid
harder to refocus quickly on are blurred. in the eyeball.

objects at different distances.

Smokers may experience this
problem earlier than non-smokers because smoke ‘ages’ molecules in the lens.
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S The iris controls the light intensity at that the rod and cone receptor cells are not over-
the retina stimulated. If too much light fell on them they
Light falls on the retina and stimulates the rods would not recover in time to allow continued clear
and cones to produce nerve impulses. These travel vision. The iris contains muscles that alter the size
to the brain along the optic nerve. It is important of the pupil, thereby controlling the amount of light
that falls on the retina. This control is automatic,
Stimulus – light falls on retina and is a good example of a reflex action. This pupil
reflex is explained in this diagram.

Impulse in sensory neurones of optic nerve

Integration in the visual centr e of the brain

Impulses in motor neurones

Low light intensity – Circular High light intensity –

radial muscles of iris contract muscles circular muscles of iris contract
and the pupil is and the pupil is
opened wider, so reduced in size,
more light can Radial so less light can
muscles
enter and reach enter and the retina
the retina. The muscles of the iris is protected from bleaching.

Adrenaline (see page 168) Heroin imitates this part of the The pupil reflex prevents bleaching
imitates this part of the reflex – pupils constrict.
reflex – pupils dilate.
of the retina by regulating the
amount of light that enters the eye

The retina contains two types of light-sensitive cell, rods and cones, as shown in the diagram below.

Rod cells are packed most tightly around Rods provide black-and-white images. Several rods
the edge of the retina. Objects are seen may be ‘wired’ to a single sensory neurone in the
most clearly at night by not looking optic nerve, giving great sensitivity at low light
directly at them. intensity (night vision), but images lack detail.
Layer of pigment prevents
sensory internal reflection which
neurone might lead to multiple or
to optic blurred images. This is the
nerve 'black' you can see
through the pupil.

Cones provide detailed

images, in colour (there
Cone cells are packed most tightly are three types, sensitive
at the centre of the retina. Objects to red, green and blue
are seen most clearly during daylight light). Cones only work
by looking directly at them. under high light intensity.

163
 Questions on coordination
O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

and response
1 Which receptor is responsible for detecting a Copy and complete the table by calculating
changes in light intensity? the mean heart rate for each of the test
A Eye groups. [2]
B Skin b Present your data in a suitable graphical
C Ear form. [4]
D Tongue [1]
c Does this data support the hypothesis that
2 Which type of cell is responsible for carrying
coffee affects the heart rate? [1]
information from a receptor to the CNS?
A Connector neurone d Suggest three precautions that the students
B Motor neurone should have taken to ensure that their data
C Intermediate neurone were valid. [3]
D Sensory neurone [1] 5 Study the diagram below, then answer the
3 Copy and complete this paragraph. Use words questions that follow.
from the list below. Each word may be used
one, more than once or not at all. Spinal cord

rods, integration, colour, inverted, lens, motor, B

cornea, pupil, cones, iris, high, optic, retina Cut dorsal root

A
Light rays from an object are refracted by the
and the which focus the light rays
onto the . The amount of light that reaches
this light-sensitive layer is controlled by the
Cut ventral root
which is able to adjust the size of the (the
black ‘hole’ in the front of the eye). There are two
Biceps muscle
types of light-sensitive cells, the , which are
responsible for vision in low light intensity,
and the , which are responsible for
vision in light intensity. The image formed on
the is and than the object, but the
nerve impulses that pass along the nerve to
the brain are interpreted so that they make sense. Hot surface
The ability of the brain to compare incoming
information with previous experience, and to set
off the correct response, is called . [6]
a Name the type of neurone labelled A. What
4 A group of students suggested that coffee is important function does it have? [2]
enjoyable because it speeds up the heart rate. b Name the gap labelled B. [1]
They gave several groups of people different c In what form is a message transmitted:
amounts of coffee one morning and collected the i along a nerve fibre [1]
following information. ii across the gap B? [1]
Number of cups Heart rate / beats per minute d Give two examples of spinal reflexes, two of
of coffee drunk Total Mean cranial reflexes and one conditioned reflex. [5]
0 74, 76, 72, 72, 78, 68 e How would sensation in the limb be affected
if:
1 78, 78, 82, 72, 72, 70
i the dorsal root (branch) was cut [1]
2 78, 78, 79, 87, 80, 72
ii the ventral root was cut? [1]
3 80, 82, 78, 81, 78, 76
f Would a reflex action occur in the limb when
4 76, 78, 88, 90, 88, 86, 78 the dorsal root was being cut? Explain your
5 80, 90, 88, 88, 94, 92 answer. [2]
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g Name the parts C–G on the diagram of a ii For this purpose, name the stimulus,
sensory neurone below. State two ways in receptor, coordinator and effector. Copy
which this neurone differs from a motor and complete the diagram below. [2]
neurone. [7]
E

C D G
Stimulus Receptor Coordinator Effector

Represents
8 An experiment similar to that in question 6 was
long length F carried out. Data from a number of subjects
Receptor cell were used to draw the graph below.

6 Bimla was sitting in a well-lit room. She covered 15

Average maximum change in thickness of lens

one eye with an eye patch. A pencil was held in
front of her eye for 10 seconds. Bimla focused
on it and at the same Distance from Thickness of
time the thickness eye / cm lens / mm
10

/ arbitrary units
of her eye lens was 10 4.0
measured using an 20 3.6
optical instrument. The 30 3.2
pencil was then moved 50 2.9
100 2.7 5
a different distance
from the eye. This was 150 2.6
200 2.6
repeated over a short
period. The results are shown in the table.
0
a Name the structures in the eye that bring 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
about the change in the thickness of the Age / years
lens. [2]
b In this investigation, which is the a At what age does the lens more or less lose
independent variable and which is the the ability to change shape? [1]
dependent variable? [2] b What effect will this have on the person’s
c Suggest two important fixed variables. eyesight? [1]
Explain why they must be fixed. [3] c From the information in the graph, suggest
d How could the experiment be improved to why people over the age of 60 do not have to
make the data more reliable? [1] keep getting new glasses for reading. [1]
7 a Copy the diagram d In the condition called cataract the lens
of the eye. Use becomes very cloudy and must be removed.
the letters listed Which structure will now be the only way to
below to label the converge light into the retina? How will this
diagram. operation affect a person’s eyesight? [2]
A Layer containing e Scientists know that cigarette smoking
rods and cones hardens the arteries. Some scientists believe
B Muscles controlling that smoking also hardens the lens, making
the amount of light entering the eye a change of shape more difficult. How could
C The source of tears you investigate this? What controls would
D A black layer containing blood vessels you need? [3]
E A very thin layer which protects the
surface of the eye from bacteria
F A tough white protective layer [6]
b In bright light the iris changes shape to
reduce the size of the pupil.
i What is the advantage of this? [1]
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O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

14.8 The endocrine system

OBJECTIVES Hormones in humans
■ To understand the need for a chemical system The main hormone-producing glands, and
of coordination the hormones they produce, are shown in the
■ To define the terms hormone and endocrine organ diagram on the opposite page.
■ To give examples of hormones in the human body A comparison between hormonal and nervous
co-ordination is shown on page 154.

A second control system Hormones control puberty in humans

The responses controlled by the nervous system Hormones control long-term processes, and often
happen quickly, but there are some responses have widespread effects on the body. At puberty a
that go on over a long period of time. Growth and person becomes physically able to reproduce. The
development, for example, continue for years. development of sexual maturity is a good example
Animals have a second coordination system, the of a hormone-controlled process (see page 189).
endocrine system, which carries out this sort
As a young person develops physically, certain
of control.
signals are processed by the brain, which then
Ductless glands instructs the pituitary gland to stimulate the
The endocrine system is a series of organs called primary sex organs – the testes in males and the
glands, which secrete chemicals called hormones. ovaries in females. Sex hormones – oestrogen (in
The endocrine glands are ductless glands – they females) and testosterone (in males) – are released
secrete their hormones directly into the bloodstream. into the bloodstream and circulate throughout the
(Other glands, called exocrine glands (such as those body. They only affect the target organs which have
in the digestive system), secrete substances through receptors that recognise them. These target organs
a duct or tube.) The hormones, once released, travel then carry out responses, such as the growth of
in the blood to any part of the body that is supplied body hair, which may continue for many years.
with blood. The hormones affect only their target
Hormone production is under
organs, as outlined in the diagram below.
1 Stimulus affects endocrine gland so that it
feedback control
releases a hormone (chemical messenger). The production and secretion of hormones is
4 Target organ brings about accurately controlled by feedback – the hormones
an appropriate response to regulate their own production. As the level of
deal with the original stimulus. Endocrine gland
hormone in the blood rises, it switches off (inhibits)
its own production so that the level never gets too
high. As the level of hormone in the blood falls, it
Hormone
switches on (stimulates) its own production so that
2 Hormones are distributed the level never gets too low. Feedback control is
through the body in the very important in biology, particularly in homeostasis
bloodstream.
(see page 145). It is outlined in the diagram opposite.
Hormone responses can
last for a long time. The
Hormones and food: growth hormones are
3 Receptors on the cell membranes hormones are eventually widely used to increase meat production in
removed from the blood.
of the target organ recognise the domestic animals.
Some (such as adrenaline)
circulating hormone molecules.
Cells with different receptors are
pass into the urine; others
(such as sex hormones) are
Q
not affected by the hormone, so 1 a Name two of the enzymes secreted by the pancreas.
first altered chemically
only the specific target organ can
by the liver. b Explain why blockage of the pancreatic duct – in
respond to the hormone.
cystic fibrosis – rarely affects control of blood
166 ▲ The mechanism of hormone action glucose levels.
 O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

Endocrine organs and their secretions

Human growth hormone
Sometimes the endocrine system does not
function properly. An example is pituitary
dwarfism – a person fails to grow and
Adrenal glands
develop properly because of a lack of a
Adrenaline – control of preparing
hormone called human growth hormone.
the body for action (see page 168).
Treatment has been considerably improved in
recent years by the production of human
growth hormone by bacteria.

Pancreas
Insulin and glucagon – control of
blood sugar concentration
(see page 148).
Sex organs The pancreas is also an
secrete exocrine organ! It secretes
sex hormones. digestive enzymes down a
tube into the small intestine.

Ovaries in female Testes in male

Oestrogen and progesterone – Testosterone – controls puberty in
control puberty in females, males, including deepening voice,
including development of breasts stronger muscles and growth of
and hips. Also control the menstrual body hair. Also controls
cycle and ovulation (see page 189). development and release of sperm
(see page 189).

S Level increases if Increased Detected by Less hormone

endocrine gland hormone level cells of the secreted, so level
secretes too much. acts as a ‘signal’. endocrine glands. in blood falls.

Ideal level of This is negative feedback control.

Return to The change in hormone level acts as
hormone in blood
a signal to cancel out the change.

Level decreases if Decreased Detected by More hormone

endocrine gland hormone level cells of the secreted, so level
secretes too little. acts as a ‘signal’. endocrine glands. in blood rises.

▲ Feedback control regulates hormone levels in the blood 167

 14.8 The endocrine system

Adrenaline
One hormone that has been widely studied is i
Adrenaline is known as the ‘flight or fight’ hormone,
adrenaline. This substance seems to bridge released when the body is given a shock.
the gap between nervous and endocrine The overall effect is to provide more glucose and more
control. It is definitely a chemical messenger, oxygen for working muscles – preparation for action!
and is released directly into the bloodstream,
yet its actions are often very rapid indeed
and may only last for a very short time. The
widespread and instant effects of adrenaline
are described below.

Skin becomes pale as blood is diverted away.

Deeper, more rapid breathingand airways become wide

r.

Heart beats more rapidly.

Blood is diverted away from digestive system to

muscles by using sphincters (see page 102).

Adrenal glands (on top of the kidneys) release the

hormone adrenaline.

S Glycogen in muscles is converted to glucose and

released into the blood.

S Hormones can be used as drugs in sport

The effects of hormones on the body’s activities
can be used to improve performance in sport.
Some hormones which have been abused in this
way are listed in the table below.

Hormone Effect on body Effect on sporting

performance
Anabolic Increase growth of Increase strength and power
steroids muscle. to weight ratio useful in
Reduce fat content ‘explosive’ sports such as
of body. sprinting and shot putting.
Cortisone Repair of damaged Allow rapid recovery after
tissues. intensive training.
Testosterone Stimulates male’s Aggression can be important
aggressive behaviour. in contact sports like rugby.

BUT BEWARE!
■ Drug abuse is illegal and can lead to lengthy
bans for sportsmen and women.
■ ‘Artificial’ hormones can switch off natural ▲ Liu Chunhong was stripped of her gold medal in the
hormone production by feedback inhibition. 69 kg weightlifting class at the 2008 Olympic Games.
Men may lose their sexual potency, gain body
Samples of urine and blood re-tested four years later led to
fat and develop ‘squeaky’ voices, and women
Liu and two other female weightlifters losing their medals
may cease menstruation and ovulation (and
and facing two-year bans from competition.
sometimes develop excessive body hair).
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Questions on hormones
1 The table below lists some of the effects of 4 Normal blood glucose level is 1 mg per cm3.
hormones. Ten people with normal blood glucose levels
Match each hormone with its effect. Write the were tested for blood glucose and plasma
letter and number to show your answer, for insulin levels over a period of six hours. The
example, a–4. mean values for these measurements were
calculated and recorded. The test period
Hormone Effect
included two meals and a session of exercise.
a adrenaline 1 development of sperm The results are shown in the table below.
b insulin 2 secreted if blood glucose level falls
c testosterone 3 increase in heart rate Time / Activity Blood glucose Plasma insulin
hours level / mg level / μg
d oestrogen 4 produced by the pancreas as blood
per cm3 per cm3
glucose level increases
0 Meal eaten 1.0 10
e glucagon 5 deposition of fat in the breasts
0.5 1.5 20
2 A dangerously aggressive animal is unlikely 1.0 1.0 40
to fit into society. Aggression may be an 1.5 0.8 25
important part of puberty in male animals, 2.0 Exercise started 0.8 15
and may help to win females. Explain how 2.5 Exercise finished 1.2 10
negative feedback (feedback control) would 3.0 1.0 20
keep aggression within acceptable limits in a 3.5 1.0 10
young male animal. [4]
4.0 Meal eaten 1.0 10
3 Copy and complete the following paragraph.
4.5 1.4 20
Use words from the following list. Each word
5.0 1.0 35
may be used once, more than once or not at all.
5.5 0.8 40
starch, glucose, insulin, oxygen, deep, 6.0 0.8 10
intestines, muscles, pales, dilate, glycogen,
stands upright, flight, fight, adrenaline, rapid a Present all the data in the form of
a graph. [4]
A human exposed to a severe shock responds
b What effect does the period of exercise have
by producing the hormone . This hormone
on the blood glucose and plasma insulin
causes the storage polysaccharide to
levels? Explain your answer. [2]
be converted to , a soluble sugar used
c Suggest two other hormones that would
to release energy via respiration. Aerobic
change in concentration in the blood
respiration requires as well as this sugar,
during exercise. Why are these hormones
and more of this gas is made available because
important? [2]
the hormone causes and breathing.
d Why is it good experimental technique to:
The body makes the most of its resources by
i take mean values for blood glucose and
adjusting blood flow to different organs – less
plasma insulin levels [2]
blood flows to the , for example, and more
ii use only subjects with normal glucose
flows to the . The face of a shocked person
levels? [1]
shows three effects of this hormone – the
e How long after a meal does it take for the
skin , the pupils and the hair .
blood glucose level to return to normal? [1]
Because of these effects this hormone is often
called the or hormone. [6]

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O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

14.9 Sensitivity and movement in

plants: tropisms
OBJECTIVES
A positive response is a growth movement
■ To recall that plants, like all living things, are sensitive to
towards the stimulus, and a negative response
their environment
is a growth movement away from the stimulus.
■ To know that plants respond to stimuli by changes in
For example:
their growth patterns
■ a stem growing towards light is a positive
■ To know that plant growth responses are controlled
phototropism
by hormones
■ a stem growing upwards (away from gravity) is
■ To appreciate the importance of plant growth responses
a negative gravitropism
■ To understand how plant hormones may be used
■ a root growing downwards (away from light
commercially
but towards gravity) is a positive gravitropism
Plants respond to their environment but a negative phototropism.
Plants respond to their environment – they show Roots are positively gravitropic:
sensitivity (irritability). Plant responses are ■ They grow into the soil, which provides a
rather slow compared with those of animals – source of water and mineral ions.
plants respond to stimuli (to changes in their ■ They provide an extensive system of support
environment) by changing their growth patterns. and anchorage for the plant.
These growth responses enable a plant to
make the most of the resources available in its Shoots are positively phototropic:
environment. ■ Leaves are in the optimum position to absorb
light energy for photosynthesis.
Plants respond to many stimuli, but two are of
■ Flowers are lifted into the position where they
particular importance: light (the photo-stimulus)
are most likely to receive pollen. They will be
and gravity (the gravi-stimulus). A growth
held out into the wind, or may be more visible
response carried out by a plant in response to the
to pollinating insects.
direction of a stimulus is called a tropism.

EXPERIMENTS PROVIDE CLUES ABOUT PHOTOTROPISM

Light from side

Shoot grows and Shoot with tip Cut tip replaced on agar Shoot marked Shoot bends towards
bends towards light removed: less (jelly). Shoot grows and with harmless ink light: ink marks show
growth and no bending bends towards light region of growth
towards light

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INVESTIGATION OF THE LIGHT-SENSITIVE REGION

Lightproof boxes, allowing light in from one side only

Gap to allow A B C
entry of light

Coleoptiles with tips Coleoptiles with tips Untreated coleoptiles

removed covered
Procedure Box A B C
1 Three groups of coleoptiles (oat shoots) are treated as shown in A, B Treatment of coleoptiles
and C. Mean length at start / mm
2 The coleoptiles are measured, and the lengths recorded.
Mean length at end / mm
3 The three groups are placed in the lightproof boxes and exposed to
Change in length
lateral (sideways) light for 2 or 3 days.
Direction of growth
4 The coleoptiles are measured again, and the new lengths recorded.
5 Measure the coleoptiles and complete the table of results. What conclusions can you draw? Explain your answers.

S Phototropism is controlled by auxin from the tip (where it is made) to a region

Growth is a relatively slow response to a stimulus in behind the tip (where it has its action).
animals (see page 166) and plants. Growth in plants ■ Auxin can diffuse back from the tip and can
is controlled by plant hormones or plant growth be collected in blocks of agar jelly. These
substances. These are sometimes grouped together blocks can then allow a decapitated tip to
as ‘auxin’, which means ‘growth substance’. The respond to light.
following observations have been made about auxin: ■ When shoot tips are exposed to light from
■ If the tip of a young shoot is cut off, the shoot one side, auxin accumulates on the ‘dark’ side
can no longer respond to stimuli. This suggests of the shoot. The auxin is somehow affecting
that the tip produces the auxin. the growth of the ‘dark’ side of the shoot.
■ A shoot responding to a stimulus always bends
The role of auxin in phototropism is shown
just behind the tip. The auxin appears to travel below.

More light means less growth!

The mechanism of phototropism Plants grown in the dark grow much taller
and thinner than those grown in the light.
Light from one side This is called etiolation. Light reduces the
amount of auxin and so reduces growth.

Light from all sides

Auxin is produced Light reduces the

at the tip and concentration of auxin
diffuses slowly on the ‘light’ side. The Cells on the ‘dark’ side receive more
down the plant. cells absorb less water, auxin. They absorb more water,
Cells on both sides and so swell less than and so increase in size more than
are affected equally normal. The ‘light’ side normal. The ‘dark’ side therefore
and the shoot therefore grows less grows more quickly and the shoot
grows straight quickly and the shoot bends away from the dark, i.e.
upwards. bends towards the light. towards the light. 171
 O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

S Plants respond to gravity: the mechanism of

gravitropism
Many experiments can be carried out to investigate a plant’s response
to gravity. A useful organism for this type of experiment is the broad
bean. Soaked beans germinate (see page 184) to provide obvious roots
and shoots. These can be fixed inside a clear glass jar and their growth
observed over a series of days. A simple experiment of this type is
shown in the figure below.
It is obvious why the shoot grows away from gravity (i.e. is negatively
gravitropic) because this means the leaves will be exposed to light
energy for photosynthesis. It is more difficult to explain how the
shoot grows in this way whilst the root is positively gravitropic. One
suggestion is that the root and the shoot are responding to different
growth substances, but scientists believe that the same growth
substance (auxin) affects both roots and shoots. It seems likely that
the root and shoot cells have different levels of sensitivity to auxin,
so that the same concentration of this substance reduces cell
expansion in roots but stimulates cell expansion in shoots.
INVESTIGATING HOW PLANTS RESPOND TO GRAVITY

Procedure
A B C
Young shoot
1 Freshly germinated broad
bean seedlings are fixed in
position inside a glass jar.

Young root

Bean seedling held A B C 2 Seedlings are allowed to grow

between blotting for a further 5 days, with
paper and wall the jars placed as shown in
of glass jar A, B and C.

Roll of moist
blotting paper Root turns to grow downwards,
shoot turns to grow upwards.

S The mechanism of gravitropism

Cells expand
Cells expand
less Cells
lessexpand less 1 More1growth 1 More
substance
More growth substance
growth substance
as hormone
as hormone
reaches
asreaches
hormone reaches reachesreaches
lower side...
lower
reaches
side...
lower side...
them: both
them:sides
boththem:
sides both sides
affectedaffected
to the same
toaffected
the sameto the same
extent. extent. extent. Take note:
Takeauxin
note:inhibits
Tauxin inhibits
(slows (slows
down) down)
cell growth
cell down)
growth
in roots,
cell
inbut
roots,
growth but
in r
stimulates
stimulates
(speeds(speeds
up) cellup)
growth
cell gr
GrowthGrowth
substance
substance
Growth substance in shoots!
in shoots! in shoots!
diffusesdiffuses
back back diffuses back 2 ... and
2 ...
stops 2 ... itand stops it
anditstops
along root.
along root.along root. extending as much
extending as
extending
much as much
as top side.
as top side.as top side.
Tip produces growth
Tip produces
Tipgrowth
produces growth
substance.
substance. substance.

172 pull of pull of gravity

gravity pull of gravity
 O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

Plant hormones have commercial uses plants are at the base of all human food chains.
Humans put their knowledge of how hormones Some examples of the commercial use of plant
work in plants to good use. Being able to hormones are illustrated above and in the
control the growth of plants is valuable, because diagram below.

Synchronised fruiting Seedless fruits can be produced – a hormone spray can

– spraying hormone This happens naturally! make fruits such as apples and grapes develop without
onto fruits can make One ripe fruit in a bowl fertilisation. No seeds are formed because no
them develop at the releases a hormone gas fertilisation has taken place. This also reduces the
same rate. This allows which makes the other grower’s dependence on pollinating insects.
efficient picking of the fruit ripen.
crop by machine.

Cuttings can be stimulated

to grow roots. In this way a
Weeds can be killed – spraying with high valuable plant can be
concentrations of the synthetic hormone
cloned to provide
2,4–D upsets normal growth patterns.
many identical
Different plant species are sensitive to
copies.
different extents, so this weed killing can
be selective, e.g. grasses may be killed
when shrubs survive.

Agent Orange worked like this!

During the Vietnam war, hormone sprays were
used to clear areas of vegetation and make
bombing of bridges and roads easier. These sprays Cutting dipped Cutting inserted Roots form and
can also be used to clear vegetation from into hormone into potting begin to absorb
overhead power lines, where removal by rooting powder compost mineral ions and
hand could be expensive and dangerous. water

Q
Copy and complete the following paragraphs. 2 Plant hormones have many commercial uses.
1 The of a growing shoot produces a plant These include:
hormone or . This substance causes cells behind ■ the stimulation of on cuttings, which allows
the tip to by the absorption of . When the growers to produce many of valuable plants
shoot is lit from one side, more accumulates on ■ the control of , which allows growers to
the dark side. As a result the cells more and the harvest economically with machinery
shoot bends towards the light. This response is called ■ the destruction of , which could otherwise
and offers several advantages to the plant, compete with crops for , and .
including greater access to light energy to drive the Careful selection of hormone concentrations allows
process of . this destruction to be : only pest plants are killed.
■ the production of fruits because the hormone
can make the plant develop a fruit without
taking place.

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O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

15.1 Antibiotics control bacterial

diseases
OBJECTIVES The first antibiotic to be discovered was called
penicillin after the organism Penicillium that
■ To define the term drug produced it. Antibiotics used in medicine work
■ To understand that fungi may produce antibiotics in various ways to inhibit the development of
as part of their normal metabolic processes
bacterial infections, without harming human
■ To define the term antibiotic cells.
■ To understand how penicillin works as an antibiotic ■ Penicillin prevents the bacterial cell walls
■ To describe the large-scale production of antibiotics forming (human cells do not have cell walls).
■ To understand the problems of antibiotic resistance ■ Antibiotics only affect bacterial cells because
other cell types are different to bacterial cells –
A drug is a chemical substance taken into the viruses have no metabolism of their own, and
body where it can affect chemical reactions. do not make cell walls, for example.
Natural antibiotics: penicillin ■ There is no benefit in taking antibiotics to

A fungus such as Penicillium absorbs food treat viral diseases, such as influenza or the
molecules from its environment, and then common cold.
uses these molecules for its own metabolism. Production of penicillin
Sometimes a Penicillium mould will make S
The large-scale production of penicillin takes
substances that it secretes into its environment place in industrial fermenters. Penicillin is a
to kill off any disease-causing or competitive secondary metabolic product – it is made
microorganisms. A product made by one when growth of the producer organism is
microorganism to kill off another microorganism slowing down rather than when it is at its
is called an antibiotic. maximum, as shown in the diagram below.

S Optimum time to collect penicillin

Population of Penicillium
grows rapidly, provided with: – always produced after main growth of the
food for energy and mould fungus.
protein synthesis
Concentration of fungus or antibiotic

oxygen for aerobic

respiration Collect batch and
correct temperature filter to remove
(248C) and pH (7.5) fungus.

Filtered liquid
contains penicillin.
Keep sterile!
no microbes to Penicillin
compete for nutrients
no danger of toxic
chemicals being produced. Penicillin extracted
and crystallised,
then put into
Penicillin
capsules.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time / days

▲ Penicillin is produced by batch fermentation (see page 293)

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S Antiseptics are not the same as The effectiveness of antibiotics

antibiotics can be compared using ‘multidisks’
An antibiotic is used to treat a bacterial infection. Bacterial population
An antiseptic can be used to prevent infection multiplies on agar
growth medium.
(‘anti’ = prevent, ‘sepsis’ = infection). Antiseptics
are chemicals applied to the outside of the body,
such as the skin, to kill microbes.
Disinfectants are also chemicals that kill
A
microbes, but they are more powerful and are
generally used on worksurfaces or lavatory
bowls, where potentially harmful bacteria may
be growing. B D

Antibiotic resistance
As the use of antibiotics increases, strains of
bacteria that are resistant to the antibodies are C

developing, as shown below.

MRSA (methicillin-resistant Paper multidisk

Staphylococcus aureus) Clear area caused
impregnated
with different
Methicillin is a synthetic version of penicillin. by inhibition of
antibiotics A,
bacterial growth.
It is a very useful antibiotic in controlling B, C and D.

Staphylococcus and Streptococcus infections.

Unfortunately, some bacteria have resistance to
this antibiotic – they produce a protein which
prevents the blockage of cell wall production.

The antibiotic is the

selection pressure
(see page 234).
Resistance is the
survival advantage.
Antibiotic Cell division
NB The antibiotic does
treatment
not create the resistance,
but selects it in a population.

Mutation (see page 230) Only resistant Whole population

results in one resistant cell cell survives. is now resistant.
in normal population.

▲ Antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria are formed by artificial selection. This is more likely to happen if:
■ antibiotics are used unnecessarily
■ people do not finish a course of prescribed antibiotics.
This allows some of the bacterial population to recover, and possibly develop strains that are resistant to the antibiotic.

Q
1 Distinguish clearly between the following pairs of 2 Purified penicillin is normally taken orally (by
terms: mouth). The crystals of the drug are enclosed in a
a antiseptic and antibiotic capsule for distribution. Suggest three important
b antibiotic and antibody properties of the material used to make the
c resistance and immunity. capsules.
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DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISMS AND THE CONTINUITY OF LIFE

16.1 Reproduction is an important

characteristic of living organisms
OBJECTIVES It is possible to tell whether an organism is living or not by
testing for certain characteristics (see page 2). Included among
■ To understand the importance of these characteristics is reproduction, although reproduction is
reproduction
not necessary for an individual organism to survive.
■ To know that there are different
methods of reproduction However, no individual lives forever and if the species is to
survive, the individuals must replace themselves before they die.
This generation of new individuals is called reproduction.

Reproduction: a summary
Living organisms can pass on their characteristics to the next
generation (reproduce) in two ways.
Sexual reproduction: offspring and to the parents.
■ requires two organisms of the same species, Asexual reproduction:
one male and one female ■ involves only one parent organism
■ each individual produces sex cells (gametes) ■ all the characteristics of this one parent are
■ sexual reproduction always involves passed on to all of the offspring
fertilisation – the fusion of the gametes to ■ asexual reproduction produces genetically
produce a zygote identical offspring from one parent
■ offspring receives some genes from each ■ many organisms reproduce asexually when
parent, so shows a mixture of parental conditions are favourable (e.g. when there is
characteristics plenty of food), and build up their numbers
■ each of the offspring is different to other quickly.

Sexual reproduction Asexual reproduction

nn Diploid (2n ) nn Diploid (2n ) Diploid (2n ) nn

cell in testis cell in ovary parent cell

Meiosis Meiosis Mitosis

Haploid ( n )
n n n n Offspring nn nn
gametes

Mitosis Mitosis

Fertilisation

The offspring is diploid, but

nn has received one set of genes nn nn nn nn
from the father (n) and one
set from the mother (n)
This is a clone – all cells are identical to each
other and to the parent cell
▲ Organisms can reproduce sexually or asexually

176
 DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISMS AND THE CONTINUITY OF LIFE

Sexual reproduction provides Asexual reproduction can be

variation advantageous
The plant life cycle (page 178) and the human Plants arrive in new locations by the dispersal
life cycle (page 188) both show sexual of seeds. There are occasions, however, when
reproduction, which depends on the fusion a plant would benefit from simply producing
of male and female gametes. Sexual many copies of itself. For example:
reproduction consumes energy that otherwise ■ When a single plant arrives in a new habitat,
could be used by the parent. However, it can occupy this habitat if many copies can
it also leads to variation (see page 232). be produced quickly.
Sexual reproduction occurs in all advanced ■ When a plant is well suited to its habitat, any
organisms. variation might be a disadvantage.

S Sexual and asexual reproduction compared

Sexual reproduction and vegetative propagation both have Sexual: provide new varieties

advantages and disadvantages. Many plants make the best of

both worlds, and reproduce both sexually and asexually.

Advantage Disadvantage
Asexual: make many copies of useful variety
Sexual ■ Variation, so new features of ■ Two parents needed
organisms may allow ■ Fertilisation is random, so harmful
adaptation to new variations can occur
environments

Asexual ■ Only one parent needed ■ No variation, so any change in

■ Rapid colonisation of environmental conditions will
favourable environments affect all individuals

. . . and what’s best for growing crops?

Sexual: new varieties of a plant can be developed. These
Q
1 Which of the following is the
might give a better yield, or tolerate dry conditions
best definition of a clone?
for example.
A A cell produced by asexual
Asexual: varieties with useful features can be cloned to reproduction
produce large numbers of identical crop plants. B A group of cells produced
without fertilisation
C A group of cells which are
BUT BE CAREFUL: genetically identical
A clone of plants could all be D A cell which is identical to
susceptible to the same disease. its parent cell
For example, great hardship
occurred in the lrish Potato
Famine of 1845 when almost
all of the potato crop was
infected by the potato
blight fungus.

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DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISMS AND THE CONTINUITY OF LIFE

16.2 Reproduction in flowering

plants: flowers
OBJECTIVES
1 The young plant develops reproductive organs.
■ To understand the part played by flowers in the
2 Sex cells (gametes) develop inside the
life of a flowering plant
reproductive organs.
■ To be able to identify the parts of a typical flower
3 The male sex cells are transferred to the female
■ To be able to state the functions of the parts of a flower
sex cells.
4 Fusion of male and female sex cells
An individual plant, like any other living
(fertilisation) occurs, and a zygote is produced.
organism, eventually dies. For a species of plant
5 The zygote develops into an embryo.
to survive, the individual plants must be able
6 The embryo grows into a new young plant, and
to replace themselves. This is the process of
the cycle starts all over again.
reproduction, an essential part of the life cycle
of the plant. Whereas animals move around freely (they are
motile), plants live in a fixed position. So, in plants:
Sexual reproduction in plants
■ Male gametes may have to be carried some
Flowering plants, as their name suggests,
distance to meet female gametes.
are able to reproduce using highly adapted
■ Young plant embryos may have to be carried
structures called flowers. The life cycle of a
some distance to get away from their parents!
flowering plant is outlined below.
Flowering plants reproduce sexually. Most plants are hermaphrodite, that is, they
The following list shows the stages that have male and female sexual parts on the same
can be recognised in the reproduction of individual. This means that the male gametes only
flowering plants. have to travel a short distance to the female gametes.
The young plant matures, Inside the flower, male and female
and under the correct light gametes develop. Pollination occurs
and temperature conditions when male gametes are transferred to
produces flowers. the female part of the flower.

Following fertilisation, a fruit

develops from the female part of
the flower. The fruit contains a
seed and a structure to help
The seed is dispersed – some move the seed away from the
‘agent’ carries it away from parent plant.
the parent.
Male gametes fuse
with female gametes
at fertilisation. This
Under the correct conditions occurs in the female
the seed germinates to part of the flower.
produce a young plant.

178 ▲ The life cycle of a flowering plant

 DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISMS AND THE CONTINUITY OF LIFE

The formation of flowers

A flower is formed from a bud, which is a collection of cells at
the end of a flower stalk. The cells receive hormone messages
from the main plant body, and gradually develop into four rings
of specialised leaves – the flower. These have the sole function of
forming sex cells and making sure that fertilisation occurs.
The structure of a typical insect-pollinated flower is shown in the
diagram below.
Each plant species has its own uniquely shaped
pollen grains. Scientists can find out about
Stigma – a ‘platform’
the vegetation that once existed in a particular
A cross-section on which the pollen
area by collecting and studying pollen grains
(transverse section) grains land.
released thousands of years ago.
of a flower shows
that it is made up of
four ‘rings’ of leaves. Anther – contains four pollen
Stamens – the male sacs filled with pollen grains.
parts of the flower. Each pollen grain contains a
male nucleus (male gamete).
Carpel – the female
part of the flower. Filament – a long stalk that
holds the anther in the best
Petals – usually brightly Style – a stalk
position to release pollen
coloured and scented. which holds the stigma
onto a visiting insect.
They may produce nectar, in the best position to
a sugary solution, from receive pollen grains.
small glands at their Position of nectary.
bases. Colour, nectar and
scent attract pollinating Ovary – a hollow chamber. The
insects. ovules develop from the walls of
the ovary:
Sepals are green and
protect the flower bud. Single ovule
They usually disappear
after pollination. Female nucleus
in ovum – the
female gamete
Micropyle
Flower stalk – swollen – entry point for
Ovary wall
tip acts as a base for the male nucleus at
four sets of floral leaves. fertilisation

▲ The structure of a flower: the convolvulus (morning glory). A flower grows from a flower
bud and is specialised to produce and release the male and female gametes.

Q
1 Look at the table on the right. Match each part of a Flower parts Functions
flower to its function. Write the letter and number
a pollen 1 to support the anther
to show your answer, for example, a–5.
b flower stalk 2 to secrete a sugary solution
2 Copy and complete the following paragraph.
The life cycle of a flowering plant has a number of c style 3 to contain the female gametes
stages. A young plant develops when a seed . d filament 4 to protect the flower in bud
The plant matures until it produces a which is e anther 5 to deliver the male gamete
a collection of leaves specialised for . Male f sepal 6 to form a base for the flower
gametes are transferred to the female part of the g petal 7 to hold up the stigma
flower by and fuse with female gametes at
h nectary 8 to attract insects
. Following this process the ovary develops into
i ovary 9 to produce pollen
a which contains a and a structure to
j stigma 10 to receive pollen
help move it away from the parent plant. This
process, which is called , requires some agent
or vector to remove the seed from the parent plant.

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DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISMS AND THE CONTINUITY OF LIFE

16.3 Pollination: the transfer of male

sex cells to female flower parts
OBJECTIVES Pollination
S
■ To define the term pollination
■ To understand the difference between self-pollination
and cross-pollination
■ To describe how flowers may be adapted to
pollination by insects or wind
■ To describe how honey bees are adapted as
insect pollinators

S Self-pollination and cross-pollination In self-pollination, pollen is transferred from anther to stigma of the
For sexual reproduction to occur, the male same plant. This is very efficient (the pollen doesn’t have to travel
very far) but does not offer much chance of genetic variation (see
gametes must be transferred to the female part page 230).
of the flower – this transfer is the process of
pollination. The transfer may come about within
the same flower (self-pollination) or from one
flower to another of the same species (cross-
pollination), as shown in the diagram on the right.
Cross-pollination offers many advantages, and
some species make sure that it happens.
■ Some have special proteins on the surface of
the stigma that prevent pollen tubes forming if
the pollen comes from the anthers of the same
plant. These are self-sterile plants. In cross-pollination, pollen is transferred from anther to stigma of
another plant of the same species. This is risky (pollen may never
■ In some plants, the anther and the stigma are reach the other plant) but offers a greater chance of genetic variation
so far away from one another in the flower that than self-pollination.
it is not very easy for pollen to travel from the
anther to the stigma of the same flower.
■ A few plants, such as ash, willow and holly,
have separate male and female plants.

Pollination by wind and insects

Whether self- or cross-pollination occurs, some
agent or vector is needed to carry the pollen
grains from the anthers to the stigma. This agent
is most often an insect or the wind. Flowers
show many adaptations to successful insect Cross-pollination is the only possibility for flowers that are not
pollination or wind pollination. Some of the hermaphrodite. Sometimes a plant has only male or only female flowers.
This is very risky, since plants of the opposite sex may not be nearby,
insects that act as pollinators have also become
but offers a very great chance of genetic variation (page 230).
adapted to make the most of their relationship
with flowers. The honey bee, for example, feeds
on nectar and pollen. The table on the opposite
page shows how some plants are adapted for
180 pollination by insects or plants.
 DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISMS AND THE CONTINUITY OF LIFE

Wind-pollinated flower, e.g. maize

Bract: leaf-like structure
Wind-pollinated
which holds the parts of
flowers are often
the flower.
produced at colder times
of the year, when very
few insects are flying. Tiny petal: helps to push
the bracts apart to expose
stigma and stamens.

Pollen: light and

produced in huge Stigma: long and feathery
quantities. Has to give a large surface area
smooth coat for pollen to land on. Often
and tiny ‘wings’ hang out into the wind.
to help transfer
by the wind.
Filaments: long and
flexible so that anthers
No nectar or Anthers: held at are held out into the
▲ Wind-pollinated flowers such as this grass have small, scent – no need to the middle so that wind.
attract insects. they can shake to
inconspicuous petals. The anthers and stigmas hang outside
release the pollen.
the flower.

Part of flower Insect-pollinated Wind-pollinated Reason

(e.g. convolvulus) (e.g. grass)
Petals Usually large, brightly coloured, Small, green or dull in colour, Insects are attracted to colour and scent. Guide lines
scented, often with nectaries. no scent or nectaries direct insects to nectaries, past anthers.
Guide lines may be present.
Anthers Stiff, firmly attached and Hang loosely on long thin Wind is more likely to dislodge pollen from exposed,
positioned where insects must filaments dangling anthers than from enclosed ones.
brush against them
Pollen Small amounts of large, sticky Enormous quantities of light, Sticky grains attach to hairs on insect’s body. Larger
grains smooth pollen grains amounts from wind-pollinated flowers mean pollination
is more likely.
Stigma Usually flat or lobe-shaped, and Long and feathery, and Feathery stigmas form a large network to catch pollen
positioned where insect must hanging outside flower being blown past the flower.
brush against them

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: USING MODELS

Scientists use models of living organisms to study one or two Design an experiment to determine whether colour or
features of the organism. Living organisms may have features scent is the more important stimulus to the honey bees.
that other organisms can detect, but that humans cannot. In your design:
These might affect the results of an experiment, so a model is ■ devise suitable models for the wallflowers
easier to study. ■ clearly state the independent (input) and the
Two students were interested in why honey bees visit dependent (outcome) variables
wallflowers. One of them believed that the colour of the ■ suggest any variables that should be fixed, and say
flower attracted the bees but the other was convinced that it how you would fix them
was the scent. ■ consider whether there are any controls that you
might use
■ draw a table that would be suitable for the
presentation of your data.

Q
1 State which of the following is unlikely to be involved with pollination in a Malaysian jungle.
A fruit bat B sunbird C jungle cat D great blue butterfly

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DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISMS AND THE CONTINUITY OF LIFE

16.4 Fertilisation and the formation

of seed and fruit
OBJECTIVES
These structures have now completed their
■ To define the process of fertilisation
function, and would use up valuable food
■ To understand the role of the pollen tube
compounds if they remained.
■ To recall which parts of a flower form the fruit
■ The wall of the ovary changes. It may
■ To understand that a seed contains a food store as well
as an embryo become hardened and dry, or fleshy and
succulent, and in the wallflower it forms a
leathery pouch.
Fertilisation follows pollination
The ovary is now called a fruit. A fruit is
Pollination is complete once the pollen released
a fertilised ovary, and has the function of
from an anther has landed on the stigma of the
dispersing the seeds away from the parent
same or another flower. The next step in the
plant, which helps to reduce competition for
plant’s reproductive process is fertilisation,
light, water and minerals.
the fusion of the male and female gametes. The
diagram on the right shows how the nucleus from Pollen grain – chemical signals Stigma
released by the stigma ensure
the pollen grain travels down a pollen tube to Style
that a pollen tube is only
combine with the nucleus of the ovum. produced when pollen lands Fertilisation occurs
on a stigma of the same species. when the haploid male

S The formation of fruit and seed Pollen tube grows down through
and female gametes fuse
to form a diploid zygote.
After the male nucleus has fused with the ovum, the style and acts as a channel
to deliver the male gamete Fertilisation also triggers
the resulting zygote divides many times to from the pollen grain to the some other cells in the
produce an embryo. The development of a seed female gamete in the ovule. ovule to divide rapidly
and form a food store
and the structure of the embryo are described in Ovary wall – ovules are inside the seed.
the diagram on the opposite page. attached to the inside of the
ovary wall by a short stalk. Micropyle – a gap in the
Once fertilisation is complete, the developing covering of the ovule.
Ovule contains the female The tip of the pollen tube
seed sends hormone messages to the flower, and a gamete, and some other locates this gap and the
number of changes take place: cells which may develop into male gamete enters the
food reserves. ovule through it.
■ The sepals and petals wither away, and may
fall off. Note that only one fertilisation is shown here. Each ovule needs its
own pollen grain and pollen tube to be fertilised. A plum has only
■ The stamens, stigma and style wither away. one ovule in each ovary, a wallflower has a few tens and a poppy
may have thousands of ovules in one ovary!
Stages in the development of a fruit

▲ Tomato flowers – the petals are ▲ After fertilisation, the petals have ▲ In the ripe fruit, the ovary wall is
still obvious fallen off, the stigma and style have swollen and succulent. What do you
withered and the carpel is beginning think is the purpose of the bright
182 to swell red colour?
 DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISMS AND THE CONTINUITY OF LIFE

S The formation of seed and fruit following fertilisation

Seed coat (testa) prevents drying
After successful fertilisation
out of the embryo.
the sepals, petals and anthers
wither away. The stigma and
style also wither so that only
the ovary remains on the
flower stalk. Cotyledons (seed leaves) may
form the food store for the embryo.
There is one seed leaf in
monocotyledons such as grasses, or
two in dicotyledons such as peas
and beans.

Endosperm – tissue which forms

the food store in cereal crops.

Ovary wall may become

dry and hard (in a Brazil
nut, for example), very Plumule (young shoot)
soft and fleshy (in a plum, Radicle (young root)
for example) or form a together with the cotyledons these
leathery pouch (as in the make up the embryo . The embryo
wallflower). develops into a new young plant
after germination.

Micropyle – a small hole in

Fertilised ovule develops the testa which allows the
into a seed, with the zygote entry of water and oxygen
forming the embryo. as the seed germinates.

Remember! Not all seeds are edible

The carpel becomes the fruit. Seeds contain stores of carbohydrate, fat, protein, minerals
The ovule becomes the seed. and other food compounds. These are used up by the embryo
as it develops into a young plant, but also form an excellent
Fruit or vegetable?
food source for animals (including humans). But note …
If it’s been formed following
Uncooked castor oil seeds contain a deadly poison, ricin,
Fertilisation it’ s a Fruit; if ther e’s
which was used to kill the Romanian dissident Georgi Markov.
no sex inVolved it’s a Vegetable.
Almonds contain cyanide. Don’t eat too much marzipan since
Potatoes and carrots are vegetables
this is made from almond paste!
but tomatoes are fruits.

Q
1 In one sentence, explain the difference between 5 Two students suggested that the wallflower
pollination and fertilisation. cannot produce fruit unless pollination has taken
2 Draw a simple diagram of a typical place. Their teacher showed them how to prevent
hermaphrodite flower. On your diagram label: bees reaching the flowers by covering the flowers
a the parts that fall off after fertilisation in a fine mesh bag, and how to transfer pollen
b the parts that develop into a fruit. with a fine paintbrush.
3 Define the word ‘seed’. a Describe how the students could carry out an
4 Classify each of the following as: experiment to test their hypothesis.
a fruit b Suggest how they could modify their
b seed or experiment to test whether self- or cross-
c neither fruit nor seed. pollination produced more seeds in the
Tomato, cucumber, Brussels sprout, wallflower.
baked bean, runner bean, celery, pea, grape In your answer, be sure to describe any controls
which they could include, and any steps they
could take to ensure that their results were valid.
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DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISMS AND THE CONTINUITY OF LIFE

16.5 Germination of seeds

OBJECTIVES
■ To define the term germination
Conditions for germination
A seed needs the following to germinate:
■ To understand the conditions required for germination
■ To describe the structural changes that accompany ■ a supply of water
germination of the broad bean ■ oxygen for aerobic respiration (see page 122)
■ a temperature suitable for the enzymes
Dispersal allows plants to spread their seeds involved in germination (see page 40).
so they can develop without competition from
These requirements are explained more fully in
their parents. A seed is made up of an embryo
the diagram below.
and a food store, all enclosed within a seed
coat. If environmental conditions are suitable, Some seeds have other requirements as well
the embryo will begin to use the food store in as the ones shown in the diagram. A few need
the seed and grow into a new young plant. This particular conditions of light (for example,
development of a seed to a new young plant is lettuce).
called germination.
Start here! Start of germination Germination proceeds

Seed coat
(testa)
Amino
acids
Embryo Starch Protein
Starch Protein
Active Glucose
Micropyle enzymes
Energy
Food store Glucose Amino Aerobic
Inactive Water
acids respiration
enzymes

Water Oxygen

Oxygen
Dormant seed – embryo and food stores Water enters through the micropyle and: Water and oxygen enter through gaps in
are surrounded by an impermeable seed activates enzymes to convert insoluble the testa. Oxygen and glucose enable
coat. The micropyle is the only gap in the stores to soluble foods aerobic respiration, which releases energy.
seed coat. makes tissues swell so that the testa is The embryo is able to grow as it receives
split open. raw materials and energy.
Environmental factors that affect Enzymes work at their optimum
germination are very similar to those temperature.
that affect enzyme activity. This
indicates that germination is a
process controlled by enzymes
(page 40).

Dormancy will continue if the embryo in the seed does not experience the right conditions:
if kept in anaerobic conditions
if kept dry
if kept cool.
Oxygen and water cannot reach the embryo if the testa remains impermeable. Some seeds must pass
through an animal’s gut (where digestive juices are present) before the testa is weakened enough for
the seeds to germinate.
Seeds kept dry in a vacuum, as in seed packets, can be stored for long periods.

184
 DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISMS AND THE CONTINUITY OF LIFE

Dormancy in a resting state called dormancy during which

If a seed does not experience ideal conditions for they use hardly any food. The very low water content
germination immediately, it will not die. Most seeds of seeds allows them to remain dormant, and the
can survive long periods of poor conditions, only availability of water is one of the conditions that
germinating when conditions improve. Seeds survive allows a seed to escape dormancy and germinate.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE GERMINATION OF SEED

Procedure

1 The five tubes are set up as shown in the diagram.

Pyrogallol is very corrosive. The
2 Tubes A, B, D and E are kept at room temperature (about 21°C). tube with pyrogallol will be
Tube B is wrapped in a lightproof cover. prepared by your teacher.

3 Tube C is placed in a refrigerator.

4 After 48 hours, the number of germinated seeds is recorded.

Dry mass
+

0
Mass begins to increase
Dry mass falls as part of food Mass falls more quickly as as first foliage leaves start
– store is consumed by respiration. growth of seedling accelerates. to build up food compounds
by photosynthesis.

▲ Germination of the broad bean. Dry mass is used as a measure of the food stores because wet mass would include water
absorbed from the soil, and the amount of water absorbed and lost can vary greatly.

Q
1 Copy and complete the following paragraph. downwards by , providing and absorbing
Before germination, a seed must absorb from the water and minerals for the seedling. The young shoot
soil. The seed coat is impermeable to this substance, or appears next. This grows upwards and
and it enters through a hole called the . This eventually bursts through the soil. The first leaves
absorption causes the seed to and split the develop and the seedling is able to produce its own
. The gas can now enter, which is necessary food by .
for . The energy from this process, together with 2 How would you attempt to prove that germination is
soluble food compounds, allows the to grow. controlled by enzymes?
The young root or appears first and grows

185
 Questions on plant reproduction
DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISMS AND THE CONTINUITY OF LIFE

and growth
1 Which part of a flower produces pollen? 22°C  light 22°C  dark
A Ovary
A B C D
B Anther
C Stigma
D Petal [1]
oil
2 Which part of the flower receives pollen?
boiled water
A Ovary
pea seed pea seed
B Anther
C Stigma
D Receptacle [1]
3 Which one of the following is not a
condition necessary for the germination
of a bean seed? dry cotton wool wet cotton wool

A Water i Complete Table 1 below. [4]

B Warmth
Tube Would seeds germinate?
C Oxygen (Write YES or NO)
D Light [1] A
4 The diagram below shows a single grass flower. B
C
D

▲ Table 1
ii Germination is quicker if the temperature
is raised to 30°C. Explain why. [2]
b Table 2 show how the dry mass of barley
seedings changed over the first 35 days after
sowing.

Time after
0 7 14 21 28 35
sowing / days
Dry mass / g 4.0 2.8 2.8 4.4 9.6 17.8

a Label the structures A–G on the diagram. [7] ▲ Table 2

b State whether the flower is wind or i Plot these results in a line graph. [4]
insect pollinated. Explain your answer. [3] ii How many days after sowing did the
5 a All seeds need oxygen, water and a suitable barley seedings regain their original
temperature to germinate. Pea seeds will dry mass? [1]
germinate at a temperature of 22°C. Light iii How many days after sowing did the
and dark conditions have no effect on pea barley seedings TREBLE their original
seed germination. The diagram shows an dry mass? [1]
experiment on germination of pea seeds. iv Explain why dry mass falls in the early
stages of germination. [2]

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 DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISMS AND THE CONTINUITY OF LIFE

6 Strawberry plants are able to reproduce between the second and third new
asexually by means of runners. A runner plants. Explain why there would be this
produced in early summer gives rise to a new difference. [2]
plant, which in turn produces a runner to give b What else has to happen to the plant shown
rise to a second new plant and so on. This in the diagram for the process of asexual
process is summarised in the diagram. reproduction to be completed? [1]
Green leaves of Flower c A fruit grower found that one particular
the parent plant strawberry plant survived two weeks of
make food.
heavy winter frosts. Suggest why the grower
would be more likely to obtain frost resistant
strawberry plants by the asexual method
New plant grows from shown in the diagram than by using seeds
a bud on the runner. produced by the flower. [2]
d i Describe briefly how the strawberry plant
produces food to send to its developing
X
strawberries. [2]
Soil level Y
ii Name the plant tissue through which
soluble food products are transported
Runner grows from a bud. along the runner to the new plants. [1]
a Ten different strawberry plants were taken 7 The diagram below shows a carpel – the female
and the length of the runners X and Y
part of a flower.
(shown in the diagram) were measured. The
results are shown in the table.

Plant number Length of Length of

runner X / mm runner Y / mm
1 400 200
2 350 280
3 420 260
4 610 260
5 640 340
6 600 250
7 340 240
8 460 270
9 600 250
10 520 290

i Using the data in the table, calculate the

average (mean) lengths for runner X and
for runner Y.
Show your workings. [2] a State which letter corresponds to:
ii Calculate the difference in mean length i the stigma
between runner X and runner Y. ii the ovary
Show your workings. [2] iii the micropyle. [3]
iii The lengths of the runners X in the table b Copy and complete the diagram to show
vary considerably. Suggest two possible how a pollen grain fertilises the ovule. [2]
causes of this variation. [2] 8 a Define the term cross pollination. [2]
iv Predict how the results would be b Suggest the possible advantage to the
different from those shown in the table if species of this process. [2]
measurements were taken of the runners 187
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DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISMS AND THE CONTINUITY OF LIFE

16.6 Reproduction in humans

OBJECTIVES
■ To define the term ‘sexual reproduction’
The male reproductive system
The male reproductive system has two functions:
■ To know the steps involved in sexual reproduction
■ to manufacture the male gametes
■ To describe the human reproductive systems
■ to deliver them to the site of fertilisation.
Reproduction may be sexual or asexual. In sexual
The male gametes, called spermatozoa, or sperm
reproduction, genetic information from two
for short, are manufactured in the testes. These
parents combines to produce a new individual.
are enclosed in a sac of skin, the scrotum, which
Humans, like all other mammals, only use sexual
hangs outside the body between the legs. This
reproduction. Sexual reproduction produces
position helps protect the testes from physical
individuals that are different from each other.
damage, and more importantly keeps them at a
The process involves a number of stages, as
temperature 2–3°C lower than body temperature,
shown in the diagram below.
ideal for development of the sperm. The sperm
The female reproductive system are delivered inside the female body through a
In addition to producing female gametes, the series of tubes that eventually release the sperm
female reproductive system receives male from the tip of the penis. The male reproductive
gametes. It provides a site for fertilisation and system lies very close to the part of the excretory
for the development of the zygote. The female system that removes urine from the body; indeed
gametes, called ova, are produced one at a time the urethra is a tube used to expel urine and
by the two ovaries. The ovum travels along seminal fluid from the body. A valve prevents this
the oviduct or Fallopian tube towards the happening at the same time! The two systems
uterus. It may be fertilised while in the oviduct. together are called the urinogenital system.
The zygote grows and develops into a baby in the The male reproductive system is shown in the
uterus. The female reproductive system is shown diagram on page 190.
in the diagram on page 190.
Gametes are
Male and female gametes produced and
each carry one ‘half-set’ delivered.
of genetic information in
their nuclei.
Sperm Ovum

At puberty children
One male and one female become young adults
gamete join together. capable of producing
and delivering gametes
A zygote is formed when the male and female
(see page 190).
nuclei fuse. This is fertilisation. The zygote has one
‘complete set’ of genetic information – one half
from the father and one half from the mother.
The zygote divides
The embryo is formed when the cells
many times to
begin to take up the positions they
produce a large
will occupy in the young animal. Development continues:
number of cells.
the baby is born and
grows into a child.

188
 DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISMS AND THE CONTINUITY OF LIFE

Hormones control puberty in humans

Hormones control long-term processes, and often have widespread effects on the
body. At puberty a person becomes physically able to reproduce. The development of
sexual maturity is a good example of a hormone-controlled process.
As a young person develops physically, certain signals are processed by the brain,
which then instructs the pituitary gland to stimulate the primary sex organs – the
testes in males and the ovaries in females. Sex hormones – oestrogen (in females)
and testosterone (in males) – are released into the bloodstream and circulate
throughout the body. They only affect the target organs which have receptors that
recognise them. These target organs then carry out responses, such as the growth
of body hair, which may continue for many years. The effects of these hormones at
puberty are explained further in the diagram below.

Pituitary gland Pituitary gland produces

produces hormones hormones which affect
which affect other other endocrine organs.
endocrine organs.

One pituitary hormone

One pituitary hormone stimulates the testes to
stimulates the ovaries to produce testosterone.
produce oestrogen. This male sex hormone
This female sex hormone circulates in the blood
circulates in the blood and stimulates
and stimulates development of male
development of female secondary sex
secondary sex characteristics.
characteristics.
Oestrogen begins the
cycle of egg production Facial hair develops.
and prepares the uterus
lining for implantation Chest broadens, muscles
(see page 193). become larger; voice
becomes deeper as larynx
changes in shape.
Breasts develop and
increase in size.
Nipples become larger. Hair develops on chest,
Oestrogen under armpits and in
Hair develops under pubic region.
armpits and in pubic Testosterone
region. Testes are stimulated to
begin production of
Hips become broader
sperm.
as pelvis widens and
fat is deposited.

Vagina becomes larger. Penis becomes larger, and

scrotum expands to
contain larger testes.

In girls, the proportion of fat

may affect the onset of Not all of testosterone’s
puberty. Puberty may be effects seem beneficial!
delayed in girls who are This hormone makes the
extremely muscular (such skin more oily and acne
as gymnasts). can develop.
▲ Oestrogen and testosterone are hormones – they are
chemical messengers secreted directly into the bloodstream and
bring about widespread and long-lasting effects 189
 16.6 Reproduction in humans

The male urinogenital system

Parts of the
urinary system

Ureter Bladder Sperm duct or vas deferens carries sperm

from the testis to the urethra.

helps to produce the

seminal fluid which
Prostate gland makes up 99.5% of the
semen (sperm make up
the other 0.5%)

Urethra carries semen from the sperm duct

to the tip of the penis.

Scrotum or scrotal sac holds the testes

outside the body, at the ideal temperature
Testis or testicle is made up of many for the formation of sperm.
coiled tubes (rather like balls of wool)
which produce sperm; cells between the
Penis becomes erect when Acrosome: contains enzymes
tubes produce testosterone (see page 189). Haploid nucleus
spaces in its structure fill to penetrate egg cell membrane
with blood.

Male gametes (sperm):

are smaller than ova Mitochondria: release energy
are produced in huge numbers for beating of flagellum
(300 000 000 per ejaculation)
are motile – can swim by beating
the flagellum (tail).

Flagellum: beats to move

sperm towards ovum

The female urinogenital system

Parts of urinary system Oviduct or fallopian tube
Uterus or womb where the
carries the ovum to the uterus.
fetus develops. During
Fertilisation usually occurs in pregnancy the uterus increases
Bladder (shown Ureter
pushed to one side) the first third of the oviduct. in volume from 10 cm3 to 5 dm3!

Funnel of oviduct collects ovum

released from the ovary at ovulation.

Ovary contains follicles which develop

the ova, and produces oestrogen
and progesterone (see page 192).
Muscular wall of uterus

Lining of uterus

Cervix or neck of uterus is a ring of muscle

which, until birth, keeps the fetus in the uterus.
Female gametes (ova):
• are much larger than sperm The cervix relaxes to allow birth of the baby.
• are produced in small numbers (one per month) Vagina or birth canal receives the
• do not move, but have a large food store. penis during intercourse, and is the
‘way out’ for the baby at birth.

Opening of vagina
Jelly coat: changes at
fertilisation to allow entry
of male nucleus

Haploid nucleus

Cytoplasm: contains food stores

for early development of zygote

190
 DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISMS AND THE CONTINUITY OF LIFE

Q
1 Explain the importance of the following in the human ii Explain how this will act as a method of
life cycle: contraception.
a fertilisation d A man infected with the human immuno-deficiency
b puberty virus (HIV) may transmit AIDS (acquired immuno-
c gamete formation. deficiency syndrome) to another person. The virus is
2 Describe the pathway followed by: transmitted in body fluids. Following a vasectomy, is
a spermatozoa at ejaculation it still possible for an infected man to pass AIDS to
b an ovum at ovulation. another person? Explain your answer.

3 Where does fertilisation occur? 7 This figure shows a human egg cell and a human
sperm cell.
4 Why is reproduction necessary?

5 The table below lists the organs of the female

reproductive system and their descriptions.
Match each organ with its description. Write the letter
and number to show your answer, for example, a–4.

Structure Description
a ovaries 1 the neck of the uterus
b oviducts 2 connects the uterus to the exterior
c cervix 3 link the ovaries to the uterus
d vagina 4 the site of implantation 100 μm
10 μm
e uterus 5 ova are produced here human egg cell

6 The figure below shows the reproductive organs of the

human male after an operation called a ‘vasectomy’
has been performed. Following a vasectomy, the man
can still ejaculate fluid produced by the prostate and human sperm cell
Cowper’s glands.
a i What is the name given to the release of eggs
from the ovary?
Bladder ii Sperm cells and egg cells are haploid.
State the meaning of the term haploid.
Prostate gland b Complete the table to compare egg cells with
Cowper’s gland sperm cells.
Vas deferens
A (sperm duct) feature egg cells sperm cells
Penis
B
site of production
relative size
numbers produced
a Name parts A and B. mobility
b Copy the diagram. Put an ‘X’ to show where sperm
are made.
c i In what way are the reproductive organs of the
male with the vasectomy different from those of
a normal, untreated male?

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DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISMS AND THE CONTINUITY OF LIFE

16.7 The menstrual cycle

OBJECTIVES The menstrual cycle is a long-term process
■ To understand the female monthly cycle controlled by a number of hormones, which:
of ovulation ■ prepare the uterus to receive any fertilised ova
■ To know the role of hormones in the ■ control the development of mature ova.
menstrual cycle
■ To describe the sequence of events in follicle
Hormones affect the wall of the uterus
development and ovulation During the menstrual cycle the wall of the
uterus goes through four phases, under the
The testes produce sperm continually at a rate of influence of two hormones, oestrogen and
about 100 000 000 per day from puberty to old progesterone. During the first phase, which
age. Women produce only one ovum per month lasts about five days, the lining of the uterus
during their reproductive life, from puberty to is shed, accompanied by a loss of blood. This
middle age. The two ovaries take it in turns to time is a woman’s period, or more correctly the
produce an ovum, and one of them releases a menstrual phase or menstruation. The other
mature female gamete every 28 days. The cycle of phases of the cycle prepare the uterus to receive
producing and releasing mature ova is called the and protect a zygote, and are shown in the
menstrual cycle (from the Latin word menstrua diagram below.
meaning month).

4 Premenstrual phase In humans the cycles of the two ovaries 1 Menstruation

The uterus lining degenerates are out of phase. Each ovary ovulates The uterus lining is shed, and
as the progesterone every 56 days but each woman ovulates blood and fragments of tissue
concentration starts to fall every 28 days. leave the body through the
unless embryo implantation vagina. Menstruation is triggered
has occurred, in which case Last day by a decrease in the
progesterone (from the corpus concentration of progesterone.
28th
luteum) keeps the lining intact 27th
26th
to begin pregnancy. 1st day
25th 2nd Blood is lost during
3rd menstruation and needs to be
24th Menstruation replaced during the repair
Uterus lining 4th phase. Menstruating women
23rd continues to therefore have a high
thicken 5th requirement for iron in their
Uterus lining diet. If this requirement is not
22nd is shed met, they can become anaemic.
6th

21st
7th
2 Repair phase
20th More blood vessels grow in the
Ovum dies if 8th lining of the uterus, and the
not fertilised lining thickens and becomes
19th more stable. These changes are
3 Receptive phase 9th
triggered by an increase in the
The lining of the uterus and its
18th 10th concentration of oestrogen.
blood vessels are now well Ovulation
developed. If fertilisation has 17th Ovum released
11th
occurred the embryo can from ovary
become buried or implanted 16th 12th
15th 14th 13th The release of the ovum is
in this lining. This optimum set
of conditions for implantation accompanied by a slight
Following the development of a Graafian follicle
remains for 6–7 days after increase in body temperature –
(see top of next page), an ovum (egg) is released
ovulation, and is maintained some women are actually
into the oviduct. Ovulation occurs at the peak of
by an increasing concentration aware of the moment of
oestrogen concentration and is triggered by a
of progesterone. ovulation.
hormone from the pituitary gland.

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 DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISMS AND THE CONTINUITY OF LIFE

S Hormones control the development become a structure known as the corpus

of ova luteum, which produces the hormone
The ova develop from cells lining the ovary. progesterone. This hormone keeps the wall
This is triggered by follicle stimulating of the uterus in good condition for the
hormone (FSH) released from the pituitary development of a zygote if implantation
gland. FSH causes a special cell in the ovary to has occurred. It also prevents FSH
produce a sac around itself. The fluid-filled sac secretion which prevents the release of any
and the developing ovum inside it are together more mature ova by feedback inhibition.
called a Graafian follicle. Once the follicle is This ensures that only one fertilised ovum
mature, and there is a high concentration of develops in the uterus at any one time. The
oestrogen, it moves to the surface of the ovary processes taking place in the uterus and
and bursts, releasing the ovum into the funnel the ovary and their control by hormones
of the oviduct. This process is called ovulation. are summarised in the diagram below.
The remaining cells of the Graafian follicle
Pituitary gland – Brain – processes information
releases hormones from other parts of the body and
which control activity ‘instructs’ pituitary gland.
of the ovary. FSH LH LH
Luteinising hormone– stimulates
Follicle stimulating
Events in the ovary release of mature ovum from
hormone – stimulates
ovary and development of corpus
development of Graafian
luteum from the remains of
follicle in ovary. Graafian Ovum Corpus the follicle.
follicle luteum

Oestrogen – repairs Progesterone – keeps the

Blood concentration of ovarian hormones
the lining of the uterus lining of the uterus ready for
and stimulates implantation and pregnancy.
development of female
sexual characteristics.
Day 0 Day 14 Day 28

Condition of lining of uterus

The lining of the uterus
gradually thickens and
develops more blood
vessels ready to receive
a fertilised ovum.
Day 0 Day 14 Day 28
RECEPTIVE PREMENSTRUAL
MENSTRUATION REPAIR PHASE The ‘safe period’ is the time
PHASE PHASE when intercourse theoretically
will not lead to pregnancy.
This assumes that for
fertilisation to occur, there
Body temperature (°C) ‘SAFE PERIOD’
must be sperm in the oviduct
This ‘blip’ in temperature
up to four days before or after
corresponds to ovulation.
ovulation. This is the basis
‘SAFE PERIOD’ of the rhythm method of
contraception.
Day 0 Day 14 Day 28
Q
1 Define the terms menstruation and ovulation. 3 Use the term feedback inhibition to explain why
What is the link between these processes? contraceptive pills contain the hormone progesterone.
2 Describe the role of the hormones FSH, LH, 4 a List the phases of the menstrual cycle.
oestrogen and progesterone in the control of the b How long does the cycle last?
menstrual cycle. c At what time in the cycle does ovulation occur?

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16.8 Copulation and conception

OBJECTIVES
■ To understand the difference between copulation
Copulation delivers male gametes
and conception Before intercourse, sexual stimulation
■ To describe the events of fertilisation causes blood to flow into the man’s penis.
The penis becomes erect and hard enough
■ To describe the processes of in vitro fertilisation and
artificial insemination by donor to enter the woman’s vagina (helped by
■ To understand some of the moral and ethical questions lubricating fluids released by the walls of the
posed by human intervention in reproductive processes vagina). This is called copulation or sexual
intercourse. The rubbing of the tip of the
penis (the glans) against the wall of the
Ovulation provides a female gamete vagina sets off a reflex action that releases
During ovulation each month, an ovum is released stored sperm from the testes, and squeezes
from one of the ovaries. The ovum moves slowly them by peristalsis along the sperm ducts
along the oviduct towards the uterus. This and the urethra. As the sperm pass along
movement is brought about by: these tubes, seminal fluid is added to them
■ peristalsis – rhythmic contractions of muscles and the complete semen is ejaculated in
in the wall of the oviduct spurts from the tip of the penis. About 3
■ cilia – fine hair-like structures on the lining of or 4 cm3 of semen is ejaculated, and this
the oviduct which sweep the ovum along. contains about 300 000 000 sperm. The
diagram below illustrates how the male and
It takes 4–7 days for the ovum to reach the uterus,
female gametes arrive at the same place.
and during this time fertilisation may take place
in the oviduct (see below).

4 The zygote (fertilised ovum) 5 The ball of cells becomes an embryo.

divides to form a ball of cells. It implants in the uterus lining and a
placenta develops (see page 196).
3 Fertilisation usually occurs
in the first third to first half
of the oviduct.

Sperm swim through the

2 Cilia and peristaltic
uterus towards the ovum
waves sweep the ovum
in the oviduct.
along the oviduct.
1 Ovum (female gamete)
is released from the Sperm are released close
ovary at ovulation. to the cervix during sexual
intercourse.

Man
Oviduct
Sperm duct
Ovary
Testis

194 Vagina
Woman Erect penis
 DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISMS AND THE CONTINUITY OF LIFE

1 Sperm swim towards ovum.

Fertilisation is the fusion of ovum and sperm
Fertilisation is the joining together (fusion) of an ovum and
Ovum Cell from
a sperm. The new cell contains a set of genetic material from
the follicle
Nucleus surrounding the mother and a set from the father. Fertilisation takes place
ovum in the oviduct, and although several hundred sperm may reach
the ovum, only one of them will penetrate the membrane that
Outer surrounds it. Once this has happened a series of changes takes
membrane Cytoplasm place:
2 Remaining follicle cells are scattered
■ The ovum membrane alters to form a barrier to the entry of
by sperm. other sperm.
Tail
■ The head of the sperm (the male nucleus) moves towards the
Sperm nucleus of the ovum and the two fuse (join together).
nucleus ■ The fertilised ovum or zygote now starts to divide, first into
Ovum two cells, then into four, and so on. It continues to move
membrane
towards
the uterus.
3 One sperm passes through the outer
membrane. A barrier forms to prevent
The events of fertilisation are summarised in the diagram on
entry of more than one sperm. the left.

Conception is the implantation of the ball of cells

About six days after fertilisation, the ball of cells, now called
an embryo, becomes embedded in the thickened lining of the
uterus. Conception, the beginning of the development of a new
individual, takes place when this embedding or implantation is
4 Head of sperm crosses ovum cell membrane.
complete. Once the embryo is attached to the lining of the uterus,
some of its outer cells combine with some of the mother’s cells
and a placenta begins to develop.

S
Infertility treatment
i
In vitro fertilisation (IVF)
The term in vitro means ‘in glass’, and is used to describe a procedure that
5 Sperm nucleus and ovum nucleus fuse at takes place outside the body in some form of laboratory glassware. In in
fertilisation. A zygote has been formed. vitro fertilisation, an ovum is fertilised outside a woman’s body in a special
kind of dish (not a test tube, although the technique is sometimes called
‘test-tube fertilisation’). The fertilised ovum is placed in the woman’s uterus
to develop. This procedure is used to treat couples who are unable to
conceive. For example, a woman’s oviducts may be blocked, preventing
sperm reaching the ovum, or making it difficult for a fertilised ovum to get
▼ Fertilisation is the fusion of ovum and to the uterus.
sperm
Artificial insemination by donor (AID)
If a couple is unable to conceive naturally due to a problem with the man’s
sperm, they may try AID. Sperm from a donor is obtained from a sperm
bank (where it is stored) and is inserted into the woman’s uterus close to
her time of ovulation.

Q
1 Define the terms conception, copulation and fertilisation. In what order do
these events occur?
2 It is possible for humans to intervene in the process of reproduction.
Suggest how IVF and AID raise ethical problems for the medical
2
profession.

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16.9 Pregnancy: the role of the

placenta
OBJECTIVES Growth and development
From the time of conception it takes about nine months, or 40
■ To know the sequence of events in
weeks, for a fertilised ovum to become a fully formed baby. This
the development of a baby
progress involves two closely linked processes:
■ To understand the role of
the placenta ■ growth – the repeated division of the zygote to provide the
many cells that make up the baby
■ development – the organisation of the cells into tissues
and organs.

During growth, the zygote divides into many identical cells – one
zygote at conception becomes 30 million million cells at birth!
This type of cell division is called mitosis (see page 212). Each cell
also takes up its correct position in the embryo. The cells become
organised into tissues (see page 27) and start to take on special
functions such as nerve cells and skin cells.

Placenta – this disc-shaped Wall of uterus

Amniocentesis is a test to
organ has a number of
check for abnormalities of
functions:
the fetus. A sample of
exchange of soluble
amniotic fluid is collected in
materials such as foods,
a syringe through the
wastes and oxygen
abdominal wall of the
between mother and fetus
mother. The fluid contains
physical attachment of
cells from the fetus, which
the fetus to the wall of
are cultured and then
the uterus
analysed. There is a risk
protection
of miscarriage following
1 of fetus from mother’s
the test.
immune system
The procedure is usually
2 against dangerous
offered to older women
fluctuations in mother’s blood
because fetal abnormalities
pressure
are more common in older
secretion of hormones which
mothers.
maintain the lining of the
The test gives information
uterus as the corpus luteum;
about chromosome
breaks down by the third
mutation (e.g. Down
month.
syndrome) and gene
Umbilical cord mutation (e.g. cystic
– contains blood vessels which carry fibrosis).
materials for exchange between mother Usually carried out at
and fetus. The cord connects the fetus to 16–18 weeks.
the placenta.

Amniotic sac Amniotic fluid

– the membrane that encloses the – protects the fetus against
amniotic fluid. This is ruptured just mechanical shock
before birth. drying out
temperature fluctuations.
▲ The placenta protects and nourishes the developing fetus

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A controlled environment
The time taken for the development of a baby from an implanted zygote is called the gestation period.
The developing fetus needs a stable environment which is provided by the placenta, a structure that
is only found in mammals. The placenta forms early in pregnancy, partly from the lining of the uterus,
and partly from the outside cells of the developing embryo. The fetus is attached to the placenta by the
umbilical cord as shown below. It is surrounded by the amniotic sac which is filled with amniotic
fluid; this protects the fetus from knocks and bumps.
The placenta begins to develop at implantation and after about 12 weeks it is a thick, disc-like structure
with finger-like projections called villi that extend deep into the wall of the uterus. The placenta
continues to grow to keep pace with the developing fetus and is about 15 cm across, weighing about
500 g, at the time of birth. After the baby has been born, the placenta, amniotic sac and umbilical cord
are expelled from the uterus as the afterbirth. The structure of the placenta, and some of its functions,
are illustrated in the diagram below.

S Exchange of materials across the placenta

At the placenta, materials are exchanged quickly and selectively between the mother’s blood and that
of the fetus to keep a constant internal environment inside the fetus. The placenta has adaptations that
make this process efficient, as outlined in the diagram below. Towards the end of pregnancy, protective
antibodies also cross the placenta so that the baby has some immunity to certain diseases.

Vein to mother takes away blood which is: DANGER! Some harmful materials can cross
low in nutrients and oxygen the placenta and affect the fetus.
high in carbon dioxide and urea. • Nicotine – a toxin in tobacco smoke. Babies of
mothers who are smokers can be born already
addicted to nicotine.
• Rubella virus – a pathogen which causes
German measles. This disease causes damage
to the developing brain and nervous system.
Wall of uterus is well supplied with
blood vessels.

Umbilical artery –
Umbilical cord
Blood-filled space in lining carries deoxygenated
of uterus. blood containing
wastes such as urea
away from fetus to
placenta.
Placental villi are finger-like
projections which provide a large,
thin surface for exchange of
Umbilical vein –
materials between mother
carries oxygenated
and fetus.
blood cleared of
wastes from
placenta to fetus.
Blood contains a
There is no direct contact high concentration
between maternal and fetal of soluble foods such
blood – they are separated as glucose, amino
by a membrane which can, acids and iron.
to some extent, select the Artery from mother delivers blood which is:
materials that cross it. high in nutrients and oxygen
low in carbon dioxide and urea.

▲ The placenta is the site of exchange – useful substances such as glucose and oxygen pass from
mother to fetus and wastes such as urea and carbon dioxide move in the opposite direction

Q
1 Name two other parts of the body where villi give the benefit of an increased surface area.
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16.10 Pregnancy: development

and antenatal care*
OBJECTIVE
■ To know about antenatal care

Antenatal care Checks on the mother

Antenatal care includes ■ advice on diet Weight check: from about the 3rd month
■ guidance on motherhood of pregnancy a woman gains about 1 lb
■ checks on fetus and mother. (450 g) per week. During the whole
pregnancy she will gain about 30 lb (12 kg).
This includes the weight of the baby, the
Signs of pregnancy placenta and the amniotic fluid, as well as
■ first sign – a missed period some fat under the skin. If she gains too
■ second sign – another missed period, much weight she will be advised to diet.
perhaps with feelings of nausea, tender
Diet should
breasts and more frequent urination.
■ contain extra calcium (bone growth of
Testing for pregnancy
fetus) and iron (haemoglobin)
Measures the amount of HCG hormone in the
■ include protein (growth of fetus) and
urine, using monoclonal antibodies.
extra carbohydrate (mother may need
25% more kjoules)
Checks on the fetus ■ vitamin supplements.

Size and position can be felt by gentle pressure on Lifestyle

the uterus. Towards the end of pregnancy the best ■ Avoid smoking (carbon monoxide in
position for the baby is head downwards and facing smoke reduces oxygen transport to
the mother’s back. fetus, causing low birthweight).
■ Reduce alcohol intake (alcohol can
Heartbeat can be measured, using a stethoscope, damage the nervous system of the
during the second half of pregnancy. The fetal heart developing fetus).
rate is usually 120–160 bpm, about twice as high as
its mother’s! Blood pressure: checked at every visit as
high b.p. may indicate toxaemia of
Ultrasound scanning is used to produce a picture pregnancy which can be very serious for
of the fetus in the uterus. It provides information on both mother and baby.
■ baby’s age, size, sex and position
■ position of the placenta Hormones: the level of oestrogen in the
■ whether there are twins! blood indicates how well the placenta is
Amniocentesis (see page 196) functioning to supply the fetus with food
provides valuable early information and oxygen.
about the developing fetus

Q
1 What name is given to the complete period from more (a total of four), and so on. Calculate
fertilisation to birth? approximately how many divisions were necessary to
2 The growth of the fetus is due to an increase in the produce the baby from the zygote.
number of cells of which it is made. A newborn baby 3 Cell division is only part of the overall process of
has about 30 million million cells. Remember that each production of the baby. Which other process runs
cell divides into two, and each of those two into two alongside cell division? Define this process.

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 DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISMS AND THE CONTINUITY OF LIFE

From conception to birth: development

of the human fetus

1 month actual length 7 mm 2 months actual length (crown to rump) 16 mm

Drugs administered during this

nose period may severely affect
eye development, e.g. thalidomide leads
heart
to loss of or abnormal limbs.
umbilical forelimb
cord
All adult organs are present,
hindlimb though tiny and immature.
Muscles begin to differentiate
and embryo is capable of
By this time the basic pattern of the body has been movement. Sex organ
laid down – the nerve tube is forming, the heart distinguishable as ovary or testis. Bones begin to
begins to beat, the limb buds appear and the three harden. From now on, the developing organism
regions of the brain are formed. The developing is know as the fetus.
organism is an embryo.

Birth is a compromise –
the fetus has outgrown
the placenta’s supply
systems but must adjust
to a much more variable
environment.

At this stage, pre-term

babies have a good
chance of survival with
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 appropriate respiratory
Time since fertilisation / months and thermoregulatory
assistance.

4 months
3 months Fetus may kick, actual length
actual length curl toes, squint (crown to heel)
and frown. Sex can 120 mm
(crown to heel)
be determined by
70 mm external inspection.
Lymph nodes
develop. Face begins to look
‘human’. Lobes of
the forebrain
develop. Eye, ear
and nose begin
to look ‘normal’. Movements
may begin to be vigorous, and
may be detected by mother
(the fetus ‘kicks’).

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16.11 Birth and the newborn baby*

OBJECTIVES Hormones are responsible for birth
The sequence of events that leads to the birth of a baby is called
■ To describe the events leading labour. Labour begins with the contractions of the uterus muscle.
to birth These contractions are:
■ To describe the early care of a ■ prevented by progesterone – the level of this hormone falls as
young baby birth approaches
■ To appreciate the benefits of ■ stimulated by oxytocin, a hormone released from the pituitary
breast feeding gland of the mother
■ helped by oestrogen (which makes the uterus more sensitive to
oxytocin) – the level of this hormone rises as birth approaches.

Labour
By the end of pregnancy the baby normally lies with its head against the
cervix, ready to be born. At first the contractions come every 20 minutes
or so and may be quite gentle, but as birth approaches they become
more frequent and more powerful. The contractions cause the amniotic
sac to break and release the amniotic fluid – known as breaking the
waters – and the cervix to dilate (get wider). The first stage of labour
is complete when the cervix is wide enough for the baby’s head to
pass through. Labour continues as the baby’s head is pushed past the
cervix into the vagina, which is now acting as a birth canal. From now
on the process is quite rapid and may involve powerful and painful
contractions by the mother, helped by the midwife or the obstetrician
(doctor who specialises in birth). The birth process is quite traumatic
for the baby, and it may become short of oxygen as the umbilical cord
is compressed by the walls of the birth canal. The baby’s heartbeat is
monitored during birth, and the blood soon reoxygenates once the baby
begins to breathe. When the baby is breathing properly, the umbilical
cord is clamped (to prevent bleeding) and cut. During the third stage of
labour, the placenta comes away from the wall of the uterus and leaves
the vagina as the afterbirth.

Feeding the newborn baby

When a newborn baby is placed close to its mother’s breast it sucks at
the nipple. This is known as the suckling reflex. Suckling stimulates
the mother’s brain to release more oxytocin. The hormone causes tiny
muscles in the mammary glands to squeeze out milk. This process is
lactation.

S The mother’s milk is an ideal food for the baby – it contains all the
nutrients the baby needs in the correct proportions. It also contains some
antibodies from the mother which help to protect the baby during its early
months. Milk made in the first few days is called colostrum. It contains
mainly antibodies and very little food. The mother continues to produce
milk as long as the baby suckles. A newborn baby cannot eat solid food
because it has no teeth and its digestive system is not developed enough
to deal with solids. At around four to six months when the first teeth
are starting to appear, the baby can begin to eat some solid food. The
gradual changeover from milk to a solid food diet is called weaning.
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 DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISMS AND THE CONTINUITY OF LIFE

S Bottle feeding
The artificial or formula milks intended for use in bottle feeding are based on cows’ milk.
Various sugars and other substances are added to the dried powder to make it more like
human milk. The differences between cow and human milk are shown below.
The main advantages of bottle feeding are that the exact quantity of the baby’s food intake
can be measured, and that people other than the baby’s mother can help with feeding. The
main disadvantages of bottle feeding are that formula milk is expensive and it is not as easily
digested as breast milk. Also, unless the bottles are carefully cleaned and sterilised and unless
the milk is made with boiled cooled water, microbes can be passed to the baby.
In some parts of the world, bottle feeding is a leading cause of gastrointestinal upset and
deficiency disease in babies. There is an ongoing campaign to encourage breast feeding.

Human milk is low in bacteria and Artificial milk (‘formula’) is based on cow’s milk, but it must be modified since
contains antimicrobial factors so the gastrointestinal tract and kidneys of the human infant are immature and
that breast-fed infants suffer fewer incapable of dealing with the ‘richness’ of cow's milk.
infections, particularly the Cow's milk compared with human milk
dangerously dehydrating Fat High in long-chain, Difficult to digest, inhibits calcium
gastroenteritis. Bottle-fed infants in saturated fatty acids absorption
developing countries may have a Protein Three times higher Infant kidneys cannot cope, excess
10–15 times greater mortality than amino acids may cause brain damage
breast-fed babies. High casein:whey ratio Causes hard curd in stomach – not
easily digested
Human milk is low cost, is Minerals Very high (particularly Infant kidney cannot cope –
delivered at body temperature, sodium) severe (often fatal) dehydration
requires no preparation and Lactose Very high Lactose intolerance – may lead
breast feeding encourages a social (milk sugar) to severe disease, the symptoms
bond between mother and infant. of which may include brain damage
Suckling may have a contraceptive
effect, although this is not certain.

Q
1 Copy and complete the following paragraph about 2 Breast milk contains all the nutrients a baby needs
the birth of a human baby. except for vitamin C and iron. However, the baby
An expectant mother knows when she is about to has sufficient iron stored in its liver for the first
give birth because her begins to experience months of its life. The first milk a breast-fed baby
waves of contraction. These contractions are caused receives is called colostrum. After a few days,
by an increased release of the hormone from normal breast milk is produced. Table 1 compares
the pituitary gland, and become more and more the composition of colostrum and normal breast
powerful as the concentration of the hormone milk.
falls. Eventually the contractions are so powerful that Nutrient / g per 100 cm3
the dilates, the bursts and the ‘waters’ Fat Protein Sugar
are released. Further powerful contractions push the
Colostrum 2.5 8.0 3.5
baby through the or birth canal (usually head
Normal breast milk 4.0 2.0 8.0
first, but occasionally feet or bottom first in what is
called a breech birth). Once the baby has been ▲ Table 1
delivered, it is important that it takes deep breaths a Use data from Table 1 to describe how the
because it may have been deprived of as the amounts of fat, protein and sugar are different in
cord is compressed during delivery. This cord is colostrum and normal breast milk.
clamped and cut, and relatively mild contractions of b A baby feeding on normal breast milk drinks one
litre of milk per day. Calculate how much protein
the uterus cause the to come away from the
the baby receives per day. Show your working.
wall of the uterus and pass out of the vagina as the
c Suggest a suitable fruit juice a mother could give
. her baby to provide vitamin C.
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 16.11 Birth and the newborn baby*

Twins multiple birth. This is quite common in women

Humans usually give birth to a single baby. who have been treated with a fertility drug. The
Occasionally two embryos develop together, uterus cannot expand enough to contain several
each with its own placenta and umbilical cord, fetuses growing and developing at the same time,
resulting in twins. There are two kinds of twins, and the mother often gives birth early, usually
and they arise in different ways, as shown in the around the seventh month of the pregnancy.
diagram below. Increasingly, medical care (including the use of
incubators) means that the babies may survive.
Very occasionally three or more ova are released
and fertilised at the same time, resulting in a
The development of twins. A VERY RARE EVENT!

Ovary Ovary Ovary

Two ova are

A single ovum is released from One ovum A second ovum is released
released from the ovary at is released. before the ovary is
the ovary. the same time.
‘switched off’ by feedback
The ovum is Each ovum is but is fertilised inhibition.
fertilised by fertilised by a late in the The ovum could be
one sperm. different sperm. menstrual cycle. fertilised a month later,
maybe by a sperm from
The zygote divided a different man.
Each zygote
to form an embryo.
forms an ambryo.
The embryo
splits into
two identical
embryos.

Each embryo Each embryo

completes its completes its
development. development. Two children are born as a result of consecutive
conception. These children may be very different, as
Twins are identical because Twins are non–identical they may receive genes from different fathers.
they each contains copies because they each contain
of the same set of genes. a different set of genes.

▲ Identical twins have the same genes ▲ Non-identical twins are no more ▲ Multiple births can happen
alike than any other brothers and naturally, or following treatment with
sisters fertility drugs
Q
3 Describe the role of hormones in the birth and early c They each have their own placenta and umbilical
growth of a human baby. cord.
4 Consider this list of statements about identical twins, d They may be of the same sex or different sexes.
and say whether each is true or false. e They are also known as fraternal twins.
a They each have the same genes. f They are formed from a single fertilised egg that
b They are formed from two separate ova. splits in two.

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16.12 Sexually transmitted

infections
OBJECTIVES ■ Individuals at greatest risk, (e.g. drug users),
can be offered testing for HIV.
■ To understand that disease-causing organisms can be
■ Sexual contacts can be traced to identify
transmitted between partners during sexual activity
sources of infection.
■ To name some organisms responsible for sexually
transmitted infections Worldwide involvement can include, for
example,
The control of sexually transmitted infections
■ education programmes to prevent infection
(STIs) requires the interaction of individuals
■ provision of antibiotics
and communities. These diseases, some of which
■ development of vaccines and antiviral drugs.
are listed below, are most likely to be transmitted
by body fluids through sexual contact (the STIs can be caused by bacteria, viruses or fungi.
responsibility of the individual) but can only
Gonorrhea is a common STI caused by a
be controlled by a concerted effort both locally
bacterium.
and worldwide.
Bacterial STIs are treated with antibiotics
Individuals must take care with sexual habits.
(e.g. penicillin) but resistant strains are
An STI can be transmitted quickly through a
developing.
population, so individuals should:
Viral STIs are increasing in frequency. These
■ know the sexual history of their partners
include AIDS (acquired immune deficiency
■ use a condom for barrier protection
syndrome).
■ have a medical check if any symptoms occur.
The causes, effects and treatment for gonorrhea
Communities must offer testing and treatment, and AIDS are summarised in the table below.
e.g. by family doctors.

Name of STI and Signs and symptoms Transmission Treatment

infective organism

Gonorrhea (caused 1 Pain or burning when passing Usually by penetrative sex – i.e. when the Once diagnosed (an easy test in a
by bacterium) urine penis enters the vagina, mouth or anus clinic), treatment is
2 A creamy discharge from the straightforward, involving a
penis or vagina course of antibiotics
3 Inflammation of the testicles

AIDS (caused by S A flu-like illness in the early 1 Unprotected sex with an infected person There is no cure. Antiviral
virus, HIV–human stages. Many AIDS-related 2 Contact with an infected person's blood treatment slows down the
immunodeficiency conditions may follow as the 3 From mother to child, during pregnancy progression from HIV+ status
virus) immune system begins to fail – or childbirth to full-blown AIDS. Modern
e.g. fungal infection of the lungs. 4 Sharing syringes while injecting drugs treatments inhibit the enzymes
The virus reduces the number of which the virus uses to copy itself.
lymphocytes and decreases the
ability to produce antibodies.

Q
1 Suggest two steps an individual can take to reduce 3 Name one viral and one bacterial sexually transmitted
the risk of named sexually transmitted infections. infection (STI).
2 What are the responsibilities of a community 4 For any one named STI, suggest how individuals, local
health service? communities and scientists worldwide might be
involved in its control. 203
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Questions on human reproduction

1 Many young women choose to take an oral 50

contraceptive in order to avoid pregnancy. An 45 Progesterone
40
oral contraceptive can prevent pregnancy by: Amount 35
A destroying sperm before they can reach of 30
an ovum hormone 25
in blood /
B preventing a fertilised egg from becoming 20
arbitrary
units 15
implanted in the lining of the uterus
10 Oestrogen
C inhibiting the release of an ovum from 5
the ovaries 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
D destroying ova that have been released from
Time / days
the ovaries [1]
2 In which organ are sperm made? a When are the levels of oestrogen and
A Testes progesterone equal? [1]
B Prostate gland b Which process occurred between day 0
C Penis and day 5? [1]
D Vas deferens [1] c Give one function of each of these
3 Birth control is used in many countries to limit hormones:
the size of families. i oestrogen [1]
There are different methods of birth control ii progesterone. [1]
available to people – some are used by men and d What evidence from the graph shows that an
some by women. ovum was fertilised? [1]
a Name the process which occurs when a e Sketch a copy of the graph. Draw a line
sperm and an ovum fuse. [1] between day 16 and day 30 to show a
b A common method of birth control, probable level of progesterone which would
especially for men, involves the use of be found in the woman’s blood if she had
condoms. Some men believe that birth not become pregnant. [1]
control affects their masculinity, and may f How does the lining of the uterus help in the
stop using condoms. development of a fertilised ovum? [2]
i Explain how an increase in HIV infection 5 Some women may be unable to become
may result from a reduction in the use of pregnant naturally. They may be treated with
condoms. [2] pills containing the hormone FSH.
ii Explain why a person infected with a Explain how FSH could help a young
HIV is more likely to suffer from other woman to produce and release an ovum. [2]
infections. [2] b Reduction in fertility may also be the result
c i Name one sexually transmitted infection of an infection, which leaves the fallopian
caused by a bacterium. [1] tubes blocked. The woman may still be able
ii State one effect of this infection, and to produce ova but they cannot pass down
suggest one possible treatment. [2] the fallopian tubes.
4 The graph that follows shows the levels of i Explain why this limits the possibility of
the hormones oestrogen and progesterone in woman becoming pregnant. [2]
a woman’s blood during a month when she ii Describe a method by which a woman
becomes pregnant. with a blocked fallopian tube may still
Use the information in the graph and your own become pregnant. Include the role of
knowledge to answer the questions. FSH in your description. [4]

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 DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISMS AND THE CONTINUITY OF LIFE

6 The temperature of the human fetus whilst is unlikely to supply. What problem
in the uterus is about 0.5°C above that of its might this cause for the newborn
mother. At birth it emerges into a relatively baby? [2]
cool, dry atmosphere and immediately 7 The diagram shows the structure of the
encounters a problem of temperature control. placenta and parts of the fetal and maternal
a Suggest why the temperature of the fetus is circulatory systems.
above that of its mother. [1]
b Explain how the following help the newborn
baby to control its temperature:
i from about the fifth month of pregnancy
onwards a layer of subcutaneous fat is
developed by the fetus [1]
ii at birth the blood vessels to the baby’s
skin constrict very quickly. [1]
c A baby born prematurely is less able to
control its body temperature and must be
kept in an incubator (see photograph).
i A constant temperature is maintained
within the incubator, using a thermostat
and an electric heater. Use this example
to explain the meaning of the term a i Copy and complete Table 1 by
negative feedback. [4] listing the blood vessels that carry
ii Suggest two functions of the hood that oxygenated blood. Use the letters in
covers the incubator. [2] the diagram to identify the blood
vessels. [2]

Circulatory Blood vessels that carry

system oxygenated blood
maternal
fetal
▲ Table 1

ii Name structure T and describe what

happens to it after birth. [1]
iii The placenta is adapted for the
exchange of substances between the
▲ An incubator provides a constant warm maternal blood and the fetal blood.
environment for a premature baby Describe the exchanges that occur
d The premature baby must be fed through a acrossthe placenta to keep the fetus
plastic tube going through its nostril into alive and well. [3]
its stomach. b The placenta secretes the hormones
i The food supplied to the baby contains oestrogen and progesterone. Describe
substantial quantities of carbohydrate the roles of these hormones during
and protein. Suggest one function of each pregnancy. [4]
of these substances in the body of the
newborn baby. [2]
ii Name one substance normally supplied
across the placenta in the late stages
of pregnancy which the artificial diet
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17.1 Variation and inheritance

■ How can characteristics be passed on
OBJECTIVES
accurately from one cell to another?
■ To know that there is variation between individuals of ■ How are the characteristics of two different
the same species organisms combined at fertilisation?
■ To appreciate that some differences are inherited ■ How do characteristics vary from one
whereas others are acquired during the life of organism to another and from one
the individual generation to another?
■ To understand that genetics has a major impact on the Answers to questions such as these help
lives of humans us in many ways, for example to increase
■ To understand that chromosomes, located in the our understanding about genetic diseases,
nucleus, carry information about inherited characteristics and to develop techniques to ‘add’ desirable
characteristics to our domestic animals and
Inherited and acquired characteristics plants.
Living organisms vary in many ways. For
example, humans all have the same general
Sexual reproduction and
shape and the same set of body organs, but some inheritance
features differ from one person to the next, such The production of offspring by sexual
as height, weight, eye and hair colour, shape of reproduction always involves the production
nose, language, knowledge and skills. These are of gametes and fertilisation (see page 176).
examples of individual variation. In sexual reproduction:
Some of these features that vary from person ■ The only part of the male gamete (sperm in
to person may be inherited from the parents. mammals) that goes to form the zygote is
Inheritance is the transmission of genetic the nucleus.
information from generation to generation. ■ The gametes are formed by cell division.
Examples of these inherited (or hereditary) ■ The young organism develops from a single
characteristics include the tendency to fertilised egg by cell division.
develop some diseases, such as cystic fibrosis, So, if we are to understand how
and the permanent colour of the skin. Some, characteristics are passed on during
such as a temporary suntan or a scar, cannot reproduction, we should look carefully at the
be inherited – these are called acquired structure of the nucleus, and how the nucleus
characteristics. Many acquired characteristics behaves during cell division.
can be changed (for example, body mass can be
changed by an adjustment to the diet). Inherited
Tail
characteristics cannot usually be altered (except
temporarily).

Genetics
The study of inherited characteristics, and the way
they are passed on from one generation to another,
is called genetics. Our knowledge of the subject of Mid-piece
genetics is expanding extremely rapidly, and this
knowledge depends upon our understanding of the
molecule DNA (see page 208).
When we study inheritance we are looking for Head (contains nucleus)
answers to several important questions:
■ What is a characteristic? Why does a cell or ▲ Human sperm × 1000. Only the ‘head’ (containing
organism develop a certain characteristic? the nucleus) enters the egg at the time of fertilisation.
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 DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISMS AND THE CONTINUITY OF LIFE

The contents of the nucleus

Special stains can be used to show up the contents of the nucleus.
If the cell is not actually dividing, these contents are rather unclear
but, as the cell begins to divide, the contents show up as a series of
thread-like structures. As the threads shorten, they take up the stain.
For this reason, they were called chromosomes (literally ‘coloured
bodies’). The structure of a chromosome is outlined below.

Each chromosome is divided

into short sections of DNA
Centromere (attachment called genes. Each gene carries
point for spindle fibres the coded information for the
during cell division). production of a protein by
the cell.

The nucleus of a cell

contains chromosomes.
In humans, there are 23
pairs of chromosomes
(i.e. 46 chromosomes
in total).

Q
There is about 2 m of DNA in
Each chromosome
1 Look around your class.
each human nucleus. In each
contains a very long human, there ís enough DNA This group of humans
coiled strand of DNA. to stretch to the Moon shows many variations
and back! between individuals.
Suggest one variation
▲ The structure of a chromosome that is inherited and one
that is acquired.
A great deal of evidence suggests that the chromosomes carry Find three newspaper
genetic information – the information that gives the particular 2 articles that include the
characteristics to a cell: words ‘gene’, ‘genetic’
■ If sections of chromosome are transferred from one cell to or ‘inheritance’ in their
headings. Summarise
another, the characteristics of the recipient cell change.
one of the articles in
■ If chromosomes are deliberately damaged, the characteristics of
three or four sentences.
the cell change.
3 a What is a
■ In some cells, the chromosomes are seen to swell when proteins chromosome? What
are being manufactured in the cell. evidence is there that
■ The only difference between the nuclei of male and female cells chromosomes carry
is the presence of one particular chromosome (see page 224). genetic information?
(Males and females certainly have different characteristics!) b When can
chromosomes be
observed? Explain
Remember these definitions!
Chromosome: a thread-like structure of DNA carrying genetic information in the form why this is possible.
of genes.
Gene: a length of DNA that codes for a specific protein.

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17.2 DNA, proteins and the

characteristics of organisms
S OBJECTIVES Characteristics depend on proteins
It has been discovered that the characteristics that
■ To know that cell characteristics
a cell or organism possesses depend on the proteins that the cell
depend on proteins
can manufacture. For examples of this, look at the picture at the
■ To understand the principle of the
top of the opposite page.
genetic code
■ To be able to describe the For cells to specialise in the many different ways that they do,
replication of DNA they must make different proteins. The instructions as to which
proteins should be manufactured at any one time in a cell are
carried as genes on the chromosomes. Chemical tests have
DNA as gene shown that chromosomes are largely composed of the enormous
controls molecule called deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA for short. In other
⎯⎯→

production
words:
of
protein DNA carries its instructions as coded messages using just four
different chemical compounds called nucleotide bases or
⎯⎯→

responsible organic bases (see page 37). The names of the bases are shown
for
in the diagram below, but you only need to remember their
characteristic initial letters (A, T, G and C) to understand how the code works.

The DNA molecule is made up of

nucleotides. Each nucleotide contains a Backbone
One nucleotide base, and a sugar–phosphate backbone.

Base pair
There may be millions of nucleotides in a
DNA molecule, but there are only four Adenine Thymine
A
different ones. Some contain the base Cytosine
T adenine (A), some contain guanine (G), Guanine
G some thymine (T) and some cytosine (C).
C

A T A very short section

of a DNA molecule
G C (about 600 base pairs)
The nucleotides form very long
are needed to code for
‘ladders’ with bases as the ‘rungs’
an average protein
of the ladder. The base pairs are G C
always one of two types, either
adenine with thymine T A
or
guanine with cytosine. A T Certain physical forces cause the ‘ladder’ to
twist around itself to form a shape similar
C G to a spiral, called a double helix.

▲ The structure of DNA. The exact length of the DNA molecule is not known, even for humans. It is very important to
remember that: adenine always pairs with thymine, and guanine always pairs with cytosine.

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 DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISMS AND THE CONTINUITY OF LIFE

S
Hair cells contain keratin
a structural protein.
Antibodies are proteins
which play a part in the
Base pairing can explain how DNA
immune response. is replicated*
For one organism to pass on characteristics to
its offspring, it must be able to copy the coded
instructions for these characteristics and hand
them on. In other words, DNA in the chromosomes
must be copied or replicated. This replication
must be carried out with great accuracy, since a
Saliva
Neurotransmitters contains
change in characteristics might be harmful to the
in the nervous the enzyme organism. The base pairing rule means that the
system bind to (protein) coded sequence on one chain of the double helix
receptor amylase.
proteins automatically determines the coded sequence on
in the the other chain, ensuring accurate replication. The
synapse.
principles of DNA replication are outlined below.
Enzymes
(proteins) control The replication of DNA is a vital part of cell
photosynthesis. division. It is particularly obvious in copying
▲ Cell characteristics depend on proteins. division (mitosis), as we shall see on page 212.

A T A T A T
A short section of DNA,
G C G C G C
with six base pairs. The
molecule is shown G C G C G C
‘unwound’ for simplicity,
and letters are used for T A T A T A
the bases.
A T A T A T

C G C G C G

A T There are now two short

The two chains separate. sections of DNA.
Each strand acts as a G These ar e:
C C
template for making G identical to one another
another strand using G identical to the original
C C
a supply of nucleotides. G short section.
The base pairing rule T A In other wor ds, the DNA
means that the order of A has been replicated.
bases on each new strand A T T
is determined by the T A
order of bases on the C G
template. G C

▲ Replication is essential for characteristics to be passed from one generation of cells to the next

The discovery of DNA

The discovery of DNA structure depended on the work of many scientists. These
Q
1 Antibodies work by binding to
included
another type of protein. Name
■ Rosalind Franklin: she made many measurements on DNA, using patterns
obtained by directing a beam of X-rays onto crystals of this molecule. this other type of protein.
■ James Watson and Francis Crick: used the measurements made by Franklin, 2 DNA can be copied very
and results of the chemical analysis of DNA which showed that the number of quickly by a process called
(adenine + guanine) bases was always equal to the number of (thymine + PCR. Look up what is meant
cytosine) bases, to produce a working model of the DNA molecule. This model by PCR, and explain how it has
was the double helix with which we are familiar. been useful in our fight against
Watson and Crick were awarded the Nobel prize (the highest scientific award) for the COVID-19 pandemic.
their work of DNA. Sadly, Rosalind Franklin died before her part in the discovery of
DNA structure was properly recognised. 209
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17.3 How the code is carried

S OBJECTIVES
S Passing the messages to the
■ To understand that the genetic code is carried as a
sequence of bases on the DNA molecule
ribosomes
This coded information in the genes is
■ To understand the need for a messenger molecule in
located on the chromosomes, which are in the
protein synthesis
nucleus. You may remember that the protein-
■ To define the terms transcription and translation
manufacturing stations, called ribosomes, are
DNA ‘code words’ for amino acids found outside the nucleus, in the cytoplasm.
How does the DNA in the genes instruct the cell How does the code pass from the nucleus
to make particular proteins? The following points to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm? It is
are important in understanding this link: carried by another type of nucleic acid, called
messenger RNA (mRNA).
■ Each gene carries a series of coded instructions
(‘code words’) for the synthesis of proteins. Transcription and translation
■ Each ‘code word’ on the DNA is made up of The mRNA is made by a process called
three bases (three ‘letters’) in a certain sequence. transcription, which literally means ‘cross
■ Each ‘code word’ – called a triplet – corresponds writing’. The base sequence in the DNA is
to a single amino acid in a protein. transcribed into another base sequence in
The sequence of bases in DNA is therefore a series the mRNA, using very similar base pairing
of coded instructions for the building up of amino rules to those used in the replication of DNA.
acids into proteins. The proteins then give the There is one important difference – RNA
cell or organism a particular characteristic. This never contains the base thymine (T). Thymine
relationship between DNA bases and amino acids is replaced by a fifth base called uracil (U)
is called the genetic code, and is outlined below. so instead of the base pair A–T used in DNA
A DNA strand carries instructions in the form replication, in transcription we have the base
of three-letter ‘code words’ called triplets. pair A–U.
G
Once it has been made, the mRNA leaves
This triplet instructs the cell to build one
A
particular amino acid into a protein ...
the nucleus and travels to the ribosomes.
T
The sequence of bases in the mRNA is used
to build up a sequence of amino acids into
A
a protein in the ribosome. This process is
This triplet instructs the cell to build a
G
different amino acid into the protein ... called translation – it involves rewriting the
T language of bases into a language of amino
acids. The processes of transcription and
T
translation are outlined in the diagram on the
C and another different amino acid ... next page.
A
Summary of replication,
G
transcription and translation
G and another different amino acid ... It is quite easy to confuse the various
C
processes involving nucleic acids. Remember:
■ Replication makes a DNA copy, using
▲ The four different bases in DNA can be arranged in
enough different triplets to code for all 20 amino acids DNA.
normally found in a cell ■ Transcription makes mRNA, using DNA.
210 ■ Translation makes protein, using mRNA.
 DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISMS AND THE CONTINUITY OF LIFE

S
DNA Transcription
The base-pairing rules G–C and A–U are used to
make a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule against
one strand of the DNA double helix.

mRNA
Translation
Genetic coding rules are used to make a
protein (string of amino acids) against
Nuclear membrane the strand of mRNA.

Nucleus Protein tRNA

mRNA leaves nucleus
through small holes in
amino
the nuclear membrane.
acid

Cytoplasm
Ribosome – an organelle, present Transfer RNA (tRNA)
in the cytoplasm or on rough brings amino acids to
endoplasmic reticulum (page 24) the ribosome.
that links amino acids into proteins.

Summary These processes are extremely rapid. It only takes

about 10 seconds for a ribosome to build up a molecule
of haemoglobin (which contains over 600 amino acids!).
DNA mRNA protein characteristic The protein haemoglobin gives the characteristic of oxygen
transport to red blood cells.

▲ How information in DNA codes Cell specialisation depends on proteins.

for characteristics in cells
■ All body cells in an organism contain the same genes but many genes in a particular
cell are not expressed.
■ The cell only makes the specific proteins it needs to carry out its specialised function.

Q
1 What are the subunits of a nucleic acid called? c What is the importance of the SEQUENCE of organic
2 Name the four bases in DNA. bases along a DNA strand?
3 DNA exists as a double helix. Name the base pairs that Key:
hold the double helix together. Why is base pairing
Organic base Symbol
important?
Adenine (A)
4 Define the term DNA replication.
5 Name four proteins that give particular characteristics X

to named cells. Y
6 Name one process of which DNA replication is a vital part. Guanine (G)
7 The diagram on the right represents the behaviour of
DNA strands during the early part of cell division.
Use the information in the diagram to help you answer
the following questions.
a Identify the organic bases X and Y.
b Name the process shown in the diagram.

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17.4 Cell division

S OBJECTIVES
chromosomes in an homologous pair have the
■ To understand why it is necessary to copy genetic
same genes in the same positions. The diagram
material accurately
below shows cell division in which the new
■ To know that copying division is called mitosis, and
cells are copies of the parent cell – mitosis.
results in cells with an identical number and type of
chromosomes as their parent cells Mitosis is for growth
■ To know how chromosomes behave during mitosis Both plants and animals grow by mitosis.
■ To know where mitosis takes place in the bodies of
■ In animals each tissue provides its own
mammals and flowering plants
new cells when they are needed, e.g. liver
■ To understand the need for a special cell division in the
produces liver cells.
formation of haploid gametes
■ Stem cells are unspecialised cells that divide
by mitosis to produce daughter cells that can
Mitosis is copying division become specialised for specific functions.
Characteristics are transmitted from one ■ In plants, cell division in the cambium
generation of cells to the next. For this to happen, increases the plant girth (the plant gets
the chromosomes must be accurately copied and thicker), and cell division in the meristems
passed on when cells divide. Each chromosome at the tips of the roots and shoots leads to an
has a partner, forming homologous pairs. Both increase in length (see page 11).

A zygote results from the All cells (except for gametes) contain
DNA is
fusion of egg and sperm. two sets of chromosomes; e.g. human
replicated
body cells have two sets of 23, a Each chromosome now becomes
exactly.
total of 46 chromosomes. two identical chromatids joined
at the centromere.
For simplicity, only one
homologous pair of Centromere
chromosomes is shown here.

Chromosomes become
Mitosis – copying division which attached to a spindle
produces identical daughter cells (fibres which run from
one pole to the other).

The individual
The centromere divides and spindle fibres chromosomes line
shorten so that the two chromatids in up at the equator
each chromosome separate. They move (midline) of the cell.
to opposite ends of the cell.
An adult human
has about 50
billion cells,
all containing The original cell
the same has now become
genetic two daughter cells:
information identical to The cell
as the zygote. one another membrane
identical to ‘pinches in’
parent cell to separate
same number the two sets
of chromosomes of chromatids
as parent cell. into two cells.

▲ Mitosis – copying division. Note that cell division is a continuous process. Although the
212
diagram shows mitosis in a series of stages, in reality each stage merges into the next one.
 DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISMS AND THE CONTINUITY OF LIFE

S Meiosis is reduction division ▼ Reduction division ensures that

During sexual reproduction two gametes fuse to the number of chromosomes in
form the zygote. The gametes must contain only sexually reproducing organisms is
one set of chromosomes, otherwise the zygote kept constant
would have twice as many chromosomes as it Adult cells contain
needed! This principle is outlined in the diagram chromosomes in
on the right. homologous pairs.
(2n)
Each cell of an organism has a fixed number of
chromosomes within the nucleus. The number of
chromosomes in a normal body cell is the diploid
number (or 2n); the number of chromosomes
in a gamete is the haploid number (or n). Gametes must contain haploid haploid
single chromosomes, (n) (n)
Fertilisation is the fusion of haploid gametes one from each
to restore the diploid number in the zygote. homologous pair.
Gametes are formed by a type of cell division
called meiosis or reduction division, shown in
the diagram below.
Meiosis only happens in the gamete-producing Offspring’s cells contain
diploid
chromosomes in homologous
organs: the testes and the ovaries in animals, and pairs. Each pair contains one
(2n)
the pollen sacs of the stamens and the ovules in chromosome from the mother
and one from the father.
the ovary in plants.
Meiosis is called reduction division because it halves
the number of chromosomes in cells
For simplicity, only one pair Homologous pairs of chromosomes line up.
Each parent cell contains of homologous chromosomes is This is the key difference from mitosis
two sets of chromosomes. shown here. (and is important in offering
The total number of the chance of variation).
chromosomes,
the diploid number ( 2n), DNA replication – each
is double the number of chromosome becomes two
pairs of chromosomes, identical chromatids.
the haploid number ( n).
Homologous pairs line
up at cell equator.
Spindle fibres separate
Four gametes, each the whole chromosomes.
Each chromosome The cell divides. Each cell
containing only one set,
separates into two now has only one
the haploid number
chromatids. The chromosome from each
of chromosomes.
cell divides. homologous pair.

Q
Cells in bone marrow undergo mitosis. Some of these d The human circulation contains about 5 dm3 of
1
cells become red blood cells, to replace those lost blood. Each mm3 of blood contains 5 000 000 red
as they wear out. A typical red blood cell lasts for blood cells. (1 dm3 = 1 000 000 mm3.)
120 days before it is removed from the circulation. i Calculate how many red blood cells there are in
a Suggest why red blood cells last for a short time. the human circulation.
b Which organ removes red blood cells from blood? ii The total number of red blood cells is replaced
c This organ stores the main metal ion that forms part every 120 days. Calculate how many cells are
of the red blood cell. Which ion is this, and what replaced each day. How many are replaced
molecule is it a part of inside the red blood cell? each second?

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17.5 More about cell division*

Stem cells
Most of the cells in a multicellular organism are specialised (see
page 26) – each cell or group of cells is adapted to perform a
particular function with great efficiency. An organism begins its
development as a single cell. This single cell then divides to produce
many cells which undergo differentiation as they take on their
specialised functions.

A problem with organ transplantation

is rejection. The recipient’s immune
system may recognise and destroy the
transplanted organ (see page 119).

▲ Division and differentiation of animal cells

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 DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISMS AND THE CONTINUITY OF LIFE

Some cells, however, remain unspecialised and keep the ability to

differentiate into many different types of cell when they are needed.
These are called stem cells and they are among the most important
cells in the body. Human stem cells are found in the embryo as well as
in several adult tissues, including bone marrow, the liver, brain muscle
and blood. These stem cells remain in this unspecialised form until
the tissues become damaged or are affected by disease. They can then
begin division and differentiation to replace the damaged cells.

Stem cell research

Stem cell research involves harvesting these primitive cells in
laboratories and using them for producing large quantities of useful
cells such as those of the blood, brain and spinal cord. This research
has great potential in medical science for improving human quality
of life and recovery from disease.

Stem cells are already being used to treat some human diseases
– bone marrow cells in the treatment of leukaemia, for example.
Research continues into other conditions, including spinal cord
damage. It is hoped that replacement of damaged cells in the spinal
cord by embryonic stem cells could help to reverse paralysis, for
example. However, research into stem cell therapy is difficult and
costly, and there are also arguments against this form of treatment.

For Against

■ Stem cells are thought to hold the key that will one day help ■ The use of embryonic stem cells involves the destruction of
unlock the cure for Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease, unused embryos formed from laboratory-fertilised human
heart ailments, Type I diabetes, spinal cord injuries and some eggs. Some people believe that life begins at conception,
congenital disease conditions. so these embryos represent human life and to destroy
■ Stem cells can help in replacing and repairing organs and them is unethical. Researchers point out that many of the
tissues within the body, for example those that have been embryos are those left over after fertility treatment and
damaged due to cancer, as a result of liver cirrhosis, or from would be destroyed anyway.
deep burns. ■ These cells are derived from embryos that are not a
■ They can be used in the study of human growth and cell patient’s own, and the patient’s body may reject this ‘non-
development to test potential drugs and medicines, without self’ tissue.
the use of animals or human testers. This necessitates a ■ There may be unknown side effects. In some patients
process of simulating the effect the drug has on a specific suffering from heart disease, for example, coronary arteries
population of cells, in this case stem cells. became narrower following stem cell therapy.

Q
1 True or false?
a Stem cells from one individual have the same genotype.
b Stem cells can be collected from bone marrow.
c All stem cells die once a person becomes adult.

215
 17.5 More about cell division*

▲ Treatment of Type I diabetes using stem cells

216
 DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISMS AND THE CONTINUITY OF LIFE

Embryonic or adult stem cells?

One other disadvantage of the use of embryonic stem cells is
that a patient requires a great deal of medical care, including
immunosuppression. Adult stem cells derived from the patient
avoid the problems of tissue rejection. However, embryonic ones are
easier to identify and isolate, and can be purified more easily than
adult stem cells. Adult stem cells are not always a good alternative to
embryonic stem cells – they could carry a genetic condition from a
donor to a recipient, for example.

Embryonic stem cell research is now allowed in many countries –

it is felt that the advantages, and the ease of culture, outweigh the
disadvantages. Currently, efforts are being made to collect embryonic
cells without damaging the embryos and to look for alternative
means of harvesting stem cells without using embryos (from the
umbilical cord, for example).

Q
1 Suggest two reasons why doctors and scientists are interested in stem cells.
2 State the two main sources from which stem cells originate.
3 Explain how a doctor or scientist could obtain embryonic stem cells.
4 Name two possible sources of adult stem cells.
5 Suggest two advantages of collecting umbilical cord stem cells.

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DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISMS AND THE CONTINUITY OF LIFE

17.6 Inheritance
OBJECTIVES Reproduction: a reminder
Living organisms can pass on their characteristics to the next
■ To recall the features of sexual generation (reproduce) in two ways (page 176).
and asexual reproduction
■ To be able to define the terms Remember, for sexual reproduction:
gene and allele, homozygous ■ two organisms of the same species, one male and one female
and heterozygous, dominant and are required
recessive ■ each individual produces sex cells (gametes)
■ sexual reproduction always involves fertilisation – the fusion of
the gametes
■ offspring receives some genes from each parent, so shows a
mixture of parental characteristics.
In sexual reproduction, a mixture of genes is passed from parents
to offspring. This handing down of genes is not random, and there
are certain rules that govern how genes will be passed on and which
ones will show up in the offspring.

The inheritance of characteristics

Chromosomes carry genetic information as a series of genes, such
as the gene for eye colour, the gene for earlobe shape and the gene
for hair texture. Each chromosome in the nucleus of a diploid
organism has a partner that carries the same genes. Such a pair of
chromosomes is called an homologous pair.
Each chromosome in a pair may carry alternative forms of the same
gene. These alternative forms are called alleles. For example, the
gene for eye colour has alleles that code for blue or brown. If both
alternative alleles are present in a particular cell nucleus, then the
cell is heterozygous for that characteristic. On the other hand, if the
nucleus carries the same allele on both members of the homologous
pair, then the cell is homozygous. The meaning of these genetic
terms is outlined in the diagram at the top of the next page.
Sexual reproduction

Diploid (2n) Diploid (2n)

nn nn
cell in testis cell in ovary

Meiosis Meiosis

Haploid (n)
n n n n
gametes

Fertilisation

Remember that a
diploid number The offspring is diploid, but
must be an has received one set of genes
nn
even number. from the father (n) and one
218 set from the mother (n)
 DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISMS AND THE CONTINUITY OF LIFE

Eye colour Hair texture Ear shape Each chromosome has a partner that carries the same
genes in the same positions. One of the chromosomes
in this homologous pair came from the mother, and
one came from the father.
Eye Hair Ear
Chromosomes carry genetic information
as a series of genes. Each gene has its own
position on the chromosome.

This is a simplified picture!

Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes,
and the biggest chromosomes carry
Eye Hair Ear
more than 1000 genes!

This cell is heterozygous for eye colour

and ear shape (both alternative alleles Blue Straight Lobed Genes code for characteristics,
are present) but homozygous for hair such as having colour in the eye.
texture (only one of the alternative Alleles are different forms of the
alleles is present, although there are gene that code for alternatives of
two copies of it). Two individuals the same characteristic, such
which are homozygous for the same as blue or brown.
characteristic and breed together will The two chromosomes in a
be pure-breeding. This means that the homologous pair can carry
Brown Straight No Lobe
characteristic will always be passed on alternative alleles of the same gene.
to the offspring.

▲ Diploid organisms have homologous pairs of chromosomes in the nucleus

In a heterozygous cell, when the members of the homologous pair
separate during meiosis the gametes will contain different alleles.
This means that when gametes fuse at fertilisation, the resulting
zygote may have a number of different possible allele combinations.
The production of gametes and the formation of different zygotes in
this way are explained in the diagram below.
Fertilisation is completely random – either of the male
gametes can fuse with either of the female gametes.
Diploid The easiest way to work out the possible combinations
heterozygous of gametes to form zygotes is to draw out a square like
cell in testis Lobed the one below.
of male
These offspring have
Lobed the heterozygous
Lobed
Meiosis No lobe combination of alleles
No lobe for ear shape. Which
Lobed
characteristic – lobed
Meiosis produces haploid No lobe Lobed or no lobe – will show
gametes which carry only up? This depends
Lobed No lobe
one of the chromosomes which allele is
from each homologous pair. No lobe dominant and which
Lobed one is recessive. The
No lobe dominant allele is the
Lobed one that shows up in
the phenotype of these
No lobe Meiosis No lobe
cells, and the recessive
allele is the one that is
Diploid hidden in the
heterozygous phenotype of
cell in ovary these cells.
of female

▲ The recombination of alleles during Q

sexual reproduction gives rise to a 1 Define the terms homologous pair, heterozygous and homozygous.
great variation among offspring. This 2 What is the difference between a gene and an allele?
leads to the evolution of new strains, 3 What is a meant by a dominant allele?
races and, eventually, new species.
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DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISMS AND THE CONTINUITY OF LIFE

17.7 Studying patterns of

inheritance
OBJECTIVES Scientists called geneticists study the
inheritance of characteristics by carrying out
■ To understand the method for describing genetic crosses
breeding experiments. There is a conventional
■ To know the result of crosses involving two
heterozygous parents pattern for describing the results of such
■ To understand the principle of the test cross experiments – a sort of genetic shorthand,
shown in the example below.
At fertilisation, any male gamete can fuse with any female gamete
Drawing out chromosomes carrying Consider a cross between a homozygous brown-eyed man (BB) and a homozygous
alleles of genes is very time-consuming. blue-eyed woman (bb):
Geneticists write out the stages of
crosses using symbols to replace the Parents BB × bb
chromosomes and genes. These symbols
should always be identified at the start Gametes B and B b and b
of a cross.
At fertilisation B b
Let B = brown and b = blue Remember, gametes
are haploid so receive
The capital letter is used for the
only one allele from
dominant allele.
Bb the two present in the
Brown (B) and blue (b) are alleles of the parent cell.
A male gamete fuses
gene for eye colour.
with a female gamete
Bb This genotype would
give a brown-eyed
First generation phenotype, since brown
(called the F1 generation) is dominant to blue.

Now consider a cross between two heterozygous parents (Bb), i.e. with the same
genotype as the F1 above:

Parents Bb × Bb

Gametes B and b B and b At fertilisation,

any male gamete
At fertilisation can fuse with any
Male b B Female female gamete.
Bb
B b
BB bb

Bb

F1 generation
Genotype BB Bb Bb bb

Phenotype brown brown brown blue

3 brown 1 blue

The inheritance of eye colour. There are two important points about this cross.
In theory, a cross between two heterozygous
parents should produce offspring in the ratio 1 These results are probabilities (chances). The offspring should be in the 3:1 ratio
of 3 showing dominant to 1 showing recessive. shown, but each fertilisation is random so they may not be. This ratio is more
This can be restated as: ‘The probability of any likely to be seen in very large numbers of offspring. For human families, a 3:1
offspring showing dominant is 3/4 or 75%;
the probability of it showing recessive is 1/4
ratio is unlikely since very few mothers give birth to four children at one time.
or 25%’. 2 Every cross between the same two parents is a different event. If two
heterozygous parents produce a child with blue eyes (a 1/4 probability)
220 there is still a 1/4 probability that their next child will have blue eyes.
 DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISMS AND THE CONTINUITY OF LIFE

S Test cross The brown-eyed phenotype

could have two different
In the eye colour example, both of the genotypes genotypes.

BB and Bb give the same phenotype – brown

BB To distinguish homozygous brown Bb
eyes. It might be important to know whether from heterozygous brown, they
are each crossed to blue.
a particular organism is homozygous or
heterozygous, particularly in the breeding of BB × bb Parents Bb × bb

domestic animals. To do this, geneticists use B or B b or b Gametes B or b * b or b

a test cross (often called a back cross to the
All Bb At fertilisation Bb or bb
recessive). The principle is outlined on the right.
All brown eyed F1 generation 1 brown eyed: 1 blue eyed
Reminder!
*The heterozygous brown
Ratio: dominant to recessive Phenotypes of parents can supply the b allele for If any offspring showing the
a gamete even though it is recessive characteristic result
3:1 Both heterozygous from a test cross, the parent
‘hidden’ in the phenotype
1:1 One heterozygous, one of the diploid parent. must have been heterozygous.

homozygous recessive

The results of genetic crosses are sometimes ▲ A test cross can distinguish different genotypes
shown as a pedigree. with the same phenotype

Rules for showing a pedigree (‘family tree’)

Rules for showing a pedigree (‘family tree’)
This line links the father and the mother
A key is used to identify
This line links the father and the mother
Adifferent phenotypes:
key is used to identify
This line links the different phenotypes:
= ‘normal’ female
parents tolinks
This line theirthe
= =‘normal’ female
‘affected’ female
offspring
parents to their
offspring = ‘affected’ female
= ‘normal’ male
= ‘normal’ male
= ‘affected’ male
This shows the offspring from the = ‘affected’ male
Thissame
shows the offspring
mother from the
and father.
same mother and father.

SOLVING PEDIGREES – AN EXAMPLE

A
A
 This family tree (‘pedigree’) refers to
This family tree (‘pedigree’) refers to
thethe inheritance
inheritance of fur
of fur colour
colour in rabbits.
in rabbits.
Brownfurfur is dominant to white
fur. fur.
BB Brown is dominant to white
What
What cancan
youyou deduce
deduce about
about the the
genotype
genotype of individuals
of individuals A, BA,and
B and
C? C?
CC
LetLet
B =B brown
= brown andandb b= =white
white
andand mustmustbebebb,bb,this
thisisisthe
thestarting
starting point
point since the
the only
onlycertainly
certainlyisisthat
thatanimals
animals
with thethe
with ‘recessive’
‘recessive’phenotype
phenotypemust musthave
have the
the homozygous recessivegenotype.
homozygous recessive genotype.
A must
A must bebe
BbBb becausehehehas
because hasbrown
brownfurfur but
but can pass
pass on
on the
thebballele
alleletotoone
oneofofhishis
daughters
daughters (his
(his partnermust
partner mustbe beBb
Bbtoo!).
too!).
B must
B must bebe
BbBbforforthe
thesame
samereason
reasonas
asAA is.
is.
C must
C must bebe
BbBb becausehehehas
because hasbrown
brownfurfur but
but must
must have
have received
receivedthe
thebballele
allelefrom
fromhishis
mother.
mother.

Q
1 Draw a diagram to explain how two brown-eyed 1 showing the recessive characteristic. Explain why
parents can have a blue-eyed child. such crosses rarely give an exact 3:1 ratio.
2 Gregor Mendel suggested that a cross between 3 Use a suitable example to explain the value of a
two heterozygous individuals produces offspring in test cross.
a ratio of 3 showing the dominant characteristic to

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DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISMS AND THE CONTINUITY OF LIFE

17.8 Inherited medical conditions and

codominance
OBJECTIVES Inherited medical conditions
There are several important medical examples of monohybrid
■ To know some examples of
inheritance, including albinism and sickle cell anaemia.
inherited conditions
■ To understand inheritance when Albinism
neither allele is dominant Albinism is caused by a recessive allele. Heterozygous individuals
are not affected by the condition, but they are carriers of the
mutant, recessive allele.
People with albinism do not produce the pigment melanin. This
pigment normally makes skin, the iris of the eye and hair a dark
colour. These people have pale skin, light hair and pink eyes (the
pink is actually the blood in the retina showing up). They are very
sensitive to bright light and the skin burns very easily in sunlight.
Because the allele for ‘albino’ is recessive, we can be certain that
an albino human is homozygous recessive (aa in this case).

Albinism is caused by a recessive allele.

Let A = normal allele and a = mutant (albino) allele.
If both parents are heterozygous (i.e. Aa)
Parents Aa  Aa

Gametes A and a A and a

a A
Male Female
Aa
A a
AA aa

Aa
F1 generation

Genotypes AA Aa Aa aa

Phenotype Normal Normal skin Albino:

skin colour colour but genotype pale skin
is carrier of colour
albino (a) allele

3 'normal' skin colour 1 albino–pale skin colour

▲ A girl with albinism

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 DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISMS AND THE CONTINUITY OF LIFE

Sickle cell anaemia Sickle cell anaemia – carriers are

Sickle cell anaemia is a condition in which a anaemic but are resistant to malaria
homozygote has the disease, but a heterozygous Sickle cell anaemia is caused by a recessive allele.
Let HbA = normal allele and HbS = sickle cell allele.
individual may gain some benefit in certain Consider a cross between two heterozygous parents:
environments. A change in the base sequence of Parents HbAHbS HbAHbS
the gene for haemoglobin results in abnormal Gametes HbA or HbS HbA or HbS
haemoglobin and sickle-shaped red blood cells. F1 generation HbAHbA HbAHbS HbAHbS HbSHbS

S Codominance
Some genes have more than two alleles. For
Phenotype Phenotype Phenotype
example, the gene controlling the human ABO – normal – some symptoms – very anaemic,
blood groups has three alleles, given the symbols of anaemia, in may well die
severe cases may without medical
IA, IB and IO. Neither of the IA and IB alleles is be very weak care
dominant to the other, although they are both
dominant to IO. This is called codominance.
It results in an extra phenotype when both
alleles are present together. The genotypes and
But ... the s allele gives some
phenotypes are shown in the table. resistance to malaria (the malarial
parasite cannot reproduce quickly in
Genotype Phenotype sickle-shaped cells) so in parts of the
world where malaria occurs, for
A A A O
I I or I I Blood group A example equatorial Africa:

IBIB or IBIO Blood group B

A B
I I Blood group AB HbAHbA HbAHbS HbSHbS
O O
I I Blood group O die of malaria some anaemia, die of anaemia
but are resistant
to malaria
The human blood groups are easily detected
by a simple test on a blood sample.

Q
1 Huntington’s disease (HD) is caused by a dominant
allele (H) – the other allele (h) results in normal
working of the central nervous system. This diagram
shows how one family is affected by HD.
1st
A
generation
b Draw a genetic diagram to show how parents B
2nd and C passed on HD to their children.
B C
generation c If parents B and C have a sixth child, what are the
chances that it will have HD?
3rd d Most serious genetic diseases are caused by
generation recessive alleles. Explain why a dominant allele that
causes a serious disease may quickly disappear
Key from a population.
2 a Draw a genetic diagram to explain the inheritance
= Normal female
of blood group in the Wilson family. Mr Wilson has
= Normal male
the genotype IAIB and Mrs Wilson has the genotype
IOIO.
= Affected female
b What is the probability of the Wilsons’ first child
being female?
= Affected male c What is the probability of this child being female
(see page 224) and having blood group A?
a What was the genotype of the grandmother, A? d A person with alleles IA and IB shows the effect of
Explain your reasoning. both alleles in the phenotype. What term is used 223
to describe this?
DE
O RV
GEALNOI P
SMA TE INOTN OAFN O
D RM
G AA INNI TSEMNSA N
ANCE
D O
THF EO C
ROGN
ANT II N
SUM IST Y O F L I F E

DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISMS AND THE CONTINUITY OF LIFE

17.9 Sex is determined by X and Y

chromosomes
OBJECTIVES
Note that:
■ To understand how sex is determined and inherited
in humans ■ The man’s sperm determines the sex of his
children since the woman can only produce
■ To know that some genes are sex linked
gametes with an X chromosome.
■ To understand the pattern of inheritance of
sex-linked genes ■ The sex chromosomes carry genes concerned
with sexual development, such as development
The photograph below shows a complete set of of the sex organs and position of fat stores.
human chromosomes (a karyotype). When all of
■ The sex chromosomes also carry a few genes
the chromosomes are arranged in pairs, there
that code for characteristics that are not
may be two left over which differ in size and
concerned with sex. Since these genes are
do not form an homologous pair. These are the
carried on the sex chromosomes, they may
sex chromosomes. The importance of these sex
show their characteristics only in one sex.
chromosomes is outlined below.
For example, the gene for colour blindness is
carried on the X chromosome. We say that colour
blindness is sex linked.

▼ The inheritance of sex

Each human body cell has 46 chromosomes. There are
22 pairs of chromosomes plus another two chromosomes
which may not look alike. These are the sex chromosomes.
Female cells have two sex chromosomes that are alike
(called XX) and male cells have two sex chromosomes that
are not alike (XY).
Cell in testis Cell in ovary
(male sex organ) (female sex organ)

XY XX

▲ A karyotype – a photograph of human chromosomes

Meiosis Meiosis
arranged in pairs. The 23rd pair is an X and a
Y chromosome – this cell comes from a male.

X or Y X or X

XY

XX XY

XX Theoretical sex ratio is

1 male : 1 female
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 DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISMS AND THE CONTINUITY OF LIFE

S The inheritance of sex- Male (XY) Female (XX)

linked characteristics The genes concerned with sex

One well-known sex-linked are located on this part of the
sex chromosomes.
characteristic is red–green colour
blindness. This is a disease in
This part of the sex
which the person cannot tell Gene for colour chromosomes can carry genes
vision – the
the difference between red recessive allele
not concerned with sex.

and green. It is an X-linked causes colour

blindness. Any allele, dominant or
condition. The inheritance of recessive, located in this
this disease is shown below. region will show up in the
phenotype of the male
Haemophilia (a failure in blood (because he has only
clotting) is inherited in a similar one copy).

way – there are many more

males than females who cannot ▲ Any gene carried on the sex chromosomes is sex-linked
clot their blood efficiently.

The inheritance of colour blindness For haemophilia

Let C = normal allele and Consider a cross between a carrier woman and Parents XHXh  XHY
c = mutant allele. a normal man: Female – normal Male – normal
Because these alleles are carried on phenotype but phenotype
the X chromosome, it is necessary to Parents XCY  XCXc a carrier of the
show the sex chromosomes in the mutant allele
Male: not Female:
pattern of inheritance. For example:
colour blind carrier
Gametes XH Xh XH Y
Female
XC c
X Gametes C
X Y X C Xc
F1 generation
Female, so two Heterozygous for F1 generation
X chromosomes colour blindness gene XhXH
Male XCY
XCY Remember – no XHXH XhY
‘colour blindness’ XcY
XCXC
Male, so only one gene on the XHY
Y chromosome Colour-
X chromosome
XCXc blind male

Airline and military pilots must be tested Carrier Female Key

for colour blindness, red and green signals
mean very different things! Carrier female Normal male/female

Male with haemophilia

Q
1 Use a simple genetic diagram to explain why there are approximately equal numbers of male and female babies.
2 Why are males more likely to have red–green colour blindness than females? How could you explain, genetically, a
colour-blind female?
3 Haemophilia is a sex-linked characteristic. The diagram above shows how the allele for haemophilia is inherited.
a Explain why the mother is described as a carrier of this condition.
b If she has one child, what is the probability of her having a haemophiliac son?

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DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISMS AND THE CONTINUITY OF LIFE

Questions on inheritance
1 The table below lists some terms for inheritance parental phenotypes blood group A × blood group B
and their definitions.
parental genotypes ×
Match each term with its definition. Write the
letter and number to show your answer, for gametes +
example, a–4.
offspring genotype
Term Definition
offspring phenotype blood group O
a allele 1 the sum of the alleles on the chromosomes
in the nucleus b Use your answer to a to give examples of the
following. The first one has been completed
d phenotype 2 a form of a gene that codes for one of a
pair of contrasting characters for you. [3]

c heterozygote 3 an allele which, if present, always has Term Example

an effect
a dominant allele IA
d genotype 4 an organism with two different alleles for
Heterozygous genotype
a particular characteristic
codominant alleles
e dominant 5 the sum of the measurable characteristics
of an organism phenotype

[4] 4 The diagram below shows a set of processes

involved in the formation of a human body.
2 Copy the following paragraphs and complete
them by filling in the missing words.
Use words from the list below. Each word may A
be used once, more than once or not at all.
allele, diploid, dominant, gene, haploid,
heterozygous, homozygous, meiosis, mitosis, B

recessive, sex-linkage
Polydactyly is an inherited condition in C
humans. The condition is controlled by a single
which has two alternative D G able to contract
forms. One form causes polydactyly while the
H produces insolin
other does not. E
In preparation for sexual reproduction, F I can conduct an
gametes are formed by electrical impulse

– the gametes fuse at fertilisation to form a a Name the cells labelled A, C and E. [3]
zygote. Neither parent b Name the processes labelled B, D and F. [3]
has polydactyly, but one of their three children c Suggest the names of the organs or tissues
does. This suggests that polydactyly results labelled G, H and I. [3]
from a allele and that 5 Cystic fibrosis is a common inherited disease
each of the parents is . [5] caused by a recessive allele. A blood test
3 The gene for the ABO blood group has three can detect this allele. A man and his wife
alleles, IA, IB and I°. were both found to be carriers of the cystic
a A person with blood group O has parents fibrosis allele.
who have blood groups A and B. Copy and a What is meant by a carrier of the allele? [1]
complete the genetic diagram to show how b Draw a genetic diagram to show the
this is possible. inheritance of cystic fibrosis in any children
Use the symbols, IA, IB and I°, for the blood of this couple. What is the chance that a
group alleles. [3] child will have cystic fibrosis? [5]
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 DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISMS AND THE CONTINUITY OF LIFE

6 The diagram below shows part of Queen Victoria’s family tree.

The diagram shows the inheritance of the condition haemophilia.
The gene causing haemophilia is carried on the X chromosome.
a If X = normal chromosome, Xh = chromosome carrying the
haemophilia gene, a normal male has genotype XY, and a
normal female has genotype XX, what are the genotypes of:
i a haemophiliac male? [1]
ii a haemophiliac female? [1]
iii a female who appears normal but carries the gene for
haemophilia? [1]

Prince Albert Queen Victoria

Victoria Edward VII Alice Leopold Beatrice

(Not all Alice’s children shown)

Irene Alexandra Alice Victoria-

Eugenia

Key
Male showing no signs of haemophilia

Male with haemophilia

Female showing no signs of haemophilia

Use information from the family tree to answer the following

questions.
b State which parent passed on the haemophilia allele to Prince
Leopold. Explain your answer. [3]
c Haemophilia did not appear in any of
the ancestors of Queen Victoria or
Prince Albert. Suggest how this
condition appeared in their children. [2]
d State whether the allele for haemophilia
is dominant or recessive. Explain your answer. [3]

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DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISMS AND THE CONTINUITY OF LIFE

18.1 Variation
OBJECTIVES
46
■ To recall that living organisms differ from
one another 42

Percentage of British population in each category

■ To distinguish between continuous and discontinuous
variation Discontinuous variation
is due to the effect of
Living organisms differ from one another. Even genes only.
members of the same species have slightly different
sets of characteristics. Some of these differences
The bar chart of
are inherited from their parents, and others are
‘percentage in class’
the result of the environment. The differences cannot become a
between individuals of the same species are called smooth curve because
variations. Scientists who study variation are there are no
interested in questions such as: intermediate classes.

■ Are all the variations of the same type?

■ How do the variations come about?
■ How are the variations in characteristics 9
There can be no dispute
passed on from parents to offspring? about these categories
■ What is the importance of these variations? 3
– in the ABO blood group
system there can only be
There are two types of variation – discontinuous AB A B O A, B, AB or O.
variation and continuous variation.
▲ Human blood groups are an example of discontinuous
Discontinuous variation variation. Another example is gender – you are born as
Characteristics that show discontinuous variation either male or female.
have several features:
■ An organism either has the characteristic or
it doesn’t have it. There is no range of these ■ They result from several genes acting
characteristics between extremes. An organism together, or from both genes and the
can easily be placed into definite categories, environment.
and there is no disagreement about the An example of continuous variation is shown in
categories.
the diagram at the top of the opposite page.
■ These characteristics are usually qualitative –
they cannot be measured.
Characteristics can be both
■ They are the result of genes only – they are not
affected by the environment. discontinuous and continuous
Some characteristics are difficult to classify as
An example of discontinuous variation is shown either discontinuous or continuous variation.
in the diagram above right. Human hair colour, for example, appears
in a range from black to blond with many
Continuous variation
intermediate colours (it shows continuous
Characteristics that show continuous variation
variation as a result of the involvement of many
have different features:
genes). However, the gene for red hair is masked
■ Every organism within one species shows the by every other hair colour gene (which gives a
characteristic, but to a different extent. The discontinuous situation – hair is either red or not
characteristic can have any value within a range. red). Eye colour can be identified as brown or not
Different scientists might well disagree about brown, which would classify it as a discontinuous
which category any single organism falls into. variation, or it can be put into a range of many
■ These characteristics are usually intermediate classes, which would make it a
quantitative – they can be measured. continuous variation. A simple guideline is: ‘if it
can be measured and given a numerical value, it
228 is a continuous variation’.
 DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISMS AND THE CONTINUITY OF LIFE

Continuous variation is due to the combined

effects of genes and the environment.
Number of 11-year-old
children in each class

The bar chart of ‘number in class’ can be redrawn as a

smooth curve because there are many possible
intermediate classes between the two extremes (the
curve becomes smoother if the classes become smaller,
e.g. 1 cm rather than 5 cm).

There could be a dispute about the boundary of these

9

9
5–

0–

5–

0–

5–

0–

5–

0–

5–
classes. One observer might use, for example, 127–31,
12

13

13

14

14

15

15

16

16
Classes: height / cm 132–6, etc. rather than the boundaries shown.

▲ Human height is an example of

continuous variation. Other examples
Phenotype and genotype
include quantitative characteristics such Variations in characteristics allow us to recognise different
as chest circumference, body mass and organisms, and to place them in different categories. The overall
hand span. appearance of an organism is a result of the characteristics that it has
inherited from its parents and the characteristics that result from the
Francis Galton was a cousin of Charles effects of the environment. The following equation summarises this:
Darwin. He investigated intelligence as
an example of phenotype, and believed
that 'nature' (genotype) was much more phenotype = genotype + effects of the environment
important than 'nurture' (environment).
He suggested that: the observable the full set of
a children from families where the characteristics genes it possesses
parents were uneducated would
always have low intelligence of an organism
b females were less intelligent than
males – he suggested the 'ideal' child
would be born to 'a man of genius S Some characteristics result from both genes and environment. For
and a woman of wealth'.
His ideas have rightly been discredited,
example, a bean seedling has the genes to develop chlorophyll (and
but he does deserve some credit – his turn green) but it won’t do so unless it receives enough light. A
studies showed that identical twins young mammal has the genes to develop a rigid bony skeleton, but
were genetically the same.
it won’t do so unless it receives calcium in its diet.
Q
1 Copy and complete the following paragraph. 3 Two students in the first year of secondary school were
Variation occurs in two forms, , which shows clear- carrying out a mathematical investigation. They decided
cut separation between groups showing this variation, to measure the heights of all of the other students in
and , in which there are many intermediate forms their class. The results are shown in the table below.
between the extremes of the characteristic. The first of a Plot these results as a bar chart.
these is the result of alone, whilst the second is b Does this illustrate continuous or discontinuous
also affected by factors. The sum of the genes that variation? Explain your answer.
an organism contains is called its and the total of c Suggest one characteristic that the students could
all its observable characteristics is called the . have recorded to illustrate the other kind of variation.
The two are related in a simple equation: equals
plus . Height category / cm Number in category
2 Which of the following is an example of discontinuous
121–125 2
variation?
Body mass, chest circumference, blood group, hairstyle, 126–130 4
height 131–135 9
Explain:
136–140 6
a why you chose one of these characteristics
b why you rejected the others. 141–145 4

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18.2 Causes of variation

OBJECTIVES Permanent changes to the phenotype
Permanent characteristics that can be inherited are due to the genetic
■ To identify mutation and sexual
make-up of an organism. This may be altered, thereby increasing
reproduction as sources of
variation, as a result of mutation or of sexual reproduction.
variation
■ To understand that mutations may Mutation
involve whole chromosomes or A mutation is a change in a gene or chromosome and can arise
genes within them because of:
■ To recognise that environmental ■ mistakes in the copying of DNA as cells get ready to divide – pairing
factors may increase the likelihood
with the ‘incorrect’ base
of mutation
■ damage to the DNA – some environmental factor might alter the
bases present in the DNA
■ uneven distribution of chromosomes during the division of cells.

S Chromosome mutations occur when cell division fails to work

with complete accuracy. For example, when human gametes
are formed each gamete should receive 23 chromosomes.
Occasionally an error occurs. The consequences of chromosome
mutations are often serious.
Gene mutations occur when part of the base sequence of the
DNA on a single chromosome is changed. As a result, a defective
protein may be produced, or no protein at all. This can lead
to a considerable change in a characteristic. There are many
examples, including sickle cell anaemia, shown below.
Beneficial mutations
Not all mutations are harmful. Many of them give benefits to the
organisms that have them, and aid adaptation to the environment

Haemoglobin gene
Normal gene for
has mutated – one
haemoglobin
base has changed

Normal mRNA made Faulty mRNA made

by transcription by transcription
Weakness
Aching joints
Normal haemoglobin Poor circulation Faulty haemoglobin
made by translation made by translation

 Sickle cell
anaemia. (A
sickle has a
curved blade
for cutting hay.)

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 DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISMS AND THE CONTINUITY OF LIFE

S (see page 232). Some may cause harm in one environment but be a benefit
in another! Sickle cell anaemia is an example of this (see page 223) people
who are heterozygous for sickle cell anaemia are resistant to malaria.
Radiation can increase mutation rates
Mutations occur spontaneously (for no apparent reason), though they
are very rare events. However, a number of factors (called mutagens)
can increase the rate of mutation. Important mutagens are:
■ radiation – gamma, ultraviolet and X-radiation can all damage
DNA and so cause mutations
■ chemicals – tars in tobacco smoke, high concentrations of some
preservatives and some plant control hormones can cause mutation.

Mutations may be linked with cancer. A mutagen that causes

uncontrolled cell division is called a carcinogen (‘cancer maker’).

S Sexual reproduction leads to variation

Sexual reproduction mixes up genetic material in three ways, as shown
below, producing new genotypes and so variations in phenotype.

Crossing over

Homologous
chromosomes
pair up as Genetic material New
meiosis begins. is exchanged combination
between of genetic
chromatids. Virtually limitless number
material.
of different gametes

Fertilisation
Both of these occur randomly in the production
of both male and female gametes.
Any male gamete
can combine with
Independent assortment any female gamete

There are four

different gametes
from just two pairs
of chromosomes.
Homologous pairs may or
Each human produces
line up in different ways,
many different
producing different
gametes
combinations of genes Enormous variation
in this way.
in the gametes. amongst offspring

▲ Crossing over, independent assortment and fertilisation all lead to variation. There is very
little chance that any two gametes from one individual will be identical. The combined effects of
mutation and sexual reproduction lead to enormous variation between individuals.

Q
1 What is a gene mutation? Give an example of a 2 What is a carcinogen?
gene mutation that is: Give two examples of carcinogens.
a harmful 3 How does sexual reproduction lead to variation
b beneficial. amongst members of a population?

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18.3 Variation and natural selection:

the evolution of species
OBJECTIVES
■ To understand the meaning of adaptation, and to
provide examples of this
■ To realise that Darwin’s theory benefited from the ideas
of other scientists

Adaptation
As we have seen, living organisms differ from
one another. Some of these variations make
an organism well suited to its environment,
some make no difference, and others make the
organism less well suited to its environment. An
organism that is well suited to make the most of
the limited resources within its environment is
said to show adaptation to its environment, as
shown opposite. The cactus (a xerophyte) and
the water lily (a hydrophyte) (see page 93) are
both well adapted to their environments.

Other species similar

to the large ground
As a result of many observations made finch had adapted to
during his voyage on HMS Beagle, Charles take advantage of the
Darwin began to think that living organisms feeding opportunities
could change in structure. Darwin suggested on the different
that species became adapted to meet the islands. Darwin
challenges of their environment. suspected that they
had evolved from the
large ground finch.

The work of Charles Darwin* Evolution by natural selection

Charles Darwin (1809–82) was a British At the time that Darwin lived, most people
naturalist who took part in a world voyage on believed that each species was fixed, and had
a ship called HMS Beagle. The voyage, which been put on Earth in its current form by a
began in 1831 and lasted for five years, allowed creator – God. Darwin thought that species
Darwin to see many examples of adaptations. were not fixed, and that they changed through
His most famous observations were made on time to produce new species. He called this
the Galapagos Islands off the west coast of changing through time evolution. At first
South America. Some species seemed to have he was unable to convince other scientists
adaptations to life on particular islands, but had because he could not suggest a mechanism for
similarities, and Darwin suspected that they all evolution. However, he eventually published his
originated from a single species. ideas in a famous book, The Origin of Species by
Means of Natural Selection.
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Organisms that are well adapted show high An adaptive feature (adaptation) is an inherited
fitness - the probability that an organism will functional feature of an organism that increases
survive and reproduce in the environment in its fitness.
which it is found.
Small ears and tail give less surface
The polar bear also has the
area for loss of heat by radiation
adaptations of a carnivore to
feeding on meat – see page 52

Great size – large volume

means that there are more
cells to generate heat by
White colour means: respiration.
good camouflage when
hunting for prey
less radiation of heat. Thick layer of fat gives:
good insulation against
heat loss
Pads on feet provide: food store that can be used
insulation against heat loss during hibernation to avoid
by conduction the most severe weather
grip on slippery surfaces. conditions.

▲ The polar bear is adapted to cold, arctic conditions

Store of fat – when oxidised to Nostrils can be closed to

release energy during respiration prevent entry of sand.
the fat releases water. (The hump
does not contain water!)

Tongue is enclosed in a
thick membrane to limit
water loss by evaporation.

Thin fur and little fat

beneath skin allow loss of
Large stomach – the camel can drink
heat since little insulation.
up to 100 litres of water in 10 minutes
when water becomes available.

Large feet with membrane between toes –

camel can walk on sandy surfaces without sinking.

▲ The camel is adapted to dry, desert conditions

Update! We can now

Q
define natural selection 1 What is meant by the term adaptation?
as the greater chance of 2 Name one animal and one plant with which you are familiar, and describe
passing on genes by the how each is adapted to its environment.
best adapted organisms.
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18.4 Natural selection

S OBJECTIVE
favour different adaptations in the two
■ To understand how adaptation leads to natural selection
environments. Eventually the two different
Darwin’s ideas about natural selection can be populations of antelope could have so many
summarised under a number of headings, as different adaptations that they can no longer
shown in the diagram below. interbreed – they are said to be different
species.
Natural selection may lead to new The development of antibiotic-resistant strains
species of bacteria (see page 175) is a well-known
Some organisms are better suited to their example of natural selection.
environment than others. These organisms
will be more likely to survive and breed Alternative theories of evolution
i
than some of their competitors. Because of Early scientists and religious leaders believed that a
this, the characteristics they possess will creator had placed all living organisms on the Earth
in their present-day forms. Even once the evidence for
become more common in the species over
evolution had been accepted, not everyone agreed with
successive generations. If we consider one
Darwin’s idea of natural selection. Jean Baptiste Lamarck
such characteristic, for example neck length in was a Frenchman who lived about 70 years before
antelopes, we should be able to draw a graph Darwin. He believed that organisms adapted to their
showing how this characteristic is distributed environment by ‘use and disuse’, that is, a giraffe might
in the population. If the environment applies gain a long neck by stretching up for food in a tall tree.
However, Lamarck was never able to show how these
a selection pressure such as a limited
acquired characteristics could be passed on from one
availability of leaves for food, one part of generation to another. The major difference between
the population may be favoured. In a few the theories of Darwin and Lamarck was that:
generations’ time, the graph may look rather ■ Lamarck suggested that the environment caused
different, as shown on the opposite page. If two the variations
populations of this antelope were separated ■ Darwin suggested that the environment selected the
variations, which had arisen purely by chance.
from one another, natural selection might

Over-production – all organisms produce more Survival of the fittest – individuals that
offspring than can possibly survive, and yet are most successful in the struggle for
populations remain relatively stable. existence (i.e. that are the best
e.g. a female peppered moth may lay 500 suited/adapted to their
eggs, but the moth population does not environment) are more likely to
increase by the same proportion! survive than those without these
advantages.
e.g. peppered moths: dark-coloured
moths resting on soot-covered tree
Struggle for existence – organisms
trunks will be less likely to be captured
experience environmental resistance, i.e.
by predators than light-coloured moths.
they compete for the limited resources
within the environment.
e.g. several moths may try to feed on the
same nectar-producing flower. Advantageous characteristics are passed on
to offspring – the well-adapted individuals
are more likely to breed than those that are
Variation – within the population there less well-adapted – they pass on their genes
may be some characteristics that make the to the next generation. This process is called
organisms that have them more suited for natural selection.
this severe competition. e.g. dark-coloured moth parents will
e.g. some moths might be stronger fliers, produce dark-coloured offspring.
have better feeding mouthparts, be better
camouflaged while resting or be less
affected by rain.
234
▲ Evolution by means of natural selection
 DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISMS AND THE CONTINUITY OF LIFE

S Forming new species

Height is a characteristic that shows Two populations of the same
continuous variation in antelopes. species could be separated,
e.g. by a mountain range.
Different selection pressures
Natural selection by might exist on opposite sides. Natural selection by food
Number in category

predators, who can see tall availability on high trees

antelopes more easily, favours only, favours the
the small antelopes. tall antelopes.

Small Average Tall

When food is only available from The two populations now have so
high branches, natural selection many different adaptations that
picks out the taller antelopes. they cannot interbreed. They have
Small Average Tall now become two species, e.g. the Small Average Tall
Many generations later dik-dik and giraffe in east Africa.
Many Many
generations generations
Number in category

later later

Small Average Tall

▲ The formation of new species

Q
1 Using only the following information, answer
Number of snails
questions a to d.
Cepaea is a type of snail which shows considerable Banded Unbanded Total % Banded
variation in its shell colour. The basic colour can be Live snails 264 296 560 47.0
yellow, brown, fawn, pink, orange or red. Over the top Shell remains 486 377 863 56.0
of this basic colour up to five bands of a darker colour from ‘anvils’
may occur, around the shell. Colour of shell provides in the area
camouflage for the snail because some colours are more
difficult to see than others against the background. c Which type of shell, banded or unbanded, would
Cepaea is an important part of the diet of thrushes. These you expect to occur most frequently in a live snail
birds collect snails and break open their shells by banging population
them on a stone. Thrushes tend to use the same stone, i amongst dead leaves in a wood?
called an ‘anvil’, whenever feeding in a particular area. ii amongst grasses growing on a sand dune?
It is possible to collect the remains of the shells and d The main points of the theory of evolution by
count the number of each shell type. It is also possible natural selection are listed below.
to collect the live snails in the same area and count the A The number of offspring is far greater than the
numbers of each shell type. number surviving to adult stage.
Collections of both live snails and broken shells were B Variation exists among the offspring.
made in an area where the ground layer plants gave a C Some variations are useful and help the
fairly evenly coloured background. The results are organisms to survive.
shown in the table. D Competition occurs between the offspring.
a How many more live, unbanded Cepaea were E Only those surviving can breed.
collected than banded? Natural selection can change the proportions of the
b Suggest an explanation for thrushes taking more different colours in a snail population. Use the five
banded snails even where there appear to be more points A to E above to describe how this change
unbanded snails in the live populations. might come about.

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18.5 Artificial selection

OBJECTIVE Some examples of artificial selection are shown
below and opposite. The same species can be
■ To understand the process of artificial selection
bred in different ways for different purposes.
Early horses have become specialised as
Making organisms useful to humans carthorses or for racing, for example.
Variation occurs naturally and randomly in all
Maintaining variation
living organisms, but the natural environment
What appears to humans as a valuable
is not the only agent of selection. Ever since
characteristic might not always be valuable in
early humans began to domesticate animals
a natural situation. For example, a Chihuahua
and plants, they have been trying to improve
dog would probably not survive in the wild
them. This improvement is brought about by
because its hunting instincts have been bred
selecting those individuals that have the most
out to make it more suitable as a pet. It is
useful characteristics and allowing only these
very important that humans preserve animal
individuals to breed. This process is called
and plant genes for characteristics that do
artificial selection. Humans have replaced the
not offer any advantage to us at the moment.
environment as the agents of selection. There are
A cow with a limited milk yield may carry
many important examples of selective breeding:
a gene that makes it resistant to a disease
■ Jersey cattle have been bred to produce milk which is not yet a problem in domestic herds,
with a very high cream content. for example. This resistance gene might be
■ All domestic dogs are the same species, but extremely valuable if such a disease ever did
some have been bred for appearance (e.g. become established. For this reason many
Pekinese), some for hunting (springer spaniels) varieties of animals and plants are kept in
and some as aggressive guards (rottweilers). small numbers in rare-breed centres up
■ Wheat has been bred so that all the stems are and down the country. Plant genes may be
the same height (making harvesting easier) and conserved as seeds, which are easy to store,
the ears separate easily from the stalk (making and some animal genes may be kept as frozen
collection of the grain easier). eggs, sperm or embryos.
In this group of calves, two are larger Artificial insemination
than the others. Large cattle carry Male animals, no matter how many useful
more meat so are valuable to a characteristics they have, cannot give
butcher. birth to young animals! So:
These two animals with the Most male offspring will be fattened
desirable characteristic are allowed up for selling as meat.
to breed, and produce a litter. ‘Desirable’ males may be electrically
stimulated to ejaculate – the sperm is
To increase the chances that the collected and frozen. One male can
two individuals will mate, the easily produce several hundred samples.
cattle breeder will spray cattle sex The sperm can be taken to a cattle
hormones in the breeding pen. breeding farm and used to inseminate
many females.
If the ‘size’
characteristic
A very large individual is inherited, the
may be mated with one next generation
of its parents. may contain
individuals
that are even
bigger.
Even larger animal
with more meat.
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 DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISMS AND THE CONTINUITY OF LIFE

Cabbage Cauliflower

The plant breeder can transfer pollen from the

stamen of one flower to the stigma of another
Select for large (using a fine paintbrush). The pollinated flower
Kohlrabi Select for single flower head. can be protected from unwanted pollination by
large bud. enclosing it in a fine gauze bag. Self-pollination
can be avoided by removing stamens or carpels
from flowers.
Select for a
swollen stem.

Select for many

flower heads Ancestor – a ‘wild
and thick stem. mustard’

Broccoli Select for many

small side buds. Select for
large leaves.

No sex please!
Selective breeding involves the ‘mixing’ of
genes at meiosis and fertilisation. However,
once a plant breeder has bred a plant with
a desirable characteristic, then asexual
reproduction (vegetative propagation) must
be used to make many copies of it.
Brussels sprouts Kale

▲ Artificial selection has produced many vegetables

from one ancestor species Q
1 A potato grower wanted to produce a new variety of
S Three major differences between potato which grows quickly and makes good chips.
artificial and natural selection She has one variety which grows quickly but makes
■ In artificial selection, humans are the agents poor chips, and another which grows more slowly but
of selection, while natural selection depends makes good chips.
upon the natural environment. When plants of these two varieties produce flowers
she crosses the two varieties. Later she collects the
■ Artificial selection is much quicker than
seeds and plants them.
natural selection.
a To cross the two varieties, the grower pollinates a
■ Artificial selection offers no advantage to the
flower of one variety with pollen from the other.
animal or plant in its natural environment.
Describe how the grower should do this.
It is likely that selective breeding will be replaced b From the seeds she collects, she finds that one of the
by genetic engineering in the future. This new plants grows very quickly and produces potatoes
which make good chips. How would she produce a
technique, explained on page 300, is much more
crop of potatoes which are exactly the same?
predictable than selective breeding and produces
useful results more quickly. 237
DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISMS AND THE CONTINUITY OF LIFE

Questions on variation and evolution

1 Merino sheep have much thicker wool than wild sheep. Merino sheep are the result of:
A mutation of a gene
B natural selection
C phenotypic variation
D selective breeding [1]

2 An island was invaded by a species of bird that preyed on butterflies. In the population of butterflies,
only those individuals that produced a toxic substance as a protection against predation survived.
This is an example of:
A artificial selection
B competition
C immunity
D natural selection [1]

3 Mutation and natural selection are processes which occur at all times.
a Define the term natural selection. [2]
b Suggest why
i bacterial infections which were controlled by antibiotics 50 years ago
are now a problem in hospitals. [2]
ii malaria-carrying mosquitoes in East Africa were almost wiped out by the insecticide DDT in the
1950s, but today cases of malaria are increasing in this area. [2]

4 Haemoglobin is a protein carried in red blood cells.

a i State the function of this protein. [1]
ii Name the mineral required for the production of this protein. [1]
b The allele for the production of normal haemoglobin is HbN. A mutant form of this allele HbS
results in the production of an abnormal haemoglobin which results in the condition sickle cell
anaemia.
Two parents who are heterozygous for this gene have a child. Use a genetic diagram to predict the
possibility that this child will be heterozygous. [4]
c Under some circumstances people who are heterozygous for this condition have a greater chance
of survival than homozygous individuals. Suggest why this is the case. [3]

5 a In western Europe, 45% of the population have blood group O, 43% have blood group A, 10%
have blood group B and 2% have blood group AB.
i Plot the data as a bar chart. [4]
ii Explain the form of your bar chart. [2]
b The characteristics of organisms may be altered by mutation.
i Define the term mutation. [2]
ii Suggest two factors which could affect the rate of mutation. [2]

6 Students collected small nuts from a group of trees of the same species growing close to their school
grounds. The nuts were collected at random, and 50 of them were weighed.

238
 DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISMS AND THE CONTINUITY OF LIFE

a Explain why it is important that

i the trees were all of the same species. [1]
ii the nuts were collected at random. [1]
b They presented their results in the table below.
Mass of nut / g
0.5 1.3 1.2 0.6 1.2
0.6 0.4 1.1 1.3 1.6
1.4 1.4 1.2 1.2 0.4
1.1 1.3 1.1 1.3 0.6
0.3 1.5 1.2 1.3 1.1
1.1 1.3 0.5 0.5 0.5
1.0 1.2 1.4 1.0 1.0
1.3 0.6 1.3 0.9 1.4
1.0 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.2
1.3 0.7 1.4 0.6 1.3

i Copy and complete the table below for the mass of nuts.
Mass of nut / g Number of individual nuts
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
[2]
ii Plot the data in the second table as a histogram. [4]
c State which type of variation is shown in the histogram. [1]

7 One of the early chapters in Charles Darwin’s book, The Origin of Species, describes the variation of
living organisms under domestication.
a State the name of the type of selection used by humans to breed crops and animals for their own
use. [1]
b Varieties of cereal crops with a lower than normal requirement for water have been produced for
use in some less economically developed countries.
Suggest how a plant breeder might produce a variety of wheat with this important property. [3]
c i Describe how recombinant DNA technology might be used to produce a useful crop variety. [4]
ii Suggest two reasons why scientists are concerned about the use of this technique. [2]

8 Warfarin is used as a rat poison. It prevents blood clotting and so small wounds bleed and the animal
dies.
Some rats are not affected by this substance. Their numbers are increasing.
Explain why this is happening. [3]

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ORGANISMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT

19.1 Ecology and ecosystems

OBJECTIVES living organisms – and some are abiotic – the
non-living components of the habitat. Ecology
■ To understand that living organisms require
is the study of living organisms in relation to
certain conditions for their survival
their environment. The interactions between
■ To understand that living organisms interact with one
another, and with their non-living environment the organism and its environment are
summarised below.
■ To define population, community and ecosystem
■ To realise that available resources change through Changing with the seasons
the year The ability of the habitat to supply living
organisms with their requirements may vary
Environmental survival kit at different times of year. The ecosystem in the
All living organisms depend upon their photograph opposite will only exist for a certain
environment for three ‘survival essentials’. period of time – as food or water becomes
These are a supply of food, shelter from exhausted some animals may leave. These will
undesirable physical conditions and a breeding then be followed by the predators which feed on
site. The living organism interacts with its them. The great animal migrations seen in East
environment – for example, a living plant: Africa result from the changing conditions in
■ removes carbon dioxide, water and light the animals’ environment, for example:
energy from its habitat ■ poor rain means little growth of grass
■ may be eaten by an animal or a parasite ■ herbivores leave for areas of fresh growth
■ depends upon soil for support. ■ carnivores follow herbivores
■ (then scavengers follow carnivores!).
Factors in the environment affect the growth of
the plant. Some of these factors are biotic – other Living together
Carbon dioxide Living organisms normally exist in groups.
The names given to these groups, and the way
they interact with the abiotic environment, are
explained opposite.
A living organism
interacts with its
environment

Abiotic Biotic (‘living’)

(‘non-living’) factors, e.g.
‘Fertiliser’ Food factors predators
in faeces food
mates
Water and mineral
ions from soil

A giraffe feeds on a thorn tree. The tree requires water,

mineral ions, carbon dioxide and light to grow. The giraffe Physical, e.g. Climatic, e.g.
may provide carbon dioxide from respiration, and ions oxygen and carbon temperature
from decomposition of its faeces. dioxide concentration humidity
light intensity
240 water availability
 ORGANISMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT

A population is all
of the members of
the same species
(e.g. wildebeest)
in the same area
at the same time.

Air, water
A community is all
and soil
of the populations
make up
of living organisms
the abiotic
in one area (e.g.
environment.
acacia trees, zebra,
wildebeest and grass).
The community is
the biotic environment.

 Organisms
exist in groups An ecosystem is a unit containing the A habitat is a part of the environment that
within an community of organisms and their can provide food, shelter and a breeding site
ecosystem environment interacting together. for a living organism (e.g. a patch of grassland).

Q
1 Define the terms population, community and layer.
ecosystem. The students measured the amount of sunlight
2 Name two abiotic factors that might determine reaching each layer at different times in the year.
whether or not a habitat is suitable for a living Their results are shown on the graph.
organism.
3 Suggest two ways in which a plant and an animal in
the same habitat may interact.
4 What must a habitat provide?
Light intensity

5 How are the following observations related? Light reaching

■ Very few flying insects are found in Britain during tree layer
the winter.
■ Swallows migrate to Africa when it is winter in the Light reaching
ground layer
UK.
■ Hobbies (small bird-eating falcons) leave Britain in
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
late autumn. Month
6 What is meant by the term ecology?
7 a A group of students were studying a forest.They i
During which month did most light reach the
noticed that the plants grew in two main layers. tree layer?
They called these the tree layer and the ground ii During which month did most light reach the
ground layer?
tree layer iii Suggest why the amount of sunlight reaching
the ground layer is lower in mid-summer than
in the spring.
b The pupils found bluebells growing in the ground
layer. Bluebells grow rapidly from bulbs. They
flower in April and by June their leaves have died.
i Suggest why bluebells grow rapidly in April.
ground layer
ii Suggest why the bluebell leaves have died
by June.

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19.2 Flow of energy: food chains

and food webs
OBJECTIVES
not lost but is converted into some other form.
■ To know that the feeding relationships in an ecosystem
During respiration, some energy is transferred
can be expressed as food chains
to the environment as heat. The flow of energy
■ To understand why energy transfer through an
through a food chain, and the heat losses
ecosystem is inefficient
to the environment, are illustrated in the
■ To understand why complex food webs are
diagram opposite.
the most stable
Food webs
Food chains Little energy is transferred from the base to the
The most obvious interaction between different top of a food chain, so a top carnivore must eat
organisms in an ecosystem is feeding. During many herbivores. These herbivores are probably
feeding, one organism is obtaining food – energy not all of the same species. In turn, each herbivore
and raw materials – from another one. Usually one is likely to feed on many different plant species.
organism eats another, but then may itself be food All these interconnected food chains in one part of
for a third species. The flow of energy between an ecosystem can be shown in a food web.
different organisms in the ecosystem can be The more complicated a food web, the more
shown in a food chain, as in the diagram below. stable the community is. For example, in the
forest food web shown opposite, if the number
Energy transfer is inefficient of squirrels fell, the owls could eat more worms,
The amount of energy that is passed on in a mice and rats. The mice and rats would have less
food chain is reduced at every step. Energy competition for food from squirrels, and so might
can be neither created nor destroyed, so it is reproduce more successfully.

Sunlight provides the Producers, usually green plants, Consumers are organisms that obtain Secondary consumers
energy to drive the make their own organic nutrients, food energy by feeding on other organisms. are carnivores. They obtain
food chain. usually using energy from sunlight their energy by eating
Primary consumers are herbivores.
through photosynthesis. other animals.
They obtain their energy in food
compounds obtained from producers
(i.e. plants).

Arrows point in
the direction of Secondary consumers may be
energy flow along eaten by tertiary consumers.
the food chain. These longer food chains are
Decomposers, fungi and many bacteria,
more common in aquatic
obtain their energy and raw materials
habitats. The final consumer
from the wastes (e.g. faeces) and remains
in the food chain is called the
(e.g. dead bodies) of other organisms.
top carnivore.

▲ Food chains show energy flow through an ecosystem. The position of each organism
in the food chain or food web represents a different trophic (feeding) level.
242
 ORGANISMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT

S Energy transfer
Less than 1% of the Respiration losses occur from each trophic
energy released from level. Respiration is not 100% efficient and
the Sun falls onto leaves. eventually all of this energy is lost as heat.
Because of this, food chains rarely have
more than 4 or 5 trophic levels.

R Energy transfer to Energy transfer to

primary consumer secondary consumer R R
R
is only 5–10%: is between 10% and 20%:
much of plant body animal material has a higher
Energy ‘fixed’ by producers is indigestible energy value
is only 5–8% of the energy consumer rarely eats animal material is more
that falls onto their leaves, whole plant – roots digestible.
because: or stems may be
some is transmitted left behind.
(passes right through)
some is reflected
some is not the correct
wavelength (only red or
blue light is absorbed –
see page 52).

Key

R respiration

Energy transfer to decomposers is very

variable, but eventually the entire energy content
of the animal and plant remains will be released
as heat from inefficient respiration.

A simple forest food web: a series of interconnected food chains Q

1 Define the terms
Trophic level
producer, consumer
Tertiary Hawk and decomposer.
consumer
Which of these
could be omitted
from an ecosystem?
Secondary Explain your answer.
Starling Owl
consumers 2 Write out a food
chain from a named
ecosystem which
you have studied.
Primary
Snails Woodlice Worms Rats Mice Squirrels 3 Why are food chains
consumers
usually restricted to
three or four trophic
levels?

Producers Fallen leaves Living leaves Grasses Seeds

243
 19.2 Flow of energy: food chains and food webs

Humans and food webs More examples of feeding

Humans can have negative effects on food relationships
chains and food webs: Food chains and food webs in aquatic
■ by over-harvesting food species such as (watery) environments can be longer than
cod (so species eaten by cod increase in those on the land. This is because this type
numbers, and species which eat cod may of environment has space and ideal growth
switch to eating other foods). conditions for many producers. Even with
■ by introducing foreign species to a habitat. energy losses at every stage there is enough
Rabbits, for example, were introduced to ‘trapped’ energy for more steps in the chain.
Australia for hunting but bred very quickly. Many of these food chains begin with
This reduced grass available for native phytoplankton (tiny green plants) or algae.
Australian species.

A freshwater food chain

Algae Water Guppy Bass

(small green fleas (small fish) (large fish)
plants)

Green heron

Note that energy flow is not cyclic!

chemical It is more efficient for humans to eat plants
sunlight bond heat than to feed plants to animals, and then to
energy eat the animals. Every step in the chain loses
As a result there must be a 80–90% of the available energy as heat, so THE
continuous input of light energy to FEWER ‘STEPS’ THE BETTER!
‘drive’ life in an ecosystem.

Q
1 Look at the three aquatic feeding relationships shown on this page and the next.
Make and fill in a table like this one:

Producers Herbivores Carnivores Top carnivores

2 Shark fishing is a popular sport. Explain what might happen if all of the sharks
living around a section of reef were captured by fishermen.

244
 ORGANISMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT

Coral reef food web

Catching crabs for human food
The most complex food webs are found in the ocean. could:
■ increase number of anemones,
which could…
■ reduce amount of zooplankton,
which could…
■ increase the amount of
phytoplankton, which could…
■ increase the number of
jellyfish...
Shark
... OUCH!

Octopus

Sea Turtle

Crab

Butterflyfish

Parrotfish

Anemone

Jellyfish

Coral

Zooplankton
Phytoplankton

Q
3 Use words from the following list to complete the paragraph about ecosystems. You may use each word
once, more than once or not at all.
decomposition, producer, chemical, carnivore, consumer, photosynthesis, energy, light, elements,
decomposers, herbivore.
In each ecosystem there are many feeding relationships. A food chain represents a flow of through an
ecosystem, and always begins with an organism called a which is able to trap energy and convert
it to energy. An organism of this type is eaten by a , which is a kind of that feeds only on
plant material. This type of organism is, in turn, eaten by a (an organism that consumes other animals).

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19.3 Feeding relationships: pyramids

of numbers, biomass and energy
OBJECTIVES S Food chains and food webs provide qualitative
information about an ecosystem – they show
■ To be able to describe pyramids of numbers,
which organism feeds on which other organism.
biomass and energy
How do we show quantitative information, for
■ To understand how data can be gathered to make
example how many predators can be supported
ecological pyramids
by a certain number of plants at the start of the
Pyramids of numbers chain? We can use a pyramid of numbers or a
Look at the food chain on page 242. Two things pyramid of biomass, as shown in the diagram
should be clear: below.
■ The organisms tend to get bigger moving
Pyramids of energy
along the food chain. Predators, such as the
A pyramid of biomass describes how much
owl, need to be large enough to overcome
biomass is present in a habitat at the time the
their prey, such as the mouse.
sample is taken. This can be misleading, because
■ Energy is ‘lost’ as heat on moving from one
different feeding levels may contain organisms
trophic level to the next, so an animal to the
that reproduce, and so replace themselves, at
right of a food chain needs to eat several
different rates. For example, grass in a field
organisms ‘below’ it in order to obtain enough
would replace itself more quickly than cattle
energy. For example, a rabbit eats many blades
feeding on the grass, so when the pyramid of
of grass.
biomass is constructed there would be more
‘cattle biomass’ than ‘grass

Pyramid of numbers – a diagrammatic representation Top carnivore

of the number of different organisms at each trophic level
Small carnivore
in an ecosystem at any one time
Herbivore
Note
1 The number of organisms at any trophic level is Producers
represented by the length (or the area) of a rectangle.
2 Moving up the pyramid, the number of organisms But
generally decreases, but the size of each individual wait!
increases.

S Problems Bird lice

a The range of numbers may be enormous – 500 000 Tawny owl
grass plants may only support a single top carnivore –
so that drawing the pyramid to scale may be very Blue tits
difficult. Insect larvae
b Pyramids may be inverted, particularly if the Oak tree
producer is very large (e.g. an oak tree) or parasites
feed on the consumers (e.g. bird lice on an owl).
So …

The pyramid of biomass is useful because the biomass gives

a good idea of how much energy is passed on to the next Biomass expressed as
Bird lice
trophic level. units of mass per unit
Tawny owl area (e.g. kg per m2)
Pyramid of biomass – which represents the biomass
(number of individuals × mass of each individual) at Blue tits
each trophic level at any one time. This should solve Insect larvae
the scale and inversion problems of the pyramid of
numbers. Oak tree

246 ▲ Ecological pyramids represent numerical relationships between successive trophic levels
 ORGANISMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT

S biomass’ and the pyramid would be inverted. To

overcome this difficulty a pyramid of energy
can be constructed. This measures the amount
of energy flowing through an ecosystem over a
period of time. The time period is usually a year,
because this takes into account the changing rates
of growth and reproduction in different seasons.
▲ Pyramid of energy: energy values are
It is even possible to add an extra base layer to the
expressed as units of energy per unit area per unit
pyramid of energy representing the solar energy time (e.g. kJ per m2 per year)
entering that particular ecosystem.

GATHERING DATA FOR ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS

To construct a pyramid of numbers or of biomass, Wing nut

organisms must be captured, counted and (perhaps)
weighed. This is done on a sample (a small number) of
the organisms in an ecosystem. Counting every
individual organism in a habitat would be extremely
time-consuming and could considerably damage the
1m
Wire
environment.

The sample should give an accurate estimate of the total

population size. To do this:
20 cm 20 cm Metal or
■ The sampling must be random to avoid any bias. For wooden
example, it is tempting to collect a large number of frame
organisms, by looking for the areas where they are 1m
most common. To avoid this, the possible sampling
sites can each be given a number and then chosen  A quadrat is a square frame made of wood or metal. It is simply
laid on the ground and the number of organisms inside it is counted.
using random number generators on a computer.
■ The sample must be the right size so that any A quadrat is used most commonly for estimating the size of plant
populations, but may also be valuable for the study of populations
‘rogue’ results can be eliminated. For example, a
of sessile or slow-moving animals (e.g. limpets).
single sample might be taken from a bare patch of
earth, whereas all other sites are covered with
vegetation. The single sample from the bare patch
should not be ignored, but its effects on the results
will be lessened if another nine samples are taken.
A mean value can then be used.

Sampling plants and sessile animals

Once the organisms in a sample have been identified
and counted, the population size can be estimated. For
example, if 10 quadrats gave a mean of 8 plants per
quadrat, and each quadrat is one-hundredth of the area
of the total site, then the total plant population in that
area is 8 × 100 = 800.

There are other ways of collecting data on populations.

Some of these are described on the following pages.

247
 19.3 Feeding relationships: pyramids of numbers, biomass and energy

* A transect is used to sample the distribution of organisms in a straight line across a habitat.
A length of string or plastic line is marked at regular intervals (e.g. with an indelible pen) and
then stretched across the habitat. The plants or animals touching the line at the marked points
are then recorded.

A line transect only records the organisms which actually touch the line.
This can be misleading, and a more representative method is a belt transect.
This samples all those organisms between two lines (say 1m apart)
and running parallel to one another.

▲ Quadrats and transects sample populations of non-motile organisms

Pitfall traps –
used to sample arthropods moving over the
Flat stone
soil surface. The roof prevents rain from flooding
roof
the trap, and also limits access to certain
predators. Any trapped predators can be Stick
prevented from eating other trapped support
animals if a small quantity of methanol
is added to the trap. Bait of meat or
ripe fruit can be placed in the trap. Ground slopes
Pitfall tr aps are often set up on a away from
grid system to investigate the trap for
movements of ground animals drainage Bait Jam jar
more systematically.
sunk into
soil

Other methods
Pooter – Glass
of collection are
used to collect specimens collecting Clear
numer ous. Many
of insects and other tube [3] plastic tube
are based on some
arthropods. Trees or bushes
form of netting –
are beaten and the animals
for example, large
fall on a sheet or tray
mist nets may be
underneath. They are then Cork or
used to collect
collected in the pooter. rubber bung
migr ating bir ds for
Sucking on the Glass
identification and
mouthpiece pulls the mouthpiece ringing, and sweep
organism along the
nets may be used
collecting tube and into the Gauze covering to captur e flying or
specimen tube. This does tube opening aquatic arthropods.
not harm the organism,
and it can then be returned
to its natural habitat. Specimen tube

248
 ORGANISMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT

*
The mark–recapture method RECORDING AND ANALYSIS
The diagram below shows one useful technique
Two students wished to investigate the invertebrate
for estimating populations of motile animals.
populations present in an area of woodland. They set out
1 Sample the population by capturing a number of organisms. pitfall traps in the evening, with rotting meat as a bait.
They returned to count the collected animals next
morning. The table shows their results.

Animal type Number recorded Total

by students

Beetles

2 Mark the sample in some way which:

causes no harm Centipedes
does not make the organism conspicuous to predators
does not affect the organism rejoining the population, Millipedes

Spiders

Earthworms

e.g. mice can have a small mark clipped into their fur. Woodlice

Snails
3 Release the organism to rejoin
its population. 1 a Copy the table and complete it to show the total
number of each animal collected.
b Plot a bar chart of your results from part a.
c Suggest a function of the trap lid, apart from
preventing entry of rain.
d The students used rotting meat in their traps.
Suggest how the types and numbers of animals
collected might be different if they had used
rotting leaves.
4 A second sample of the population is collected at a later date and
The teacher suggested that a mark–recapture method
counted. The number of previously marked organisms is noted. might give a more accurate estimate of the beetle
population. The students set up the pitfall traps with
meat as bait and then marked the beetles they collected
with a small spot of brown water-soluble paint. They
released the beetles into the area they had been collected
from, and that evening reset the traps. On the following
day the numbers of marked and unmarked beetles in the
traps were recorded, as shown below.
5 The population size is estimated using the Lincoln index:
Number of
Number marked Number in
and released second sample beetles in first marked unmarked
n  n2 sample – marked beetles in beetles in
Population size = 1 then released second sample second sample
nm

Number of marked 30 12 40
individuals in second sample
e Use the Lincoln index to calculate the total beetle
This method might be used, for example, when comparing
populations before and after a conservation management population in the area.
plan. f Why did the students use brown paint, not yellow
or red paint?
▲ The mark–recapture method g Why did the students use a water-soluble paint
rather than an oil-based paint?

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19.4 Decay is a natural process

OBJECTIVES
■ To understand that nutrients in dead organisms
Decomposition by microorganisms
are recycled The remains that are left are decomposed by
the feeding activities of microorganisms. These
■ To know that the process of decay often begins with the
activities of scavengers fungi and bacteria feed by secreting enzymes
■ To know how saprotrophic nutrition is responsible onto the remains and absorbing the digested
for decomposition products. This form of nutrition is called
saprotrophic feeding.
The diagram on the opposite page illustrates
Recycling nutrients
some of the features of the decomposition
Humans have an unusual skill – they can
process. The decay process provides energy
modify their environment to suit themselves.
and raw materials for the decomposers. It also
For example, we cut down forests and plant
releases nutrients from the bodies of dead
crops, and we build houses. Many building
animals and plants, which can then be reused by
materials are natural, such as wood and straw,
other organisms, for example:
and the environment treats these materials as
the dead remains of once-living organisms – the
sugar in dead rabbit
environment reclaims the nutrients and returns
respiration by microorganisms
them to the ecosystem.
carbon dioxide
Starting with scavengers photosynthesis in plant
When an organism dies, the nutrients in its sugar in plant
body are returned to the environment to
be reused. The nutrients are recycled by a In this way substances pass through nutrient
series of processes carried out by other living cycles as microbes convert them from large,
organisms. The first ones to appear are usually complex molecules in animal and plant remains
the scavengers which break up the dead bodies to simpler compounds in the soil and the
into more manageable pieces. Scavengers eat atmosphere. The next sections describe the
some of the dead body, but leave behind blood recycling of the elements carbon and nitrogen.
or small pieces of tissue.
Importance of decomposition
i
processes to humans
■ Organic waste in sewage is decomposed and made
‘safe’ in water treatment plants (see page 282).
■ Organic pollutants such as spilled oil may be removed
from the environment by decomposing bacteria (see
page 252).
■ Food is spoiled due to decomposition by fungi and
bacteria. Many food treatments alter physical
conditions to inhibit enzyme activity.
■ Wounds may become infected by saprotrophs,
leading to tissue loss or even to death. Many medical
treatments inhibit the multiplication or metabolism
of saprotrophs.

▲ Scavengers such as the vulture feed on dead bodies

250
 ORGANISMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT

Saprotrophs cause decay

Cytoplasm
Cells of saprotrophs (bacteria
and fungi) nourish themselves
by secreting enzymes onto ‘food’
Cell wall and absorbing the products.
Complex organic compounds
include fats, proteins and starches.

Lipases
fats fatty acids
+ glycerol

Environmental
Metabolism inside the bacterial Amylase
factors may
or fungal cells uses the absorbed starch maltose
affect
products for respiration or for cell
decomposition*
growth and division. glucose

Absorbed Proteases
simple compounds protein amino acids

Absorption by
diffusion and/or
by active transport.
Antiseptics and disinfectants
kill the living organisms that
carry out the decay process. Simple compounds
Good news! in hospitals and include fatty acids,
for food preservation glucose, amino acids
but and mineral salts.
Bad news! in compost heaps
and in sewage works.

*Oxygen is required for aerobic *Water – many decomposition

*Heat – for rapid decomposition, respiration, which releases energy reactions are hydrolysis reactions,
need to maintain an optimum in bacteria and fungi to drive their i.e. they use water to split chemical
temperature for the activity of metabolism. In the absence of bonds. Water is also necessary to
enzymes. Heat is generated by oxygen, decomposition is slow and dissolve the breakdown products
the respiration that occurs during very smelly, because methane and before they can be absorbed by the
the decomposition process. hydrogen sulfide may be produced. saprotrophs or other organisms.

Q
1 Copy and complete the following paragraph. 2 Gardeners often place vegetable waste on a compost
During the process of decay, and convert heap. Over the course of time the waste will be
complex chemicals into ones. For example, decomposed.
proteins are converted to , and to fatty a What do gardeners gain from the decomposed
acids and glycerol. These decay processes involve the waste?
biological catalysts called , and so the processes b Why do gardeners sometimes spray water over the
are affected by changes in and . Humans heap in warm summer weather?
exploit decay, for example in the treatment of to c Why do gardeners often build compost heaps on a
provide drinking water, and may deliberately limit pile of loose-fitting sticks or bricks?
decay, for example in the preservation of .

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19.5 The carbon cycle

OBJECTIVES
atmosphere). Other processes may affect this
■ To recall why living organisms need carbon-containing
regular cycling of carbon.
compounds
■ Sometimes conditions are not suitable
■ To appreciate that carbon is cycled between complex for respiration by decomposers, and
and simple forms by the biochemical processes of carbon dioxide remains ‘locked up’ in
photosynthesis and respiration complex carbon compounds in the bodies
■ To understand that formation and combustion of organisms. For example, anaerobic, low
of fossil fuels may distort the pattern of the carbon cycle pH or extreme temperature conditions will
inhibit decomposition – this is how fossil
Carbon-containing nutrients – fuels have been laid down in environments
a reminder where decomposition is not favoured.
The Sun keeps supplying energy to food chains. ■ Over millions of years the formation of fossil
However, the supply of chemical elements to fuels has removed carbon dioxide from
living organisms is limited, and these elements the environment. Humans have exploited
must be recycled. The nutrient elements are fossil fuels as a source of energy over a
cycled between simple forms in the non-living relatively short time, and the combustion
(abiotic) environment and more complex forms of oil, gas, coal and peat has returned
in the bodies of living organisms (the biotic enormous volumes of carbon dioxide to
component of an ecosystem). Living organisms the atmosphere. As a result, carbon dioxide
require carbon-containing compounds as: concentrations are increasing (see page
■ a source of energy, released when carbon- 292).
containing compounds are oxidised during S ■ The burning of biomass fuels such as wood
respiration (particularly carbohydrates and and alcohol uses up oxygen, returns carbon
fats) dioxide to the atmosphere, and can have a
■ raw materials for the growth of cells very severe local effect although worldwide
(particularly fats and proteins). it is less significant than the combustion of
fossil fuels.
Recycling carbon compounds
Plants, and some bacteria, manufacture these The way in which these different processes
compounds from carbon dioxide during contribute to the cycling of carbon is illustrated
the process of photosynthesis (see page 46). opposite.
Animals obtain them in a ready-made form
by feeding on other living organisms (see Q
page 62), and decomposers obtain them as 1 Refer to the carbon cycle opposite.
they break down the dead bodies or wastes a Name the simple carbon compound present
of other living organisms. These processes in the abiotic part of the ecosystem.
of feeding, respiration, photosynthesis and b Name two compounds present in the biotic
decomposition recycle the carbon over and part of the ecosystem.
c Which processes raise the concentration of
over again. Theoretically, the amount of carbon
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere?
dioxide fixed by photosynthesis should equal
d Which process reduces carbon dioxide
the amount released by respiration. As a result, concentration in the atmosphere?
the most accessible form of carbon in the non- e Name the process that distributes carbon
living environment, that is carbon dioxide, dioxide throughout the atmosphere from
remains at about the same concentration places where it is released.
year after year after year (about 0.03% of the f Suggest a reason why some fossil fuels were
formed as sediments at the bottom of ancient
252 seas.
 ORGANISMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT

The processes of photosynthesis, feeding, death, excretion and

respiration lead to the cycling of carbon between living organisms
and their environment. Fossil fuel formation and combustion affect
the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

Photosynthesis – uses light energy Organic compounds in plants

to convert carbon dioxide into
organic compounds in plants. Carbohydrates and fats

Proteins

The amount of respiration in Carbon dioxide

the different groups of living (CO2) in air
organisms varies: and water
overall, plants respire less Feeding
than they photosynthesise
(otherwise they would
not grow) Respiration – converts carbohydrates
decomposer respiration can to carbon dioxide with the release
be very high in some of energy
environments, e.g. the warm,
moist conditions on the
floor of a rainforest, and Organic compounds in animals
decomposers can contribute Carbohydrates and fats
80% of the CO2 in that
environment.

Combustion – releases
carbon dioxide by the
burning of fossil fuels.
This increases the Proteins
concentration of CO2
available in the
environment.

Organic compounds Death and

in fossil fuels, e.g. excretion
peat, coal, oil provide plant
and animal
material for
decay

Organic compounds in
POLLUTO decomposers – bacteria
– lead and fungi
free

Some conditions, e.g. low temperature,

low oxygen concentration and low pH
prevent action of decomposers. This
leads to carbon compounds being ‘locked
up’ in fossil fuels. Fossil fuel formation
lowers the concentration of CO2 which
is available in the environment, as it
continues to be removed by photosynthesis.
253
▲ The carbon cycle
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ORGANISMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT

19.6 The nitrogen cycle

S OBJECTIVES
■ To recall why nitrate is an essential mineral for Nitrification
plant growth In nitrification, ammonium ions produced by
■ To know how nitrate is made available in the soil the decomposition of amino acids and proteins
■ To understand that a series of biochemical processes are oxidised, first to nitrite and then to nitrate.
results in the cycling of nitrogen between living The process is carried out by nitrifying bacteria
organisms and the environment which live in the soil. Nitrification only happens
■ To appreciate the part played by microorganisms if oxygen is present. In the absence of oxygen the
in the cycling of nitrogen process is reversed, and denitrifying bacteria
obtain their energy by converting nitrate to
Plants need nitrate nitrogen gas. This is why waterlogged soils, for
Plants need nitrogen for the synthesis of proteins example, tend to lose nitrate as nitrogen gas.
and other compounds, including DNA and vitamins.
Nitrogen gas makes up about 80% of the Earth’s Recycling nitrogen
atmosphere, but plants do not have the enzymes Once nitrate has been formed by either nitrogen
necessary to use the nitrogen directly – instead they fixation or nitrification, it can be absorbed by plants
must absorb it as nitrate. Nitrate is formed by two through their roots. Eventually the plant dies, and
sets of processes carried out by microorganisms – its body is added to the animal wastes and remains
nitrogen fixation and nitrification. in the soil. Decomposers break down the nitrogen
compounds in these wastes and remains and the
Nitrogen fixation formation of nitrate can begin again.
In nitrogen fixation, nitrogen and hydrogen In a typical ecosystem, the processes shown
are combined to form ammonium ions and then opposite recycle nitrogen between living
nitrate. The process depends upon enzymes that organisms and the environment. However, some
are only possessed by certain bacteria called processes cause the loss of nitrate from the
nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Some of these bacteria environment. This happens naturally as a result
live free in the soil, but one important species of denitrification (see above), and less naturally
lives in swellings called nodules on the roots when crops are harvested and removed from
of leguminous plants such as peas, beans and the site where they have grown. These losses of
clover. Nitrogen fixation only happens if oxygen is nitrate can be made up either by nitrogen fixation
present. It also occurs naturally in the atmosphere or by adding nitrate in the form of fertilisers.
when the energy from lightning combines
nitrogen directly with oxygen. Farmers can plant
legumes in a crop rotation scheme to avoid having
to use so much nitrogen-containing fertiliser.
This saves money, and also limits pollution of
water (see page 274).

Q
1 Use your knowledge of the nitrogen cycle to explain c planting peas or beans every third year
how the following farming practices might improve d adding NPK fertiliser
soil fertility. e adding well-rotted compost.
a ploughing in stubble rather than burning it 2 Explain why farmers drain waterlogged fields.
b draining waterlogged fields
254
 ORGANISMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT

S The nitrogen cycle

The processes of nitrification, absorption, feeding, death, excretion and decay lead Some plants, called legumes (beans and
to the cycling of nitrogen between living organisms and their environment. In a natural peanuts are examples), have swellings
ecosystem, nitrogen fixation can ‘top up’ the cycle and make up for losses by denitrification. on their roots. These root nodules
contain bacteria, which can convert
nitrogen gas to nitrate ions. These
plants reduce the need for artificial
fertilisers.

Organic compounds in plants Nitrogen gas (N2)

Proteins in the atmosphere

Nitrogen fixation

Denitrification

Absorption by diffusion
and active transport Farmers drain and
plough fields to
improve oxygenation
of soil and so reduce
denitrification.
Feeding They also add
nitrogen-containing
fertilisers to directly
increase the nitrate
content of the soil.

Organic compounds in animals

Proteins,
amino acids
and urea
Nitrate ions (NO3–)
in soil solution

Nitrification
Death and
excretion

Organic compounds in
decomposers – bacteria
Farmers are encouraged and fungi Amino acids Ammonium
to plough roots and and urea ions (NH4+)
stalks of harvested crops
back into the soil. This
provides raw material
for the action of Decay – enzymes digest
decomposers. organic molecules to
simpler forms

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19.7 Water is recycled too!

OBJECTIVES
■ the most important factor in water recycling
■ To know that all living organisms are largely
is heat energy from the Sun. This evaporates
water, and that biological reactions always take place in
water, and also creates the temperature
an aqueous (watery) environment
gradients which lead to winds.
■ To understand that the biological properties
of water result from the structure of the The steps involved in the water cycle are shown in
water molecule the diagram opposite.
■ To list some of the biological functions of water
The special properties of water
The picture of the kangaroo shows the importance
Water and life of the properties of water to living things.
Life first evolved in water for a number of reasons:
The high specific Evaporation of Because water is
■ The molecules that were used by living heat capacity water from incompressible,
organisms, and that made up their structure, of water means a surface allows it provides
that cells or bodies loss of heat. excellent support.
were dissolved in the first seas. with a high water Water has a high Water helps
■ In the muddy estuaries and shallow seas of the content tend to latent heat of support a whole
resist heating up vaporisation. organism (e.g. a
primitive Earth, the molecules could become or cooling down, fish), or part of
concentrated enough to react together. even when the an organism
temperature of (e.g. the eyeball,
■ Water acted as a protective shield for the their environment or the erect penis
first living organisms against the damaging changes. of a mammal).

ultraviolet rays from the Sun.

Recycling water
Life continues on this planet because water has
special properties. In particular, all three states of
water – solid ice, liquid water and gaseous water
vapour – exist at the temperatures found on the
Earth’s surface. The temperature varies at different
times and at different places on the planet, but
the average temperature over the Earth’s surface
is about 16.5 °C. This means that ice, liquid
water and water vapour are all present and are
continually interchanging. Water is recycled
between different parts of the environment, as
shown in the water cycle diagram opposite. Water is an Water can be a Water is an excellent
excellent biological reagent, transport medium
The water cycle lubricant, for example in the for many biological
for example in processes of molecules, such as
All of the elements that make up living organisms, saliva or in the photosynthesis oxygen, glucose,
not just carbon and nitrogen, are recycled. The synovial fluid of and digestion. amino acids, sodium
movable joints. ions and urea.
water cycle is different to the cycles of carbon and
nitrogen because:
■ only a tiny proportion of the water which is
recycled passes through living organisms

256
 ORGANISMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT

Precipitation Condensation
Droplets collect vapour water droplets,
and fall as snow, which collect to form clouds
rain and hail.

Evapotranspiration
liquid vapour

Evaporation Melting/refreezing
liquid vapour solid liquid

▲ The water cycle is maintained by heat energy from the Sun

Q
1 a Amino acids in the muscle protein of a cow may be found in the muscle protein of a rabbit after several
years. Explain how this is possible.
b Explain how fungi and bacteria play a part in the nitrogen cycle.
2 Use words from the following list to complete the paragraphs about ecosystems. You may use each word
once, more than once or not at all.
respiration, decomposition, producer, chemical, carnivore, consumer, photosynthesis, energy, light,
elements, decomposers, herbivore
In each ecosystem there are many feeding relationships. A food chain represents a flow of through an
ecosystem, and always begins with an organism called a which is able to trap energy and
convert it to energy. An organism of this type is eaten by a , which is a kind of that feeds
only on plant material. This type of organism is, in turn, eaten by a (an organism that consumes other
animals).
The process in which light energy is transferred into a chemical form is called – eventually the energy
is released from its chemical form during the process of This process provides energy for all living
organisms, including which are microbes that feed on the remains of animals and plants.
3 Many people are concerned about the effects on the environment of rearing cattle for food.
a Explain why growing vegetables for human consumption instead of raising beef cattle results in fewer
energy losses.
b Suggest one way in which rearing cattle can result in a loss of biodiversity.
c Explain how eating less meat in the USA and Western Europe could help to feed the world’s growing
population.

257
 Questions on ecosystems, decay
ORGANISMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT

and cycles
1 The following organisms were found living in a i Name the processes represented by the
the same habitat. letters A, B, C and D. [4]
caterpillar, fox, greenfly (aphid), green plant, ii Name the most abundant carbohydrate
hawk, ladybird beetle, rabbit, small bird in a plant cell. [1]
a Copy and complete the diagram below by b Measurements suggest that the carbon
filling in the names of the organisms to dioxide concentration in the atmosphere is
show their feeding relationships. rising. Suggest how this is happening. [2]

3 The following diagrams represent different

pyramids of numbers.

A B

[4]
A B
b This type of diagram is called a food web. C
C D
Explain the meaning of the arrows in the
food web. [1]
c i Name two organisms which are primary
consumers. [2]
ii Name the organism which
C is the D
producer. [1] A food chain can be represented by a pyramid
d Myxomatosis is a disease which kills of numbers. Match each of these food chains
rabbits. Suggest two possible consequences with the correct pyramid.
of a reduction in the number of rabbits. [2] grass seed mouse weasel
2 The diagram below shows the carbon cycle oak tree aphid ladybird
in nature. cabbage caterpillar wasp parasite
oats rabbit flea [4]
Carbon dioxide
in air 4 Several types of bacteria involved in the
A
Decomposition C nitrogen cycle are listed below.
by B B decay bacteria, denitrifying bacteria, nitrifying
microorganisms

Carbon
bacteria, nitrogen-fixing bacteria
Fossil D Carbon
fuels compounds compounds
in animals in plants

Fossilisation Death Death

over millions
of years
Carbon compounds
258 in dead plants and
animals
 ORGANISMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT

NITROGEN
(in the air)

A lightning B
The empty boxes represent
types of bacteria.
SOIL
NITRATES tak
en
by up
pla
nt
s
C Plant protien

Dead organisms
NITRATES Animal protien and faeces

D excretion B

AMMONIA

a The diagram above summarises the nitrogen 6 The table below lists some terms used in
cycle. Match the letters in the boxes with the ecology and their definitions.
names of the bacteria active at each stage. Match each term with its definition. Write the
[5] letter and number to show your answer, for
b Soil nitrates are taken up by plants. They example, a–4.
can be produced by the two methods shown
Term Definition
in the diagram.
a ecology 1 an area that can supply food, shelter and a
Suggest another way in which soil nitrates
breeding site
may be increased. [1]
b community 2 the study of living things in relation to their
environment
5 The diagram below represents the water cycle.
c habitat 3 the physical and biological conditions that are
a Name the processes represented by the
present in the place where an organism lives
letters P and R. [2]
d population 4 the living organisms of different species which
b Name two factors that could affect the rate live in a particular habitat
of process R. Explain your answers. [4] e environment 5 the number of individuals of a particular species
c State two reasons why water is essential for present in a particular habitat
green plants. [2] [4]

land
Q R
forest area

sea
river
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19.8 Factors affecting population size

S OBJECTIVES Important abiotic factors affecting population
growth include:
■ To understand what is meant by environmental ■ Temperature – higher temperatures speed
resistance up enzyme-catalysed reactions and increase
■ To list examples of biotic and abiotic factors which limit growth.
population growth ■ Oxygen availability – affects the rate of
■ To explain the form of a typical growth curve energy production by respiration.
■ Light availability – for photosynthesis. Light
may also control breeding cycles in animals
A population is a group of organisms of one
and plants.
species, living in the same area at the same time
■ Toxins and pollutants – tissue growth can
(see page 241). be reduced by the presence of, for example,
Environmental resistance sulfur dioxide, and reproductive success may
be affected by pollutants such as oestrogen-
By taking samples and counting the numbers of
like substances.
organisms in a particular habitat, an ecologist
can study how any factor affects the size of the Growth curves and carrying capacity
population. For example, a woodland manager
When a small population begins to grow in
might wish to know whether thinning the trees
a particular environment, the environmental
in the wood affects the population of low-
resistance is almost non-existent – there may
growing plants, or a farmer might wish to know
be plenty of food and no accumulation of
whether the time of grass-cutting affects the
poisonous wastes. The diagram opposite shows
population of bank voles. These factors may be
how environmental resistance eventually limits
living (biotic) or non-living (abiotic). Together
population growth, and the environment reaches
they affect the rate at which a population grows,
its carrying capacity. Unless the environmental
and also its final size. All the factors that affect
resistance is changed, perhaps by a new disease
population growth and size together make up
organism, the size of the population will only
the environmental resistance.
fluctuate slightly. Organisms that are able to
Some significant biotic factors that affect maintain their population, or even increase
population growth include: it, must be well adapted to their particular
■ Food – both the quantity and the quality
environment.
of food are important. Snails, for example,
cannot reproduce successfully in an
environment low in calcium, no matter how Humans exploit environmental
i
much food there is, because they need this resistance
mineral for shell growth. People use their understanding of environmental
■ Predators – as a prey population becomes resistance to manage populations. For example:
larger, it becomes easier for predators to find ■ Predators are eliminated from farm situations.
the prey. If the number of predators suddenly ■ More food is made available to domestic animals.
■ Nitrogen fertilisers and artificial light are used to
falls, the prey species might increase in
boost plant growth.
number extremely quickly.
■ Predators may be used to control pests.
■ Competitors – other organisms may require
■ Anaerobic conditions or low temperatures are used
the same resources, such as food, from the to prevent populations of microbes from consuming
environment, and so reduce the growth of a our food.
population. ■ Competitors are eliminated from crops using
■ Disease – often caused by parasites, and may pesticides.
slow down the growth and reproductive rate An example can be found on page 174.
260 of organisms within a population.
 ORGANISMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT

S Factors affecting population growth

Population exceeds Environmental

carrying capacity resistance increases
Population falls Birth rate and death rate
balance one another resulting
‘Normal’ Feedback control ‘Normal’ in an equilibrium. The population
population size of population size population size oscillates (rises and falls) ar ound
the carrying capacity of the
Population rises environment.
Population less than Environmental
carrying capacity resistance decreases

Population Population Population Population constant

growing slowly growing exponentially growth decelerates (STATIONARY
(LAG PHASE) (EXPONENTIAL PHASE) PHASE)

Population falls
(DEATH PHASE)
Population size

The carrying capacity is

the maximum number of a
species that the habitat can
Environmental resistance
hold. It is determined by the
(limiting factors)
availability of nutrients,
becomes dominant,
shelter and breeding sites.
increasing the death rate
The population falls when
and/or decreasing the
resources are used up faster
birth rate.
than they are replaced.

Time

Slow start to population Maximum observed growth rate –

growth as the number of a compromise between biotic Food availability
mature, reproducing potential and initial environmental Biotic Predators
individuals is low and they resistance. Disease
may be widely dispersed.

Biotic potential is the ability to breed. Asexually reproducing Water

organisms with a short generation time, such as bacteria, have a Oxygen
high biotic potential. Sexually reproducing organisms with a long Abiotic
Light
generation time, such as humans, have a low biotic potential.
Toxins/pollutants

Q
1 What is meant by the term environmental resistance? 3 Give examples of the ways in which humans
Give an example. exploit their knowledge of the factors affecting
2 Define the terms biotic and abiotic factors, and give population growth.
examples of each.

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19.9 Human population growth

OBJECTIVES
more difficult and humans began to settle in
■ To know that the evolution of humans from
the most suitable areas. This meant that the
hunter-gatherers to permanent settlers caused changes
environment did not have time to recover.
in the environment
■ To understand the form of a human population Growth of the human population
growth curve As with other organisms, the growth of the human
population can be presented as a population
Humans, like other organisms, must find food, growth curve. The number of humans increases,
shelter and a place to breed. The first humans by reproduction, until the carrying capacity of
were hunter-gatherers who moved from place to the environment has been reached. Humans have
place, taking what they needed to satisfy these the ability to alter their environment to raise the
requirements (but allowing the environment carrying capacity. Three major changes in human
to recover once they moved on). After the most activities led to significant surges in the world
recent Ice Age this method of living became population over the past 300 years, as shown
below.

6000 Counting human populations The UK population is almost static as socio-economic

Human populations, unlike those of factors limit family size ...
other organisms, are counted directly ... but
rather than by sampling. This is called greater affluence leads to greater demand for leisure
a census, and may be difficult and and recreation space
5000 time-consuming to carry out smaller families increase the demand for housing
(particularly in remote rural areas). greater expectations of population lead to greater
demand for a variety of foods at all times of the year
more cars per household increases demand for roads
4000
Number of individuals / millions

great competition for available land

and
greater effects on the environment
3000

Medical revolution – improvements in sanitation

and the control of infectious diseases reduced the
2000 number of deaths.

Industrial revolution – the development of machinery

increased agricultural efficiency and improved housing
conditions. More people earned enough money to be
1000
able to afford larger families, and the number of
births increased.

Agricultural revolution – human settlers became

0 more efficient in their farming. More food became
0 500 1000 1500 2000 available, and this part of environmental resistance
Time / years AD to the human population was reduced.

▲ Human population of the world Human success may be This is largely due to behavioural skills which:
measured as: allow solution of complex problems
worldwide distribution allow control/modification of environment
large number of individuals leading to changes in carrying capacity
dominance over other species. of the environment.

262
 ORGANISMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT

The shapes of populations Less economically developed nations (LEDNs)

A population grows if the number of births plus typically have a high birth rate but a high
the number of immigrants is greater than the mortality rate amongst young people. The
population pyramid tends to have a wide base
number of deaths plus the number of emigrants.
(lots of births) but sloping sides (high death
This relationship is shown in the figure below.
rate in younger age groups). The population
Immigration
pyramids for more economically developed
nations (MEDNs) have a narrower base but
 almost vertical sides, reflecting a lower birth
rate and few deaths amongst young people.
 
Births Population Deaths All population pyramids show a higher
proportion of females in the older age groups

(the two
Emigration
X chromosomes offer genetic benefits against
sex-linked conditions, see page 225).
▲ Factors affecting population size Population pyramids for two contrasting
nations are shown here.
If immigration and emigration remain stable,
the population size will depend on the relative
LEDN Males Females
numbers of births and deaths. If the population
■ wide base
size is measured, and then the data is broken 65
down into different age groups, a population ■ low height

pyramid can be drawn. A population pyramid ■ sloping sides

shows the age structure of a population – the
percentage of males and females in each age
group in a country.
15
This age structure is affected by:
■ Food availability: this is particularly 0
10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10
significant in those countries where a
Percentage of total population
balanced diet might be difficult to obtain.
Deficiencies in protein and vitamins can lead
to a very high death rate amongst infants. MEDN Males Females

■ Hygiene: food poisoning and water-borne ■ narrow base

infections can cause an increased death rate ■ considerable height
65
from diarrhoea and dehydration. Provision ■ vertical sides
of a ‘safe’ water supply has a huge impact on
the stability of a population.
■ Medical provision: vaccination programmes
can prevent many deaths, and care during
childbirth can dramatically reduce deaths 15
among young women. The availability of
0
combination therapy for HIV infections has 4 2 0 2 4
significantly reduced death rates in the 25–40 Percentage of total population
age groups in sub-Saharan Africa.
■ Working conditions: unsafe work, for
Age (population) pyramids show the age structure of
example mining, can increase death rates a population.
amongst young people (usually men), They can be compared with respect to:
particularly if medical care is poor.
■ width of base (proportion of young people in population)
■ Political instability: this can sometimes
■ height (number of individuals surviving to old age)
lead to civil war, with serious effects on death
rates. ■ angle of sides (death rate affects slope).
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20.1 Food supply: humans and

agriculture
OBJECTIVES
■ increased use of inorganic fertilisers
■ To understand why agriculture is a threat to affects plant diversity dramatically and can
conservation result in excessive nitrate levels in rivers,
■ To understand how careful management can help to leading to eutrophication (page 274)
conserve biodiversity ■ use of pesticides to eliminate competitors
for crop species has caused the reduction in
The human population is increasing and may population of many native wildflowers and
reach 9 billion (9 000 000 000) by the end of the some non-target insects and birds by direct
century. More people means a demand for more toxicity or, more often, by removal of their
food. This food is mainly provided by agriculture food sources. Pesticides include insecticides
– the management of land for food production. to improve the quality and yield of crops by
Around the world, agriculture presents a serious killing insects, and herbicides which reduce
threat to conservation of existing habitats. competition with weeds
Although 75% of England is designated as ■ the tendency towards monoculture
farmland, only 2% of the UK population is ■ selective breeding of both crops and
involved in farming. In 1850, one farm worker livestock.
produced enough food for about 4 people; now
All of these can have negative effects on the
in advanced agricultural countries the same
environment.
worker produces enough for 60 people. The
enormous rise in productivity of land is due to It all boils down to monoculture!
many factors. These include: Farms used to be small and mixed, supplying
■ increased and more efficient use of
enough food for just a few families throughout
machinery has resulted in increased field the year, but now tend to be large and specialised.
sizes and the removal of hedges (see page Growing a single crop in this way is called mono-
266) culture and, as ever, there are pluses and minuses.
Monoculture
+ (Good points) – (Bad points)
Poor wildlife foods: very
Specialised harvesting little variety of ‘weeds’ for
techniques: one type of insects and birds.
machine can collect all
of the crop. Spread of disease: plant
pathogens, such as potato
blight fungus and tobacco
mosaic virus, spread easily:
Highly selected strains: it’s not very far to the next
varieties of plants with ideal food plant!
desirable characteristics
(see page 236) can be Loss of genetic variety: may mean
‘matched’ to the conditions. that any change in environmental
resistance (see page 260) could
damage or kill all of the plants.

Mineral/water Damage to soil: the same

requirement: scientists minerals will be ‘drained’ away by
can work out exactly many copies of the same plant.
what the crop needs, and As the crop is harvested and taken
farmers can make sure away the minerals will be lost from
264 they use it. the soil.
 ORGANISMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT

Intensive farming: livestock

Both cows and sheep release methane
This means many animals can be kept in a very
– a very potent greenhouse gas (see
limited area, and is possible because of …
page 270).

Veterinary care:
Temperature control: essential so that Antibiotics to reduce bacterial infection.
costly heat energy is not wasted. Vaccination to minimise viral infection.
If too high, animals are uncomfortble Hormone/vitamin supplements can be
and will not feed. administered more accurtely than in the diet.
If too low, food intake is ‘wasted’ on Artificial insemination techniques can
heat production to maintain body reduce costs (no need to keep bulls in
temperature. dairy farms).

Strain of animal: selective breeding for

animals with high conversion ratio, i.e.
most efficient transfer of food intake
to body mass.
Minimise movement: less energy
consumption and thus more efficient
‘conversion’.

Food input: control content

High protein for growth
Minimal fat to suit customer
demand for lean meat
Include growth hormone to
increase growth rate.

Hygienic conditions: most

animals are free of gut parasites
and debilitating bacteria – healthy
animals grow more quickly and meat
is more saleable.

Intensive farming can provide more food but there are disadvantages:
■ Waste (faeces and urine) can pollute nearby rivers and lakes.
■ Animals may suffer as they are not in normal social groups.
■ Disease can spread easily from animal to animal.
■ Use of antibiotics can select resistant strains of bacteria (see page 175).
■ Heating and lighting are expensive – and cause more environmental damage.

The problem for the world is how to balance productivity (more food for humans) and
biodiversity (keeping the wide range of wildlife).

Q
1 Intensive farming of cattle has reduced the cost of meat, but has some disadvantages.
Explain why
a the use of antibiotics to reduce infections in cattle, and
b the addition of growth hormone to animal diets might be harmful to humans who consume the meat.

265
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20.2 Land use for agriculture

OBJECTIVES
■ To understand that chemical discharges may pollute
Deforestation
land as well as air and water The removal of woodland provides firewood,
building materials, cleared land for crops such
■ To understand that many human effects on the land
involve loss of wildlife habitat as palm oil or for grazing of cattle. For our first
■ To know that there are ways to reverse loss of settler ancestors, it also removed the habitat of
wildlife habitat predators of domestic animals.
Deforestation is also a result of clearing land so
Many of the pollutants described on pages 270–5 that natural resources (e.g. oil in the Amazon
have an effect on land, as well as on the air or basin and copper in Zaire) can be extracted.
water.
The technique used to clear forest today is often
Pollution also includes the loss of wildlife habitat
called slash and burn. The largest trees may be
that results from human competition for land.
removed for sale as timber for furnishings but
Removal of hedges the less valuable woods are simply chopped down
Farmers remove hedges to increase the area where (slashed) and then burned. The humans using the
they can grow crops. The benefits of hedgerows as land gain a short-term benefit, but the damage to
habitats, and the reasons why farmers feel justified
in removing them, are outlined below.

Advantages Disadvantages

Hedges act as windbreaks which provide A hedge takes up space that could be
shelter for domestic animals, protect fragile occupied by crops and reduces economic use
crops, limit soil erosion and reduce water of modern agricultural machinery.
losses by evaporation from soil. A hedge
1 m in height provides these benefits for
approximately 2 m to its sheltered side.
Hedge may shade crop species (compete with
them for light).
Taller hedges offer secure nesting sites for
up to 65 bird species. These species may May be a source of insects, and viral and
be important predators on pest species on fungal pests (although such species are often
local crops. specific and are therefore unlikely to be pests
of local crop species).

Fallen leaves and fruits provide nutrient

enrichment for soil.
May act as a reservoir of weed species which
then invade and compete with crops.
Grassy strip provides shelter for game birds
and overwintering insects, and nesting sites
for small animals (e.g. voles). Hedge banks offer burrowing opportunities
to rabbits which may then consume crops,
especially in the young stages.
Hedges and associated herbs provide feeding
and breeding opportunities for pollinating Roots may consume water and nutrients
insects (including 23 species of butterfly). which otherwise would be available to crop
plants.

Roots improve soil stability and limit both Maintenance of hedges is labour intensive
wind and water erosion. compared with barbed-wire boundaries.

266 ▲ The removal of hedgerows in Britain averaged 8000 km per year in the twentieth century. This represents
a disaster for wildlife.
 ORGANISMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT

wildlife habitats is immediate and humans Q

also suffer in the long term. Newspaper 1 It has been estimated that more than 150 000 km of
and television headlines emphasise the hedgerow have been removed from around Britain’s
loss of forest in tropical areas of the world, fields since the Second World War. Why has this been
but it should be remembered that most done? What are the possible effects on wildlife?
of the UK was once forested! Some of the 2 What is deforestation? Give reasons why humans
penalties of large-scale deforestation are should be anxious about this process.
illustrated below.

Deforestation – the rapid

destruction of woodland

Reduction in soil fertility

Deciduous trees may contain 90% of the nutrients in a forest ecosystem. These nutrients are
removed if the trees are cut down and taken away.
Soil erosion may be rapid in the absence of trees because wind and direct rain may remove the
soil, and soil structure is no longer stabilised by tree root systems.

Flooding and landslips

Normally in a woodland, 25% of rainfall is absorbed by foliage or evaporates and 50%
is absorbed by root systems. After deforestation, water may accumulate rapidly in river valleys,
often causing landslips from steep hillsides.

Changes in recycling of materials – fewer trees means:

atmospheric CO2 concentration may rise as less CO2 is removed for photosynthesis
atmospheric O2 – vital for aerobic respiration – is diminished as less is produced by
photosynthesis
the atmosphere may become drier and the soil wetter as evaporation (from soil) is slower than
transpiration (from trees).

Climatic changes
Reduced transpiration rates and drier atmosphere affect the water cycle and reduce rainfall.
Rapid heat absorption by bare soil raises the temperature of the lower atmosphere in some
areas, causing thermal gradients which result in more frequent and intense winds.

Species extinction Many plant species may have medicinal

Many species are properties, e.g. as tranquillisers, reproductive
dependent on forest ItItisisestimated hormones, anticoagulants, painkillers
estimatedthat
thatone
oneplant
plantand
and
conditions.For example, one and antibiotics.
oneanimal
animalspecies
speciesbecome
becomeextinct
extinct
orang utans depend on every The Madagascan periwinkle, for example,
every30 30minutes
minutesdue
dueto
to
rainforest in Indonesia. defor estation. yields a potent drug used to treat leukaemia.
deforestation.
A loss of one species
can disrupt several food
chains and food webs.

267
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20.3 Damage to ecosystems:

malnutrition and famine
S OBJECTIVES A high global death rate linked to malnutrition has arisen from
famine situations caused by a number of natural problems
■ To recall that malnutrition is as well as by socio-political factors, such as alcohol and drug
a condition resulting from a
abuse, poverty, and war.
defective diet where certain
important food nutrients As well as suffering from a deficiency disease, a malnourished
(such as proteins, vitamins, or person is usually more at risk from other diseases (as the
carbohydrates) may be absent immune system may be very much reduced in efficiency) and
■ To remember that malnutrition a society with many malnourished individuals experiences
can lead to deficiency diseases mounting problems:
■ To understand some of the ■ Adults become ill and cannot work, so little money is
reasons why famines occur available to buy food.
including over-use of land for ■ Children become ill, and so adults must attempt to care for
agriculture.
them (often going without food themselves).
■ Older, weaker people will die and the society is deprived of
their experience and knowledge.

15%
of the
Famine world’s
population
Increasing population receive fewer
Improved medical services may than 10 000 kJ
mean that populations increase per day
(see page 262). As the number of
people increases, the need for food
increases too. At the same time, Unequal distribution of food
greater numbers of domestic Some areas produce more food,
animals may reduce the amount of either because of a more suitable
land available for food production. environment (e.g. water availability)
or more advanced agriculture (e.g. use
of fertilisers). Food surpluses in one
Drought area cannot always be moved to areas
Water is essential for plant growth where food supplies are limited.
and for the health of domestic animals.
Global warming (see page 271) may
upset rainfall patterns and so make
less water available. This can
dramatically reduce crop yield.

Flooding
Although plants such as rice grow
in flooded conditions, unpredictable
flooding can reduce crop yield severely.
Plants (e.g. maize) can be damaged
and fertile soil can be washed away.

Cost of fuel and fertiliser

Crop yield may be low in developing
countries because poor farmers cannot
afford fertiliser, or fuel to run
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S Can famine be stopped?

The world probably produces enough food to feed all of its inhabitants.
Agriculture in developed parts of the world is extremely efficient (see
page 264). Even so, as many as 15% of the world’s inhabitants suffer
from malnutrition because the available food is not evenly distributed
among the world’s population. Some people believe that all surplus
food from developed countries should be made available to poorer
countries, but many others (including EU agricultural ministers) argue
that aid to poorer people should be mainly in the form of education
and farming equipment. Direct food aid should only be reserved for
disaster situations, such as the earthquake in Nepal and flooding in
Bangladesh, where many individuals would quickly die if food were not
made available. The problem of unequal food distribution is outlined
in the diagram below.

Transportation
Bulky foods are expensive to transport.
Foods with a high water content (e.g. milk)
do not give good ‘food value per transport
cost’. Perishable foods may not remain in
good condition during long periods of transport.
Unequal distribution of food
Long distance transport
can increase atmospheric
pollution and global warming!

Grain

Food mountains
in
rich countries

STOP

Milk

Self-sufficiency
It makes more sense to help poor Price controls
people to grow food for themselves Taking cheap food from a rich country to a
than to send food surpluses to them. For example poor one can artificially lower food prices in
Education about agricultural methods the poor region. This can upset the local
Provision of water supplies by digging wells. economy, and reduce the incentive for
indigenous people to grow their own food.

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20.4 Human impacts on the

environment: pollution
OBJECTIVES
■ To understand that humans can alter their environment Causes, effects and remedies for
■ To understand how changes in human population pollution
have altered our impact on the environment Pollution is any effect of human activities upon
■ To consider human impacts in terms of cause, effect the environment, and a pollutant is any product
and possible remedies of human activities that has a harmful effect on
the environment. When looking at pollution, we
Humans already are, or could easily become, shall consider three key points:
■ What is the cause?
the most significant biotic factor in every
■ What are the effects?
environment. Primitive humans had a temporary
effect on the environment – hunting, fishing and ■ What are the solutions?

burning wood – because they were nomadic

Pollution of the atmosphere
and allowed the environment periods of time to
Two big problems with the Earth’s atmosphere
recover. After humans became cultivators and
are:
settlers (thousands of years ago) the following
■ the greenhouse effect
‘effects’ on the environment gradually became
■ production of acid rain.
noticeable:
■ The use of tools and the domestication of Burning of fossil fuels has a major effect on the
animals meant a more efficient agriculture. atmosphere. The combustion process oxidises
■ The greater need for shelter, agricultural land elements and compounds in the fuel, as shown in
and fuel meant a greater rate of deforestation the equations below.
and desertification.
■ The careless use of pesticides and fertilisers, carbon carbon monoxide (CO)
together with increasing consumption of fossil +
oxygen and carbon dioxide (CO2)
fuels, produced problems of pollution. These
have been added to by the development of
sulfur
nuclear energy sources. sulfur dioxide (SO2)
+
Humans may also have positive effects – we oxygen
are able to use our skills and knowledge in
conservation. nitrogen nitrogen monoxide (NO)
+ and nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
Our demands on the environment oxygen
Human success, measured as an increase in
These oxides affect the atmosphere – carbon
population size, is largely due to our ability
dioxide is a greenhouse gas and sulfur dioxide
to solve complex problems and modify the
and oxides of nitrogen contribute to acid rain.
environment for our benefit. This places great
The other major pollutant of the atmosphere is
demands on the environment, causing changes in
methane, produced by livestock (especially during
the atmosphere, the aquatic environment and
intensive farming, see page 265).
the land.
There are also localised problems with lead
Humans have also, intentionally or otherwise,
compounds, and with smoke. The causes and
seriously upset the balance of populations of
effects of, and possible solutions to, each of these
other living organisms. (see effects on food webs,
problems are outlined in the diagrams opposite.
page 242).

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S Causes of the increased greenhouse effect

Solar
Greenhouse gases trap infrared radiation (‘heat’) close to the radiation
Earth's surface. Solar radiation is allowed to enter the lower
atmosphere but is not allowed to escape. The greenhouse effect is
increasing because of raised levels of these greenhouse gases:
carbon dioxide released by combustion of fossil fuels in power
stations and internal combustion engines (in cars and lorries,
for example)
methane produced in the guts of ruminants such as cows,
More methane is produced by
and in the waterlogged conditions of swamps and rice fields.
termites than by all the ruminant
mammals on the Earth!

Effects
Visible and
Global warming (raised temperatures close to the Earth's surface)
infrared
causes:
greater climatic extremes – strong winds, heavier 35 km
rainfall and unseasonal weather
melting of polar ice and changes in density of sea all may
water – rising sea levels and flooding cause loss
evaporation of water from fertile areas – deserts of crops
form
pests may spread to new areas Lower
But stratosphere
higher temperatures and more carbon dioxide mean more
photosynthesis and more food production.

15 km

Solutions Troposphere
To limit the effects of greenhouse gases, humans should:
reduce burning of fossil fuels – explore alternative energy sources
reduce cutting of forests for cattle ranching or rice growing
replant forests. Earth's
surface

▲ Some gases added to the atmosphere act like the panes of glass in a greenhouse and raise the temperature
close to the Earth’s surface

Causes of acid rain Solutions

Human activities release acidic gases Acid rain can be reduced

Sulfur and nitrogen in fossil fuels are converted to oxides during combustion. Clean up emissions Clean up emissions from
More oxidation occurs in the clouds. Oxidation is catalysed by ozone and by from power car exhausts with
unburnt hydrocarbon fuels. stations with catalytic converters.
The oxides dissolve in water, and fall as acid rain. scrubbers.

sulfur dioxide H2O sulfuric and Scrubber Catalytic converters

and nitrogen oxides nitric acids ‘Clean’ clean up exhaust
gases emissions by
encouraging several
Effects
pollutants to react
Polluted together to give less
Acid rain causes problems Water
gases harmful products:
Soils become very acidic. This causes leaching of minerals and inhibition of spray
decomposition.
From engine
Water in lakes and rivers collects excess minerals. This causes death of fish
and invertebrates so that food chains are disrupted. NO, NO2, CO2,
Forest trees suffer starvation because of leaching of ions and destruction of unburnt fuel
Water and
photosynthetic tissue.
dissolved
pollutants Metal
catalysts
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 12

‘Acid’ rain ‘Pure’ rain ‘Acid’ lakes and fields can be improved by the addition
CO2, H2O,
Rain of pH 4 is 100 times more acidic of crushed limestone (CaCO3) – this is very expensive
and N2
than rain of pH 6. and time consuming.
To exhaust

▲ Acid rain damages both living organisms and buildings made by humans. Acid rain also causes pollution of 271
water. Some lakes are almost empty of life as a result of pH levels as low as 4 or 5.
 20.4 Human impacts on the environment: pollution

Radioactive pollution intensely ionising in the matter they pass

The Earth’s environment is naturally through and can cause more damage to living
radioactive due to cosmic radiation emitted tissue than particles with a longer path. Like
from space, and terrestrial radiation emitted alpha particles, beta particles lose their energy
from the Earth’s crust. However, this within a short distance and their biological
background level of radiation is exceeded in significance is greatest if a beta emitter
many parts of the world by contamination is taken into the body. Gamma radiation
from human-made sources of radioactivity. particles are similar to X-rays – they are deeply
penetrating and strongly ionising; gamma
‘Radiation’ here means ionising radiation
rays can only be stopped by thick layers of
(as opposed to other non-ionising radiation,
concrete, lead or steel.
e.g. UV, infra-red, microwave). Radiation is
emitted from radioactive substances as they The decay of radioactive wastes takes a very
spontaneously decay and takes several forms. long time. Some radioactive substances have
The types of most concern are: a half-life of more than 10 000 years, which
■ alpha particles (α) means they are dangerous for a very long time.
■ beta particles (β) (The half-life is the ‘period of time required
■ gamma rays (γ). for the disintegration of half of the atoms in a
sample of a radioactive substance’.)
Each type of radiation has different properties
There are two major ways in which the
and different penetrating power; e.g. alpha
atmosphere can become polluted by radiation:
particles can be stopped by a few centimetres
of air or a sheet of paper, however they are
i
Nuclear power plants
Nuclear power plant accidents can endanger life and the surrounding
environment if the radioactive core is exposed and meltdown occurs
and releases large amounts of radioactivity. This happened at
Chernobyl, a nuclear power station in the Ukraine: an accident here
destroyed the Chernobyl-4 reactor and killed 30 people, including
28 from radiation exposure. Large areas of Belarus, Ukraine, Russia
and beyond were contaminated in varying degrees, and an increased
number of birth defects was noted in the years following the disaster.
In 2011 a tsunami severely damaged the nuclear power station at
Fukushima, Japan. There are fears that marine life will be
▲ Chernobyl disaster contaminated, and a large area near the reactors has very restricted
access.

i
Nuclear weapons
Nuclear weapon tests that are conducted above ground or under water can release radiation into the
atmosphere. A nuclear test is the explosive test of a complete nuclear warhead – some tests in the
twentieth century were conducted in areas occupied by soldiers. Most of the troops ordered to take
part in the testing programme were not equipped with any specialised protective clothing. They were
simply ordered to turn their backs or cover their eyes to avoid being blinded by the flash of the explosion.
One former soldier remembers having his hands over his eyes but the flash was so bright that it acted
like an X-ray and he could see all the bones in his hands.
Exposure to radioactivity frequently leads to various forms of cancer, including leukaemia. The troops
involved have suffered much higher cancer rates than normal. However, because cancer may take
years to develop, it is difficult to prove that a particular case is linked to a particular cause.

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Non-biodegradable plastics
Plastics are widely used as packaging and transporting
materials. They are useful because they can be shaped to form
different products, they are light and they protect products
(especially foods) from fungi and bacteria.
Many plastics are made from large hydrocarbon molecules and
cannot be decomposed by normal microbial methods. Because
they are so widespread and they are non-biodegradable, they
▲ Non-biodegradable plastics cause
can have severe environmental effects.
marine pollution
They can pollute both aquatic and terrestrial habitats.
■ They can block the passage of water through drainage channels, leading to waterlogging of
soils. This reduces oxygenation and so affects soil fertility.
■ They can be mistakenly consumed by animals, on both land and in water. They block the
animal’s digestive system and cause many deaths.
■ They do not allow the passage of oxygen, so when they are present in landfill sites they inhibit
natural decomposition of other wastes.
■ If they are burned in an attempt to remove them they release toxic ‘smoky’ particles, which can
affect breathing and have a long-term effect on health.
These plastics are very light, and so when discarded they easily blow from place to place. They
make the environment less attractive (they lower the amenity value of the environment) and often
become lined up against natural windbreaks such as hedgerows and stands of trees.
Pesticides
Causes

Over-use of pesticides on agricultural land (e.g. to

protect a crop from insects) or directly on water
(e.g. to kill an aquatic stage of an insect) can raise DDT concentration in parts per million:
pesticide levels in water. The pesticide levels are
then amplified as they pass through food chains.
For example, one stickleback may consume 500
Daphnia. The living matter in the Daphnia will
be used for raw materials or lost as heat but Water Plankton Daphnia Stickleback Grebe
the pesticide remains concentrated in the 0.02 5 50 250 1500
tissues of the stickleback.

Effects Solutions

High concentrations of pesticides may accumulate in the Use degradable pesticides – DDT, for example, lasts for a long time and so
tissues of top carnivores. The pesticide may be toxic (and its use is banned in many countries.
kill the carnivore) or may affect its metabolism. DDT, used Explore alternative methods, such as biological pest control.
to control mosquitoes in malarial zones, severely reduced Crops that are genetically modified to resist attack by insects may reduce
breeding success in birds of prey. the need to use insecticides.

Q
Female contraceptive hormones
1 Scientists in Japan recently discovered a bacterium which are washed into water when
can digest plastic. excreted in urine. They:
Explain ■ reduce sperm count in men
a how this bacterium might have evolved ■ Iead to feminisation of
b how scientists might be able to increase the amount aquatic organisms (causing
imbalance of gender in fish
of this organism so that it could be used to degrade
populations, for example).
plastics.

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20.5 Pollution of water:

eutrophication
S OBJECTIVES How fertilisers and sewage affect
■ To recall why water is important to living organisms the oxygen concentration
■ To understand that water supplies oxygen to living Water that contains few nutrients is rich in
oxygen and supports a wide variety of living
organisms
organisms. The oxygen enters the water
■ To know how excess nutrients in water lead to depletion from the atmosphere by diffusion and from
of oxygen levels photosynthesising aquatic plants. Simpler
■ To recall other aspects of water pollution forms of life, such as algae and bacteria, are
controlled because the low concentration of
The causes of oxygen depletion nutrients such as nitrate is a limiting factor
All living organisms depend on a supply of water, for their growth. If more nutrients are made
as we saw on page 256. Many organisms actually available, from fertiliser runoff or from sewage,
then:
live in water. Most of these aquatic organisms
■ Algae and other surface plants grow very
respire aerobically and so require oxygen from rapidly, and block out light to plants rooted
their environment. Any change that alters the on the bottom of the river or pond.
amount of oxygen in the water can seriously ■ The rooted plants die, and their bodies
affect the suitability of the water as a habitat. The provide even more nutrients.
two pollutants that most often reduce oxygen in ■ The population of bacteria increases rapidly.

water are: As they multiply, the bacteria consume

oxygen for aerobic respiration. There is now
■ Fertilisers – nitrates and phosphates are
a biological oxygen demand (or BOD) in
added to soil by farmers (see page 266). Some
the water because of oxygen consumed by
of the fertiliser is washed from the soil by these microbes.
rain into the nearest pond, lake or river. This ■ Other living creatures cannot obtain enough
process is called leaching. oxygen. They must leave the area, if they
■ Sewage – this contains an excellent source of can, or they will die. Their bodies provide
organic food for bacteria, and also contains even more food for bacteria, and the
phosphates from detergents (see page 58). situation becomes even worse. This is an
example of positive feedback – the change
from ideal conditions causes an even greater
change from ideal conditions.
Sea water can also be polluted!
Marine environments are affected by human activities: The lower diagram opposite shows what
■ spillages of oil which can seriously reduce oxygen happens if a pond or river receives too
levels on the seabed as well as reducing many nutrients. The process is called
waterproofing properties of seabirds’ feathers eutrophication. The pond or river soon
■ radioactive compounds from cooling of nuclear becomes depleted of living organisms. Only
power stations a few animals, such as Tubifex (sewage
■ temperature changes caused by global warming. worms), can respire at the very low oxygen
concentrations that are available. The solution
to this problem is straightforward – do not
allow excess nutrients into the water.
Q
1 Detergents often contain phospholipid, which can be broken down to release phosphate. Use this information to
explain why we should not use too much detergent and soap when washing clothes, cooking vessels and ourselves!
2 Explain the difference between negative and positive feedback.
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 ORGANISMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT

S A well-balanced natural pond or river

Populations of algae and bacteria are

limited by low levels of nutrients.

Invertebrates and fish can

Light penetrates to
obtain enough oxygen
rooted plants which
for aerobic respiration.
photosynthesise,
producing oxygen.

A nutrient-enriched pond or river

Leaching of inorganic
Farmyard runoff fertilisers from farmland
Soluble nitrate
and phosphate

Input of raw sewage

Algae and green protoctists
use nutrients to multiply
rapidly – algal bloom.

Die Reduction of light for

bottom-growing plants
Aerobic organisms Positive feedback Large quantities of
(fish and invertebrates) organic material Die
die from lack of oxygen.

Aerobic decomposers
(mainly bacteria)
multiply and
consume oxygen.

Biological oxygen demand (BOD) is the mass

of oxygen consumed by microorganisms in a sample of water.
Many garden ponds become eutrophic because of It is determined by measuring oxygen concentration with an
leaves falling into them in autumn. To improve oxygen electrode before and after a period of microbial
conditions for fish, ponds should be sited well away respiration. It shows the oxygen that is not available to
from overhanging trees. more advanced organisms.

Causes of eutrophication Effects Solutions

Unnaturally high levels of nutrients: Depleted oxygen levels in water Treat sewage before it enters rivers (see page 282).
from leaching of fertilisers cause death of fish and most Prevent farmyard drainage entering rivers and ponds.
from input of raw sewage invertebrates. High nitrate levels Control use of fertilisers:
from liquid manure (slurry) can be dangerous to human – apply only when crops are growing
washed out of farmyards. babies. – never apply to bare fields
– do not apply when rain is forecast
– do not dispose of waste fertiliser into rivers and ponds.
Bubble a stream of air through badly polluted ponds.

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20.6 Humans can have a positive

effect on the environment:
conservation of species
OBJECTIVES
We must aim for sustainable development.
■ To understand that humans may have a This means that we should not alter our environment so much
that we take things away and harm the environment for future
beneficial effect on the environment generations. We should still provide for the needs of an
■ To realise that conservation often involves compromise increasing population.
■ To understand a conservation strategy
■ To know some examples of successful conservation Endangered species
Competition between humans and other living
Humans do not always damage the environment – organisms means that many species have
growing numbers of conservationists try to disappeared or declined in number. The reasons
balance the human demands on the environment for this are not always understood, but the
with the need to maintain wildlife habitat. They following may be to blame:
will try to assess the likely effects of any human ■ Pest control – the term pest includes any
activity by producing an Environmental Impact species that causes inconvenience to humans.
Statement. Many species have been hunted ruthlessly,
such as red deer (which damage trees), and
Forest management also predators such as cheetahs, and scavengers
Humans have been responsible for deforestation such as vultures.
of much of the Earth’s surface. Humans have ■ Commercial exploitation – species of value to
also set up schemes for the large-scale planting humans have been exploited, such as the tiger
of trees – in areas that have been cleared which has been hunted and trapped for fur and
(reforestation) or in a new site (afforestation). medicinal compounds.
■ Loss of habitat – more land is being used for
There are a number of reasons for planting trees:
agriculture, including previously unusable land
■ as a cash crop, providing timber for building
that has been drained. This removes habitats
(coniferous plantations in the UK) or for fuel
for many species, such as wading birds and
(fast-growing eucalyptus trees are widely amphibians.
planted in central Africa) ■ Climate change – loss of ice from the Arctic
■ to reverse soil erosion, particularly valuable in reduces hunting sites for polar bears.
areas that have become deserts ■ Pollution – ponds and rivers may be polluted
■ to provide valuable wildlife habitats – for by fertilisers and sewage. Many oxygen-
example, Scots pine plantations are important requiring species can be lost (see page 275).
habitats for red squirrels ■ Introduced species – predators such as stoats
■ as recreational areas, providing leisure activities and weasels introduced to offshore islands can
such as camping and mountain-biking. eliminate ground-nesting birds.
Conservationists work to slow down or stop the
A well-managed forest can combine all of these decline in biodiversity (the number of different
functions and maintain this valuable resource. species), and also to raise public awareness of the
need to maintain species and their habitats. The
A sustainable resource is one which is produced as rapidly as number of different species in a community of
it is removed from the environment, so that it does not run out. living organisms can be described by a formula
called the Species Diversity Index.
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 ORGANISMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT

Conservation programmes Captive breeding and the role of zoos

Conservation involves management of an area, Many animal species are threatened by habitat
and may include a number of strategies: degradation, fragmentation and destruction. The
■ Preservation – keeping some part of the International Union for Conservation of Nature
environment unchanged. This might be (IUCN) estimates that only 3% of the planet is
possible in Antarctica, but is less significant in designated as a protected reserve and that, on
a densely populated area like Britain than … average, one mammal, bird or reptile species has
■ Reclamation – the restoration of damaged been lost each year for the last hundred years.
habitats such as replacing hedgerows or Certain groups of species are particularly at risk –
recovering former industrial sites, and … those with a restricted distribution, those of high
■ Creation – producing new habitats, for example economic value, those at the top of food chains
by digging a garden pond, or planting a forest. and those which breed very slowly.

A conservation plan involves several stages: Zoos are areas of confinement keeping samples of
■ sampling to assess the number of organisms species alive under varying degrees of captivity.
■ devising a management plan – for example, The role of zoos in captive breeding is becoming
trying to increase a species’ population based more and more important. For example, the
on knowledge of its breeding requirements Arabian oryx had been hunted to extinction in the
■ carrying out the plan wild but zoos in London, San Diego and Phoenix
■ re-sampling to assess the number of the have provided animals to release in Oman and
‘conserved’ species once more, and find out Jordan.
whether the conservation plan has worked. Education can help.
■ Local people can be taught about the tourist
As populations decrease in size, genetic variation
value of conserving species.
(see page 228) is reduced and a species may
■ Students can be taught about keeping complex
become more vulnerable to environmental change.
food webs and about the management of
habitats.
Conservation programmes are needed:
■ to reduce the risk of extinction
■ to protect vulnerable environments Plants need help too: the value of
i
■ to provide valuable resources, such as food, drugs, fuel
seed banks.
and genes.
■ Seeds can survive for long periods in a dormant
state (see page 184).
■ Seeds of threatened plant species can be collected
and stored – usually in cool, dry conditions.
■ Conditions can be manipulated to stimulate
germination of seeds when more plants are required.

Sustainable development is a compromise.

■ Requirements for wildlife must be balanced by human
demands for resources (e.g. mining for uranium),
recreation (e.g. diving around coral reefs) and agricultural
land.
■ Different organisations – local, national and international –
must cooperate (see page 280).

Q
1 Many plants contain chemical compounds not normally found in animals.
Explain why it is important that scientists try to conserve individual plant species before development of roads,
housing and agriculture might eliminate them. Include an example in your explanation.

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20.7 Managing fish stocks: science

and the fishing industry
OBJECTIVES Setting of quotas
Governments set quotas in an attempt to limit the
■ To understand the value of fish as a food source
size of catches. Unfortunately, scientists now believe
■ To know how fishing methods increase yield
that initial quotas for some species were too high,
■ To understand how overfishing has reduced fish stocks
and even the reduced quotas now in force have not
■ To appreciate that the management of fish stocks
allowed fish populations to recover. The fishermen
depends on scientific research
are tempted to catch more than their quota but
to throw back the smaller, less marketable fish.
Fish as a source of food
These fish are often damaged by capture and do not
Fish have been a valuable food source for humans
survive to reproduce.
for thousands of years. Fish are an excellent
source of protein and, depending on species, As with many situations, there are no clear-cut
of oils. Scientists are becoming more aware of answers. Fishermen understand that fish stocks
the value of fish oils in preventing some of the must be allowed to recover but are naturally anxious
‘diseases of affluence’, such as coronary heart about making a living. The scientists can only
disease (see page 106). It is very important advise, the governments must act on this advice!
that humans include certain oily compounds Restocking
(especially unsaturated fatty acids) in their diet, Fish can be bred in very large numbers in
and these oily compounds are extremely abundant enclosures, either in the sea or in lakes. These
in some fish species. fish can be grown to a size at which they can be
successfully released to replenish wild populations.
Steps taken to conserve fish stocks
Seine (‘purse-seine’) netting – the net is towed to the school
Education
of herring by two boats. The fish are surrounded by the net and
Through knowledge of the growth pattern of the bottom of the ‘purse’ is sealed by pulling on the rope. The
individual fish, it is possible to study small groups net is slowly tightened so that the fish are concentrated in a
small volume of water - the immature fish have time to escape.
of fish to work out how long they take to reach The captured fish are lifted from the water using hand nets -
breeding age, what their maximum size will be this limits the damage to the fish and so reduces wastage.
and which diseases they might be susceptible to.
This allows scientists to advise on net mesh sizes
which should be used to catch adult fish, and to
suggest fishing methods which will limit the catch
float line
of ‘trash’ fish (fish which are not used for human
food). Fishing methods and mesh sizes used in
herring fishing are shown opposite.

Q
1 Tilapia is a fish which can be ‘grown’ in fish farms.
Suggest
a why this is more financially sensible in tropical
purse line
countries
Mesh – square mesh does not close up to trap small fish
b three benefits of having Tilapia in the diet
whereas older diamond mesh did.

120 mm mesh size catches mature herring but allows small cod
and haddock to escape.
278
▲ Mesh and methods used in herring fishing
 ORGANISMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT

Fish farming can provide food or may be used for restocking the wild.

Suspended net keeps out Prepared food fed to the fish

aerial predators such as Pellets are easily transported and easily measured out.
cormorant, heron and osprey. Usually made from fish caught in nets but not used for
human consumption – very high in protein (gives rapid
growth) but very expensive.
May include colouring agent (turns fish pink – favoured a
by consumers) and antibiotic (disease control).

Hanging net
Keeps out aquatic predators such as otter and pike.
Keeps out other fish and so reduces competition for
the pelleted food.

Species – the ‘farmed’ species must:

grow well under captive conditions
accept prepared (non-living) food
have a highconversion ratio, i.e. convert food flesh
efficiently
ideally be able to breed under captive conditions
not be particularly susceptible to disease.
It is usually expensive to farm fish so the product should
command a high price. For this reason, the main farmed species
in Britain are members of the salmon family, with tilapia or sea
bream more common in tropical countries.
Disease control – close
confinement makes diseases
more likely to spread. Fry production
Pesticides are added to water Fish are often spawned in aquaria using added reproductive
to control fish lice and fungal hormones.
infections, and antibiotics are Temperature is controlled while fry are ‘grown on’ (higher
added to food. temperature gives rapid growth). Oxygen levels are kept
high with aerators. Growth hormones may be added to water.
Fry of uniform size are released into the farming pens, before
'growing on' for release into the wild. This reduces the
chance of the fish eating each other!
Age for harvesting

Problems Environmental concerns

Very high food costs. Pollution by pesticides which
Poor control of temperature may kill organisms that are
and oxygen availability in foods for wild species.
Mass

large outdoor farming pens. Excess food and fish faeces

Much more research necessary create nutrient-rich Harvest at this point–
to obtain highest yields – environment below netted fish still have high
selective breeding programmes area growth of bacterial conversion ratio so cost
to develop new fish varieties population increased of production has been
with improved growth rates biological oxygen demand. kept to a minimum.
and conversion ratios. Age

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20.8 Conservation efforts worldwide

Although the demands on land – for
agriculture, mining and building – are CITES Convention for Trade in Endangered Species:
increasing in almost every country around the controls the transfer of wildlife and wildlife
products between member countries.
world, many scientists are trying to maintain
IUCN International Union for the Conservation of
biodiversity by managing the populations Nature.
of endangered species. This management is Red Data Book Lists all species at risk: includes categories such as
always a compromise, because humans usually ‘vulnerable’, ‘endangered’ and ‘critically
endangered’. Updated twice each year.
place their own requirements above those of WWF Worldwide Fund for Nature: organisation which
wildlife. As a result, the conservation managers attracts public funding for conservation projects.
must be prepared to plan to balance the needs rare A species limited to a few areas but in no
immediate danger.
of local people with the scientists’ long-term
vulnerable A species which is likely to become endangered if
plans to conserve individual species. the causes of its decline continue.
endangered A species which is unlikely to survive if the causes
of its decline continue.
extinct A species for which there have been no confirmed
sightings for 50 years.

Some examples of species conservation

are outlined on the map on the
opposite page. In each case, note that
there is a reason why the species is
endangered. There is also a suggested
management plan to try to maintain
a breeding population of the species
under threat. Also see the importance
▲ Egrets have suffered for many years as they
were shot for their feathers. Conservation of scientific research into the biology of
measures mean that the cattle egret is species, particularly into the breeding
beginning to breed successfully, even in the UK. requirements of endangered species.

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT REQUIRES MANAGEMENT OF CONFLICTING DEMANDS

HUMANS and WILDLIFE

Reduce risk of extinction

Require sufficient land by over-hunting.
area to grow crops.

Maintain population size

high enough to maintain
Livestock must be genetic variation.
protected from
predators.
Protect suitable habitat,
which must provide food,
PLANNING AND COOPERATION AT DIFFERENT LEVELS shelter and breeding sites.
local: farmers, for example
national: government regulations
international: conservation bodies such as WWF
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 ORGANISMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT

Poison dart frogs in Central America Tigers in Sumatra, Siberia and India Snow leopard in Pakistan and Nepal
a Loss of habitat, due to deforestation a Hunting for fur, bones, teeth and blood which a Hunting for fur, bones, teeth and
and drainage of wetlands. are used in Chinese traditional medicines. blood which are used in some
b A series of viral and fungal diseases. b Competition for land with villagers, who cannot traditional medicines.
afford to lose livestock to predation by the tigers. b Conflict with villagers, who cannot
Setting up protected areas, with
In some areas, tigers can pose a direct threat to afford to lose livestock to predation
buffer zones to prevent the spread
humans as they are such powerful predators. by the leopards.
of contagious diseases. Education
programmes which emphasise that Setting up protected areas such as fenced Snow leopard populations are carefully
amphibians are often a good sanctuaries, conservation areas and intensive monitored by cameras set on
indicator of the ‘health’ of our protection zones, especially in National Parks. established trails. Some animal
planet. Research into disease, and Trade in tiger products is banned by CITES. movements can also be tracked using
into the breeding success of these Tiger populations in the wild have fallen so radio collars. Government bodies
animals. dramatically that captive breeding (see page 277) provide financial compensation to
is now responsible for keeping up numbers of villagers, and set up education
most subspecies. programmes which show local people
the possible benefits of eco-tourism.

165 150 135 120 105 90 75 60 45 30 15 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180
11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 12 11

Arctic Ocean Arctic Ocean

75

45

North North North

Pacific Atlantic Pacific
Ocean Ocean Ocean
IRAN
30

15

South Pacific
–15
Ocean
South
Atlantic
Indian
Ocean
Ocean
–30

–45

Sun Sun Sun Sun

1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 24:00 00:00 1:00
11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 12 11

THINK LOCAL! Cheetahs in Namibia Elephants in Botswana Rhinoceros in Africa

Answer questions on conservation a Loss of habitat causes a Poaching of adults for a Loss of habitat as
programmes with examples from where competition with local ivory: apart from death agricultural development
you live. people, who believe that of individuals this upsets increases.
Remember: cheetahs kill domestic family relationships so b Hunting for horn, which
say why the species is endangered livestock. that younger elephants is mistakenly believed to
explain how the species may be b Hunting for fur. do not learn survival have medicinal properties.
conserved. c The cheetahs’ own skills and whole
Setting up protected areas
breeding habits, and populations are put at
such as fenced sanctuaries
low genetic variability. risk.
and intensive protection
b Animals may be shot if
Trusts have been set up zones especially in
▲ Worldwide conservation programmes to look after and
they trample crops or
National Parks. Surplus
damage fences in villages.
rehabilitate cheetahs animals have been
trapped on farmland. Game wardens can be translocated to set up
CITES has banned trade paid for by the tourist new populations within
in fur of spotted cats. industry. Some people and outside the species'
Breeding studies have argue that controlled former range. Controlled
learned more about the ‘trophy’ hunting can sport hunting of surplus
unusual breeding provide funds to warden males, for example,
requirements of cheetah the populations more attracts investment in
(several males must effectively. Trade in ivory rhino conservation. Trade
‘court’ a female for her is banned by CITES, or in rhino products is
to become receptive) so very closely controlled banned by CITES.
captive breeding has by government
become more reliable. organisations.
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20.9 Conservation of resources:

recycling water by the
treatment of sewage
OBJECTIVES ■ The sewage can overflow, especially during
rainy periods. This allows faeces, perhaps
■ To recall that pathogens cause disease only when they
contaminated with human pathogens, to reach
gain access to body tissues
water supplies and agricultural land. The
■ To recognise that food and water are possible means of sewage (and pathogens) can be washed down
entry to body tissues through the soil and contaminate nearby
■ To understand the processes involved in the provision of water supplies.
a safe water supply Where a good water supply is available, a flush
WC is connected to the water carriage system
Limiting the spread of diseases and a flow of water carries the waste away.
Pathogenic microbes can only cause disease if they
are able to enter the body and invade the tissues.
The body has defences against disease, but there
are a number of weaknesses (see page 110). For Water trap (stops
example, food and water may contain pathogenic smell from sewer
microbes. Salmonella and Escherichia coli (E. coli), entering house)
which cause food poisoning, enter the body in this flush pipe

way, and so do Cholera vibrio and Amoeba which

Unpleasant smells
are waterborne organisms causing cholera and
dysentery, respectively. We try to protect ourselves pipe to sewer
from these diseases by making sure our drinking
water, milk and foods are pathogen-free. ▲ Diagram of a lavatory pan or water closet (W.C.)
Water is flushed around the rim, down the sides, and
Safe water: sanitation and water through the U-bend. Water retained in the U-bend seals off
treatment smells from the sewer.
Living organisms need water for a number of
reasons (see page 256). Water can be lost very The waste is then treated at a sewage treatment
rapidly from the human body and we need access plant so that the valuable water can be recycled.
to a supply of drinking water. Water supplies are
S The page opposite shows one type of sewage
kept potable (pathogen-free and drinkable) by
treatment plant called the activated sludge system.
both sanitation and by sewage treatment.
The treatment of the sewage has two functions:
Sanitation is the removal of faeces from waste
water so that any pathogens they contain cannot ■ to destroy or eliminate potential pathogens –
infect drinking water. either by the high temperature in the anaerobic
digestion tank, or by chlorination of the water
Pit latrine before it is discharged
In camps and in isolated houses sewage can be ■ to remove organic compounds (mainly in
disposed of in a hole. The hole is dug deep enough faeces and urine). These might otherwise
to accept a large quantity of sewage (ideally contribute to the biological oxygen demand
several metres deep), and then filled in with soil (BOD – see page 274) of the water into which
to keep away flies and rats. This type of disposal the treated sewage is discharged. Organic
system – called a ‘long drop’ or pit latrine – is compounds are digested by fungi and bacteria.
cheap to produce and does not depend on running
water, but has several disadvantages: In the activated sludge chamber, powerful jets of
air keep the sludge aerated so that the processes of
■ The smell can be extremely unpleasant,
decomposition and nitrification (see page 254) can
especially in tropical areas.
282 be completed in 8–12 hours. This means that large
quantities of sewage can be processed very quickly.
 ORGANISMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT

S Sewage treatment provides clean water by a combination of physical and biological methods
*

First settlement tank allows

suspended solids to precipitate as
Sewage input Screening uses a coarse metal
crude sewage sludge (the process is Aerobic digestion
contains water, faeces, grid to remove floating debris
sometimes speeded up by the addition uses bacteria and fungi
urine, detergents, grit such as sticks, paper, nappies
of FeCl3) so that suspended solids and to convert organic
and sundry household and rags – these might
dissolved solutes can be treated compounds to simple,
items, and potential otherwise block pumps and
separately. inorganic forms.
pathogens! pipes.

Effluent

Sedimentation allows grit

to settle – this would
otherwise damage the
pumps that move the
sewage through the plant. Activated sludge

Air jets

Sludge
Second settlement tank
allows any remaining
suspended solids to precipitate
– the remaining effluent now
has a much lower BOD and a
minimal pathogen count so
that it can be discharged into
natural waterways.
Digested sludge may be:
dried and sold as fertiliser
To river, sea
used to promote
or reservoir
decomposition of waste
in landfill sites
dumped at sea
incinerated.

Anaerobic digestion of sewage sludge involves several stages: Methane produced during Key
1 A wide range of microbes hydrolyse: anaerobic digestion is burned to:
fats fatty acids power pumps and other Physical methods
proteins amino acids machinery in the plant
carbohydrates sugars raise the temperature in the Biological methods
2 … and then produce methane. anaerobic digester to 55°C –
If these processes are not carefully regulated (they are, for example, this kills pathogens and speeds
sensitive to pH changes) they become inefficient and very smelly! up the digestion process.

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20.10 Saving fossil fuels: fuel from

fermentation
OBJECTIVES
Solid fuel using natural woodland causes environmental
■ To recall that microbes carry out fermentation reactions problems but there are alternatives
■ To appreciate that fermentation products may be used
as fuel rather than as food Natural woodland – live cutting:
■ To list examples of fuels generated by microbial see deforestation (page 270).
fermentation reactions

Fermentations make products which can be

used as fuel. Biomass fuels use raw materials
produced by photosynthesis. These materials are
from plants and can therefore be regenerated.
Biomass fuels include: Fallen, dead wood: lesser
environmental problem, but still
■ solid fuels – wood, charcoal and vegetable loss of habitat and nutrients.

waste
Fast-growing tree species may provide renewable fuel
■ liquid fuels – alcohol and vegetable oil e.g. eucalyptus in the Democratic Republic of the Congo …
■ gaseous fuel – biogas (a methane/carbon
dioxide mixture).

The production of these biomass fuels is described Erect, regular growth habit means
easy cutting and storing.
in the diagrams on the right: this can help to reduce Rapid growth – 8 m in 3 years.
our use of fossil fuels, which are non-renewable. High resin/oil content means it is clean-
burning, giving out much heat.
Q
1 What is a biomass fuel? What advantages might the … and sweet chestnut from coppices in Kent may fuel local
power stations.
use of biomass fuels offer?
2 What are the environmental benefits of fast-growing
tree species? Sustainable forests
3 Look at the diagram opposite.
Using wood as fuel contributes to
a Suggest three products which could be sold, apart
from the alcohol produced. deforestation (see page 270), but:
b Both amylase and cellulase are involved in the
■ selective felling (only a small proportion
preparation of the glucose feedstock for a
gasohol generator. Suggest the exact function of
of trees are cut down) is better than clear
these enzymes. felling – less erosion and more wildlife
c How has genetic engineering helped the gasohol habitats
industry? ■ replanting can replace clear-felled trees,
d A typical American car travels 10 000 miles a year but tends to be a monoculture (see page
at 15 m.p.g. This consumes the alcohol generated
284) and is a poor wildlife habitat
by the fermentation of 5000 kg of grain. A human
on a subsistence diet consumes about 200 kg of
■ education can explain the benefits of
grain per year. Comment on these figures. forests, particularly in terms of tourism.
4 Give two benefits that biogas generators offer to Local people can be introduced to
rural communities in poor countries. alternative fuels (see biogas opposite).
5 Why are biogas generators built underground?
6 Why would it be inefficient to add disinfected
household waste to the biogas generator?

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 ORGANISMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT

S Liquid fuel - ethanol NB

The raw material is called feedstock Raw material is cheap and readily available.
Enzymes are involved at several stages.
USA uses Corn Brazil uses Sugar cane Waste products may be sold.
Soak (then use Less reliance on expensive petrochemicals,
Wash and a diminishing resource.
the liquid as crush
cattle feed)
Seed Cane pulp
Grind – separates Enzymes Separation – waste is
germ, producing amylases and bagasse. This is burned,
corn oil cellulases giving energy for distillation
Starch Syrup

Purification – impure
Enzymatic hydrolysis
sucrose solution
uses amylase
(molasses) cattle feed

fermentation
C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2
(glucose) (alcohol)

Fermentation agent Fuel value of gasohol Environmental impact

the yeast Saccharomyces. start engine on high alcohol fuels do not require
Useful mutants/engineered strains can: petrol/alcohol mixture ‘anti-knock’ additives
cope with high temperatures generated during fermentation once warm, engine runs alcohol fuels produce fewer
survive at higher alcohol concentrations (up to 15%, compared well on alcohol alone. emissions such as CO, SO2 and NO
with 8 –9% for ‘normal’ strains) process does not increase CO2 in
respire anaerobically even when O2 is present. atmosphere (photosynthesis of
feedstock removes the CO2 which
is generated by combustion).

Gas supply
Benefits of biogas to home What are ideal conditions?
Cheap – using surplus materials Temperature of 20–30°C:
Disposes of human waste fermentation rate doubles per 10°C rise
Reduces landfill problems Anaerobic conditions:
Reduces use of other sources oxygen is toxic to methanogenic bacteria
of power Underground position low O22/stable temperature

Discharged slurry
Inlet Strengthening Outlet
used as manure
Ground level

Concrete
inlet pipe
Input contains large 3m
molecules from plant
and animal waste. Plaster

Fermentation by microbes Soil

protein

2.70 m

fats methane
+ Biogas
Several stages carried out by carbon dioxide
different bacteria
carbohydrates
carbon dioxide
+
water

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20.11 Recycling: management of

solid waste
OBJECTIVES Human refuse contains such items as metals, plastic bags, glass,
remains of food and ash. This refuse must not be allowed to
■ To recall that humans produce accumulate because:
many waste materials
■ It is inconvenient, and gets in the way of people, their
■ To understand that human wastes
vehicles and their animals.
may become food for disease
■ It is unpleasant to look at.
vectors
■ It could act as a breeding ground for organisms which
■ To appreciate that there are
different ways of disposal of transmit disease.
human refuse To prevent refuse (rubbish) from building up it can be delivered to
■ To understand the benefits of refuse tips, landfill sites or incinerators. The refuse disposal sites
recycling are normally sited away from residential areas, and surrounded
by fences to stop rubbish blowing away and prevent children from
playing in them. Two alternative ways of disposing of the refuse
– incineration and landfill – are described on page 114. Each of
these methods has the advantage that it can provide energy, and so
reduce our use of fossil fuels.

Recycling
Recycling involves reusing waste products or materials which
would otherwise be thrown away. This includes reusing items in
their original form and sending materials away to special centres
where they can be melted down or pulped to act as raw materials
in industry.
Items that can be reused include:
■ glass milk or soft drink bottles
■ plastic shopping bags
■ paper that has only been written on one side
■ clothes
… and materials that can be pulped or melted down include:
■ glass bottles
■ aluminium cans
■ plastic bottles
■ paper and card
■ scrap metal.

Plastic bottles can be melted and reused in clothing, for

example!
S Non-biodegradable plastics cannot be broken down by natural
biological processes. They may accumulate and are a danger to
fish, birds and mammals (see page 273). If they can be collected
they may be recycled.

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 ORGANISMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT

Recycling can make scarce resources last for longer, and can reduce
the energy requirements of industry. It takes only 5% of the energy
to make an aluminium can from recycled aluminium than from
aluminium ore. People and companies will only recycle, however, if:
■ their products are cheaper than if they don’t use recycling
■ governments give subsidies for manufacturing products from
recycled materials.

S Recycling of paper
Paper is one of the easiest materials to recycle. It is collected from
our kerbside or recycling banks by local authorities and waste
management companies.
After the paper is collected there are several steps in the recycling
process.
■ First it is sorted, graded and delivered to a paper mill. As it is
sorted, contaminants such as plastic, metal, and other rubbish that
may have been collected with the paper are removed.
■ Once at the paper mill, it is added to water and then turned into
pulp.
■ The paper is then screened, cleaned and de-inked through a
number of processes until it is suitable for papermaking. Cleaning
and de-inking may use hazardous chemicals: hydrogen peroxide
is often used to help bleach the paper when dark inks are present.
■ Once the pulp has been rinsed, it is spread onto large flat racks,
and rollers press the water out of the pulp. As it dries, new paper
forms.
■ It is then ready to be made into new paper products such as
newsprint, cardboard, packaging, tissue and office items.

It can take just seven days for a newspaper to go through the

recycling process and be transformed into recycled newsprint which
is used to make the majority of national daily newspapers.

Q
Both paper and plastic can be recycled.
1 Suggest why it is important to recycle
a paper
b plastic.
2 Suggest how bacteria and fungi might be important in the recycling of these materials.

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 Questions on human impacts
ORGANISMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT

on ecosystems
1 This figure shows the causes of severe food
shortages in the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s.
1980s 1990s 2000s

14% 20% 27%

natural
disasters 73%
86% 80%

2%
11%
27%
result of
human
action 73%
The results of this investigation are shown in the
98% 89%
table below.

Industrial area Agricultural area

Key sudden onset slow onset
economic factors war and conflict Light form Dark form Light form Dark form
Number
250 450 500 480
a i State two types of natural disaster that released
occur suddenly and may lead to severe Number
34 125 108 25
food shortages. [2] recaptured
ii State one type of natural disaster that Percentage
13.6 21.6
may take several years to develop. [1] recaptured
b Explain how the increase in the human
population may contribute to severe food a Calculate the percentage of recaptured ‘dark’
shortages. [2] moths in the two different areas. [2]
b Explain the results for the survival of the
The quality and quantity of food available two forms of the moth. [4]
worldwide has been improved by artificial c A government decision has been taken to
selection (selective breeding) and genetic reduce the release of smoke from industrial
engineering. sites. Suggest and explain the possible effect
c Use a named example to outline how on the population of peppered moths in
artificial selection is used to improve the these industrial areas. [2]
quantity or quality of food. [2] d State the genus of the peppered moth. [1]
d Define the term genetic engineering. [1]
3 Read the following paragraph carefully and
2 The peppered moth (Biston betularia) lives then answer questions (a) to (d).
in woodlands. It rests on the lichen-covered Between 1947 and 1963 hedges in the United
bark of trees during the daytime. The moth Kingdom were being removed at an average rate
is usually lightly covered in speckles, so that of over 5000 km per year. This increased to more
it appears grey (the ‘light’ form). A few are so than 8000 km per year by 1968.
heavily speckled that they appear black (the A report by a government conservation body
‘dark’ form). claimed that between 1980 and 1985, 8000 km
Several small species of birds feed on the of hedgerow were removed and 4000 km were
moths during the daytime. planted in England and Wales.
A group of scientists released some moths into Older hedges usually provide a richer range
two different areas. After 72 hours, the moths of habitats, with greater diversity of plants
were recaptured and counted. and animals.
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 ORGANISMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT

Both during and after the Second World War, f Suggest two important minerals required
farmers were encouraged to grow more food, by crop plants. State why each of them
with greater efficiency and at lower cost. is important. [4]
On one farm with small fields, removing 2 km of
hedgerow provided another 1.5 hectares of arable 4 A scientist noticed that some plants were never
land and reduced by 35% the amount of time bothered by insects. He was interested in
needed to harvest a field of wheat. whether the plants contained their own natural
Towards the end of the 20th century, the insecticide. He ground up the plants so that he
European Union was paying large subsidies to could collect the natural insecticide which he
farmers to store excess agricultural produce. thought was soluble in water.
Farmers are now encouraged by the European a Describe a technique the scientist might use
Union to grow less food. to separate the dissolved insecticide from
a State the highest average removal of hedges the crushed-up remains of the plant. [2]
in the UK before 1969. [1] He thought that the juice would be able
b If that rate of removal continued, suggest to kill insects and decided to try to find
i the likely effect on the variety of wild out whether spraying a greater volume of
animals and plants in the countryside [1] pesticide juice would kill larger numbers
ii the effect on the amount of arable land of insects.
available for farming. [1] b Suggest what his hypothesis would be, and
c Suggest why it is less important to gain what prediction he might make. [2]
additional arable land now than during and To carry out this investigation, the scientist
immediately after the Second World War. [1] and his team of workers made up a number of
d More efficient farming often involves different concentrations of the natural pesticide
monoculture. and then sprayed the insecticide solutions onto
Suggest two advantages and two a series of plants. Each plant was of the same
disadvantages of monoculture. [4] species and each plant had 100 aphids (small
Read the following and then answer questions insects which feed on the phloem contents)
(e) and (f). feeding on it. The team kept all of the plants in
A Hedges provide an important habitat for the same room and later counted how many
animals which can help with pollination aphids were alive after 24 hours.
and biological control. c Name the independent variable in this
B Hedges shade part of the crop which can investigation. [1]
reduce yields. d Name the dependent variable. [1]
C Hedges can provide a home for insect pests e Explain why the team of scientists believed
and rabbits. that the results were valid. [2]
D Hedges are an attractive feature in the The table below shows the results obtained.
countryside. Concentration
E Hedges make it more difficult to use of insecticide
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 100
modern farm machinery. / g per 1000
F Hedges can compete with crop plants for dm3
minerals and water. Number of
G Many farmworkers are needed to maintain aphids alive 99 97 96 95 55 40 25 20 21 20
hedges properly. after 24 h
H Hedges provide a windbreak and shelter
f Draw a line graph of these results. [4]
and shade for farm animals.
g State the concentration of insecticide needed
I Hedges help to prevent topsoil blowing
to kill 50% of the aphids. [2]
away.
h Explain whether the results support the
J Hedges provide cover for gamebirds such
original prediction made by the scientist. [2]
as pheasants and partridges.
e Choose five statements from this list to
support a case for retaining hedges. [5]

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ORGANISMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT

5 Flatmill Lake is a lake in East Anglia in the UK. 6 The red squirrel is a small rodent which
Water flows into the lake from the River Bure, feeds largely on pine cones. Two ecologists
and the lake is surrounded by farmland which were interested in the conservation of the red
slopes down towards it. squirrel, and particularly in the reasons for its
decline in number. They studied the number of
0 2 km
deaths of red squirrels in a large sampling area.
The data in the table refer to the number of
deaths in one year.
Sewage Month Number of Month Number of
treatment works
deaths deaths
River Bure Jan 22 Jul 10
Feb 29 Aug 12
Flatmill Lake
Mar 32 Sep 10
Apr 20 Oct 22
Norwich May 14 Nov 26

In recent years there has been a large increase Jun 17 Dec 36

in the concentration of nitrates and phosphate a Plot this data as a bar chart. [4]
in the waters of the lake. b Calculate the total number of deaths in this
a Suggest how these chemicals reached year. [1]
the lake. [2] c In which two months did most deaths
b High levels of nitrate and phosphate can occur? Suggest why. [2]
have unwelcome effects on the lake. Some of d The scientists believed that the maximum
these changes are described in the following population existed in August (the young
statements. are born in April–May). They sampled
State the correct order of these changes. the population, using the mark–recapture
A Nitrates and phosphates are minerals method, and obtained the following data.
essential for the growth of algae.
Number in first Number in Number of
B Fish die due to lack of dissolved oxygen.
sample, marked second sample marked animals
C Large amounts of oxygen are consumed and released in second
as populations of bacteria increase. sample
D Nitrates and phosphates pollute 100 80 25
the water.
Calculate the total population size at the time
E Water becomes green and cloudy as
of the sample. [2]
populations of algae increase.
e The population of red squirrels in Britain
F Dissolved oxygen concentrations
has fallen rapidly over the last century.
fall rapidly.
They are protected under the Wildlife and
G Many algae die and provide nutrients for
Countryside Act, so cannot legally be killed
decay bacteria. [6]
by humans. Grey squirrels do not enjoy the
same protection. Suggest two measures
which could be taken to increase the
number of red squirrels. [2]

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 ORGANISMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT

7 The table below shows estimates of the total a Plot these data in the form of a line graph.
amounts of various pollutants released into the Choose axes to display the information in
atmosphere during a single year in the USA. the way that best relates the abiotic factor to
the biotic factors.
Pollutant Mass / million Percentage b Suggest why the number of bacteria was
tonnes
high at 0 m.
carbon monoxide 190
c Explain the shape of the curve for algae.
nitrogen oxides 40
d How is it possible for fish numbers to fall to
sulfur oxides 50 zero and then recover?
hydrocarbons 50 e Describe the changes in the concentration of
particles e.g. carbon 30 oxygen dissolved in the water downstream
from the point of sewage entry.
a Calculate the percentage contribution of
f Explain what might have caused these
each of the pollutants. [2]
changes in oxygen concentration.
b Draw a bar chart to show the data. [4]
c Choose one pollutant from the table. State Number / arbitrary units of
one effect on human health and one effect Distance downstream / m Bacteria Algae Fish
on the environment of this pollutant. [2] 0 (point of sewage entry) 88 20 20
100 79 8 6
8 Sea otters eat fish, and fish eat small 200 74 7 1
crustaceans such as shrimps. The shrimps feed 300 60 21 0
by filtering algae from the water. 400 51 40 0
a Write out a food chain that links these 500 48 70 0
organisms. 600 44 83 0
b Pesticides are washed from nearby farmland 700 42 90 0
into rivers and then into the sea. Farmers 800 39 84 0
900 36 68 4
say that the concentration of the pesticides
1000 35 55 20
is too low to directly affect the otters.
Explain how the pesticides might still cause
the death of the otters.
9 Untreated human sewage should not enter
river water, but occasionally an overflow from
a water treatment plant occurs. The tables
below and to the right contain information
on the changes that occurred in river water
downstream from a sewage overflow.

Distance downstream / m Concentration of dissolved

oxygen / percentage of
maximum
0 (point of sewage entry) 95
100 30
200 20
300 28
400 42
500 58
600 70
700 80
800 89
900 95
1000 100
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21.1 Bacteria are useful in

biotechnology and genetic
engineering
OBJECTIVES
■ To know the structure of a typical bacterial cell S
■ To know the requirements for bacterial growth
Bacteria are particularly useful in biotechnology
■ To know how bacteria reproduce and genetic engineering because:
■ To understand some of the ways in which bacteria they reproduce very rapidly so scientists can build up large
populations very quickly
can be used in human activities
they can produce complex molecules, such as enzymes
and the hormone insulin
their genetic code is the same as that in more complex
Requirements of bacteria organisms (even humans!)
Bacteria have certain requirements that their they have extra pieces of DNA – plasmids – which scientists
environment must provide. An understanding can use to carry genes from one cell to another
people are less worried about experiments on bacteria
of these requirements has been important in
than on more familiar, larger, organisms such as mice,
biotechnology and in the control of disease. rabbits and dogs.
If the environment supplies these needs, the
bacteria can multiply rapidly by binary fission
(see below). In this process, each bacterium Understanding what bacteria need to reproduce can be
divides into two, then each of the two divides useful in:
again and so on, until very large populations preventing food spoilage – see page 113
controlling infections
are built up. A bacterial colony can quickly providing the best conditions for growth of useful bacteria.
dominate its environment, making great
demands on food and oxygen, and perhaps
producing large quantities of ‘waste’ materials.
The generation time (time taken for each cell to divide into two)
Some of these waste materials can be useful to can be as little as 20 minutes under ideal conditions. One E. coli
humans. For example, bacterial enzymes are cell in the human gut could theoretically become 272 cells in
used in a number of industrial processes. 24 hours – this number of cells weighs about 8000 kg!

Microorganisms that produce those valuable

enzymes are grown under carefully controlled The number of cells in a population, starting from just one cell,
The number of cells
n in a population, starting from just one cell,
The generation time (time taken for each cell to divide into two) n is 2 (where n = number of generations)
conditions in a fermenter (bioreactor), like the is 2 (where n = number of generations)
ttle as 20 minutes under ideal conditions. One E. coli
can be as little
cell in theone
humanshown
uman ontheoretically
gut could the opposite page.
become 272 cells in
24 hours – this number of cells weighs about 8000 kg!

DNA replication

Cell divides into two

– binary fission Process is
repeated

This can be so
292 rapid that a
bacterial population
can grow very quickly
 ORGANISMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT

A fermenter (or bioreactor)

Paddle stirrers continuously mix the
contents of the bioreactor: Fermenters are also used in fuel
ensures microorganisms are always production (see page 284) and the
in contact with nutrients manufacture of the antibiotic penicillin
ensures an even temperature throughout (see page 174), the hormone insulin
the fermentation mixture and the food product mycoprotein.
for aerobic (oxygen-requiring) fermentations
the mixing may be carried out by an airstream.
Gas outlet – gas may be evolved during
Microbe input – the organisms that fermentation. This must be released to
will carry out the fermentation avoid pressure build-up, and may be a
process are cultured separately valuable by-product, e.g. carbon dioxide
until they are growing well. is collected and sold for use in fizzy drinks.

Nutrient input –
the microorganisms require:
an energy source – usually Constant temperature water jacket –
carbohydrate the temperature is controlled so that it is
growth materials – amino acids high enough to promote enzyme activity
(or ammonium salts which can be but not so high that enzymes and other
converted to amino acids) for proteins in the microbes are denatured.
protein synthesis.

Heating/cooling
water out
Probes monitor conditions such as pH,
temperature and oxygen concentration.
Sterile conditions are essential. Information is sent to computer control
The culture must be pure and systems which correct any changes to
all nutrients/equipment sterile to: maintain the optimum conditions for
avoid competition for fermentation.
expensive nutrients
limit the danger of disease-
causing organisms contaminating
the product.

Heating/cooling
water in

In batch culture there is a fixed input of

nutrients and the products are collected
by emptying the bioreactor. The process is
then repeated. This method is expensive,
because the culture must be replaced and
the reactor must be sterilised between
batches, but has the advantages that:
the vessels can be switched to other uses
any contamination results in the loss of Further processing of product
only a single batch. may be necessary:
In continuous culture, fresh nutrients are to separate the microorganism from the desired
added as soon as they are consumed, and product. In some fermentation systems, these
the reactor may run for long periods. microorganisms may then be returned to the
Products are run off at intervals while vessel to continue the process.
the process continues. This is more to prepare the product for sale or distribution –
economical but has the disadvantages that: this often involves drying or crystallisation.
contamination causes greater losses
the culture may block inlet or outlet pipes.

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21.2 Humans use enzymes from

microorganisms
OBJECTIVES Enzymes in industry
Enzymes are biological catalysts that operate at the temperatures,
■ To understand that enzymes have pressures and moderate pH values found in living organisms (see
many roles which benefit humans page 40). Using enzymes for industrial processes therefore does not
■ To know examples of a range of require extreme (and expensive) conditions. For example, the Haber
uses of enzymes process for producing ammonia requires a temperature of 750°C
■ To understand the benefits of and a pressure of 30 times atmospheric pressure whereas nitrogen-
fixing bacteria can perform this process at 25°C and at atmospheric
enzyme immobilisation
pressure.
In industry, the enzymes are often extracted from the living
organisms before they are used. This has several advantages:
■ there is no loss of raw materials for growth of the organism
■ optimum conditions for a particular enzyme can be used, which
may not be the same as optimum conditions for the whole
organism
■ wasteful side-reactions within the organism are eliminated
■ purification of the product is easier – the remains of the whole cells
need not be removed.
The majority of enzymes used commercially are obtained from
microbial sources, usually fungi or bacteria. Sometimes the organism
naturally secretes the enzymes onto its substrate; sometimes the
microbial cells must be broken open to release the enzymes. Using
genetic engineering (see page 300), genes for desirable enzymes such
as chymosin can be inserted into organisms that do not use this
enzyme, and so they secrete it into their environment.
Immobilised enzymes
Enzymes are unstable – they can break down very quickly when
used to catalyse industrial processes. Enzymes can now be
protected and stabilised by immobilisation, a technique which fixes
the enzyme to a non-reactive support material, as shown below.
When using immobilised enzymes, the product of the reaction
does not contain enzyme molecules, so purification is simple
and inexpensive. Immobilised enzymes also allow continuous
production rather than batch production, again reducing costs.
Commercial applications of enzymes
Enzyme molecules E
S may be fixed onto Raw materials in,
beads made of resin… e.g. milk containing
lactose
E E

E E
Immobilised lactase
The (breaks down lactose)
or onto fibres. immobilised
E enzyme is
then packed Some people
E E E
into a column. become ill if they
E
E consume lactose – they
E
are lactose intolerant.
E
The carrier substance
must be inert, i.e. it must Product out, e.g.
294 not react with the enzyme lactose-free milk
or with the raw materials.
 ORGANISMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT

Pharmaceuticals Analysis
The enzyme catalase is used Dip-sticks such as Clinistix® and
in wound dressings. Catalase Albustix® use enzymes to detect
converts hydrogen peroxide biological compounds in mixtures.
in the dressing to oxygen and The biological compound is
water. Oxygen speeds up healing oxidised to a product which
and inhibits dangerous, anaerobic causes a colour change in a dye.
bacteria such as the species which
causes gas gangrene.
Pad at the end of stick contains
Glucose
enzyme + dye Glucose Changed
+ dye dye
oxidase
This is used by people with diabetes to test blood or urine for the
presence of glucose (see page 149).

FUNGI CAN BE USEFUL TOO!

A lipase from fungi helps to
make chocolate flow to cover
Economical biscuits and sweets!

conditions

Enzyme + substrate Enzyme + products

Food production Biological washing powders

The most difficult stains to remove from
A protease from bacteria clothes often include lipids (e.g. from fatty
softens gluten, making the es.
foods or greasy fingerprints) or proteins
rolling of biscuits easier. (e.g. from blood). These can be washed out
Pectinase breaks down clumps using biological washing powders that contain
of plant cells: this changes fruit lipase and protease. These powders have the
juices from cloudy to clear. added advantage of working at lower
temperatures (less water heating needed,
and clothes don't shrink).

Q
1 Read the following passage.
An enzyme implant has successfully reduced the level of particles of the fatty substance, cholesterol, in the blood of
rabbits by 40% within 70 minutes. Scientists have developed a way of implanting the enzyme PLA2 into the body
without affecting the cholesterol needed in cell membranes. The enzyme is immobilised inside thin hollow fibres. Pores
in the walls of the fibre are large enough for cholesterol particles to diffuse through, but too small for blood cells to
enter. The enzyme breaks down the cholesterol, and the products are rapidly taken up by liver cells and removed from
the bloodstream.
The scientists are cautious about using enzyme therapy in humans. ‘We need to know exactly what happens to the
products from the cholesterol in the body’, says the head of the laboratory that developed the technique. ‘Several drugs
already on the market can safely be used to lower cholesterol levels. However, an implant of the immobilised enzyme
PLA2 could be easily inserted and could last for years’.
a Explain the advantage of lowering the level of the fatty substance, cholesterol, in the blood.
b Suggest how the enzyme might be immobilised inside the fibres.
c Suggest why it is an advantage to immobilise the enzyme inside hollow fibres.
d The enzyme PLA2 occurs naturally in humans. Explain why the enzyme could not be used as an implant if it did not
occur naturally in the human body.

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 21.2 Humans use enzymes from microorganisms

ENZYMES IN BIOLOGICAL WASHING POWDERS

Enzymes such as proteases, lipases and amylases are some of the active ingredients in modern biological washing powders.
For example, amylase catalyses the breakdown of starch-based stains to smaller segments that make up the larger starch
molecule. These smaller units released from the enzyme’s hydrolytic action are soluble; thus, the stain is physically cut off
from the surface of the fabric piece by piece and then washed away.

Because detergents, especially bath soaps, are generally formulated to degrade mainly oil and grease, protein-based stains
have traditionally been among the hardest to remove.

Casein (milk protein) easily binds to a blue dye. Small pieces of fabric can be stained by soaking in a solution of dyed casein.
The dye separates from the casein if the protein is broken down by the action of an enzyme.

Suggest how you would compare the effect of a bacterial protease and a commercial detergent on a protein-based stain.
Assume that you can use a colorimeter (an instrument that can measure the absorption of light by a solution).

Colorimeter:
light is passed 94
through solution
in cuvette. Light
transmitted (not
absorbed) is
sensed and value
Bathing solution
shown on a
(water + released
digital display.
dye) is transferred
to a cuvette.

How could you extend your experimental work to investigate:

■ how temperature affects protease activity (what is the temperature in a washing cycle using biological powders?)
■ how pH affects protease activity (what is the pH in a solution of a biological powder?)
■ whether a biological washing powder contains lipase.
Human skin contains both proteins and lipids. Suggest a possible result of over-use of biological washing powders.

EXTRACTION OF APPLE JUICE WITH PECTINASE

Pectinase is an enzyme that catalyses the breakdown of 5 After 25 minutes, filter the juice from each boiling tube
pectin, a component of the cell wall in fruits such as apples separately, as shown in the diagram.
and oranges. Pectinase is used commercially because, by 6 Record the volumes of juice collected at 1-minute
enzymatically breaking down the cell wall, pectinase releases intervals until no more juice is collected.
the juice from within the cells. Pectinase can also be used to
‘clear’ the extracted juice. Filter paper containing
apple pulp plus enzyme solution
Procedure or apple pulp plus distilled water.
1 Chop the apples into cubes that are roughly 5 mm on SAFETY
each side. Do not drink the juice,
2 Weigh 50 g of chopped apple into each of eight boiling because the pectinase
tubes. solution is much more concentrated
than would be used in commercial
3 A solution of pectinase will be supplied to you. Add
production of fruit juice.
2 cm3 of pectinase solution to four of the boiling tubes,
Handle knives carefully.
and 2 cm3 of distilled water to the remaining four tubes.
Mix the contents of each of the tubes separately, using a Wipe up any enzyme spills and wash
glass rod. the area with water.
4 Stand two tubes (one with pectinase solution and one
with distilled water) into water baths set to 30°C, 40°C Juice collects in the measuring cylinder.
and 60°C. Leave the final pair of tubes at room
temperature (record the room temperature!).
296
 ORGANISMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT

EXTRACTION OF APPLE JUICE WITH PECTINASE CONTINUED

Record your results in a suitable table, showing the d Suggest how you could extend the investigation to
volume of juice collected after a 5-minute period at each study pectinase in other fruits.
of the four different temperatures.
Plot a suitable graph of your results.
Extension
Analysis e Describe a chemical test for lactose (a reducing
a State the independent and dependent variables in sugar).
this investigation. f Suggest how you would show that lactase is
b State the reason for including tubes with distilled necessary for the breakdown of lactose.
water in this investigation.
c Explain why temperature affects the activity of
pectinase.

Q
2 The image below shows a photomicrograph of a c State three reasons why enzymes are useful for
reproducing bacterium. industrial processes. [3]
d State two reasons why immobilised enzymes
are used in industrial processes. [2]
3 The enzyme glucose oxidase can be
incorporated into a test strip used to test for the
presence of glucose in biological fluids. The
enzyme can convert glucose to an acid which then
changes the colour of a dye if the sugar is present.
a Suggest the names of two biological fluids
which can be tested in this way. [2]
Magnification ×25 000 b State the name of the medical condition which
a Calculate the actual length of a single could result in high levels of glucose in these
bacterium. biological fluids. [1]
Give your answer in micrometres (µm). Show c State which two of the following foods are
your working. [3] most likely to cause a rise in glucose
b Bacteria may be used to produce enzymes concentration in these fluids:
useful to humans. butter, pasta, lean meat, breakfast cereal, milk
Look at the table below. Match each enzyme to chocolate. [2]
a process useful to humans.
Write the letter and number to show your
answer, for example, a–3.
Enzyme Process
a protease 1 breakdown of starch in water washed
from laundries
b pectinase 2 removal of fatty stains from clothing [4]
c lactase 3 softening of leather for jackets and
handbags
d amylase 4 clearing of fragments of fruit from
fruit juice
e lipase 5 preparation of milk for patients with
milk sugar intolerance

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21.3 Baking and brewing: the

economic importance of yeast
OBJECTIVES Yeast performs alcoholic fermentation
Much of the commercial use of microorganisms
■ To appreciate that some microorganisms are useful
is based on the process of fermentation. This
to humans
term covers any metabolic process carried out by
■ To recall an equation for anaerobic respiration
microorganisms using carbohydrate as a starting
■ To understand the industrial production of alcohol
material. The best-known fermentation reaction
and bread
is the anaerobic respiration of glucose by the
Bread production single-celled fungus yeast:
Flour, sugar, water and salt are
mixed with yeast. This process glucose carbon dioxide + ethanol + energy
is called kneading and
produces dough.
Because one of the products is ethanol (ethyl
alcohol), this process is often known as
alcoholic fermentation. As well as making
alcohol, the carbon dioxide produced is valuable
If a loaf is not left to rise, commercially. For the yeast, the useful product
The dough is rolled into shape,
then kept in a warm (about it will be small and dense is energy – the alcohol and carbon dioxide are
28C), moist environment. by-products.
The yeast ferments the sugar,
and the bubbles of carbon Alcohol has a high energy content
dioxide are trapped by the
sticky proteins of the dough. and is toxic
The dough expands or rises. Alcohol contains a great deal of energy, a fact
that is exploited when alcohol is used as a
biofuel source (see page 284). Alcohol is also
toxic (poisonous) and the yeast excretes it into
If a loaf is left to rise for too the surrounding liquid medium. If the alcohol
Cooking at 180C – baking: long too much carbon dioxide concentration in the medium gets higher than
kills the yeast and stops is produced and there are too
fermentation many large holes 8–9%, the yeast is killed and fermentation stops.
causes alcohol to evaporate Alcohol is toxic to humans too.
hardens the outer surface to
form a crust. Baking and brewing use fermentation
The processes of baking and brewing have both
been around for thousands of years. The process
of baking is outlined on the left.
Fine tuning the fermentation process
The product is bread, which
should be: Because of the enormous commercial significance
spongy in texture, because of of these processes, much research has gone into
trapped carbon dioxide making them as efficient as possible. For example:
fresh smelling (partly alcohol The perfect loaf
vapour!). ■ strains of yeast that are tolerant to higher
‘Wholemeal’ bread is made with flour which has not had the
concentrations of alcohol have been developed
husk removed from the wheat – hence ‘whole’ meal. It is rich in ■ high-yielding strains of wheat have been
B vitamins and dietary fibre. selectively bred
Bread may be fortified – in the UK, bread often has added protein, ■ genetic engineers have developed yeasts which
calcium and vitamins A and D – not to mention preservatives and
whitening agents.
can convert starch to maltose, and thus remove
298 the need for the ‘malting’ stages in brewing.
 ORGANISMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT

Questions on biotechnology
1 The diagram below shows a bioreactor which ii Explain how this constant temperature is
can be used for the production of penicillin. maintained. [2]
a State the name of the organism used to c Explain why the chamber must be sterilised
produce the penicillin. [1] after use. [2]
b i Explain why a constant temperature must d State two reasons why doctors are unwilling
be maintained in the reactor. [2] to prescribe penicillin for a common cold. [2]

motor
steam inlet

acid/alkali inlet steam outlet

inlet X

Penicillium inlet exhaust outlet

cold water outlet

cold water stirring paddle

jacker

cold water
inlet

air inlet

filter outlet for harvesting pencilling

2 Wine can be produced on a small scale using Explain how aerobic respiration is prevented
the apparatus shown below. in this apparatus. [1]
3 Mycoprotein is a single cell protein which can
fermentation lock
be used as a substitute for chicken or for beef.
The table below shows the composition of
burgers made from beef and from mycoprotein.

Total / g per 100 g

Nutrient
Beef Mycoprotein
carbohydrate 3.4 5.6
fermentation
flask fat 24.2 4.5
yeast and cholesterol 0.02 0.00
sugar (glucose)
fibre 0.4 4.0
solution
protein 16.0 12.5
a The yeast cells in the flask respire
anaerobically. Write a chemical equation for total energy content / kJ 1200 500

this process. [3] a State two differences in composition

b Wine produced in this way rarely has an alcohol between beef and mycoprotein. [2]
content greater than 12%. Explain why. [2] b Suggest two reasons why eating mycoprotein
c Yeast can respire aerobically, but does not is healthier than eating beef. [2]
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21.4 Genetic engineering

OBJECTIVES
S ■ The host organism, that is, the one that
■ To understand the term genetic engineering will receive the valuable gene, would
■ To understand the value of enzymes in genetic not normally take in DNA from another
engineering organism.
■ To be able to describe a technique in genetic ■ The host organism might not show the
engineering valuable characteristic, for example it may
not make a particular protein, even though
■ To list some products of genetic engineering that are
it now has the DNA that codes for the
of value to humans
protein.

What is genetic engineering? Technological advances have overcome these

The examples of selective breeding described potential problems. Key to success has been
on page 236 are a form of genetic engineering, the discovery of:
because humans are interfering with the natural ■ enzymes that can cut DNA from one
flow of genetic material from one generation to chromosome and paste it into another,
the next when they choose the animals or plants acting like scissors and glue
that will be allowed to reproduce (and pass on ■ vectors that can carry the gene from one
their genes). However, what we now call genetic organism to another
engineering is a much more predictable and ■ culture techniques that allow large
refined process than selective breeding. In this quantities of the valuable product to be
process: produced and collected, even if the host
■ Genes that code for characteristics valuable organism would not normally produce it.
to humans are identified. Many compounds can be manufactured by
■ These genes are removed from the genetically engineered bacteria, including
animal or plant that normally shows this insulin and other products which are used
characteristic. directly by humans. These products are
■ The genes are transferred to another otherwise often taken from animals. For
organism, usually one that grows very example, insulin can be isolated from the
quickly. pancreas of a pig.
■ This organism ‘reads’ the gene it has
received, and shows the characteristic that Recombinant DNA technology has several
is valuable advantages:
to humans. ■ The product is very pure, and can be the
S human version of a protein rather than
Recombinant DNA technology a version produced by another animal.
In many cases the characteristic is the ability The human protein is likely to work more
to manufacture a product that has some efficiently in a person, and is less likely to be
medical or industrial value. Because DNA (a rejected by the body’s defences.
gene) from one organism is being transferred ■ The product can be made in large
to the DNA of another organism to make
quantities, making it less expensive and
a new combination of DNA, this ‘modern’
more readily available. Insulin produced in
genetic engineering is often referred to as
recombinant DNA technology. The principle this way costs about 1% as much as insulin
of this technique sounds very straightforward, produced from pig pancreas.
but in practice it is extremely difficult. ■ The process can be switched on or off easily
as the bacteria can be stored until needed
■ The genetic material is microscopic in size.
A technician can’t use a pair of scissors to again. The product can be made as required
cut out a gene! rather than just when animal carcasses are
available.
300
 ORGANISMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT

The desirable gene (section of DNA)

S Opened
is identified and located, e.g. the
vector
gene coding for human insulin
in a pancreas cell.
Plasmid – small circle
of DNA in harmless
The desirable gene is ‘cut’ from bacterial cell.
chromosome fragments using
a specific restriction enzyme
and leaving sticky ends. The plasmid (gene vector)
is cut open at specific points
using the same restriction
enzyme leaving complementary
sticky ends.

The enzyme ligase splices the

desirable gene into the vector.
Recombinant DNA – human
gene plus bacterial plasmid.

Vector (carrying gene) is now

re-inserted into the host bacterial cell.

Bacteria containing the desirable

gene are selected and then cultured
in a nutrient medium to provide a
large population capable of producing
the desired gene product.

Selected bacteria are cultured in

a fermenter or bioreactor under
optimum pH, temperature
and nutrient levels.

Product
After some processing, for example to remove the bacterial cells for recycling, the product is extremely pure and relatively inexpensive.
Important examples of such gene products are:
insulin (required for the treatment of diabetes)
human growth hormone
factor VIII (blood clotting factor for haemophilia)
BGH is an important animal hormone used to speed up the growth of beef cattle (see page 265).

▲ Genetic engineering (recombinant DNA technology) depends on enzymes and the culture of microorganisms 301
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21.5 Gene transfer in higher

organisms
OBJECTIVES Transgenic organisms
Bacteria are not the only organisms that can be modified by
■ To describe how organisms other
gene transfer. Genetic engineers have been able to transfer genes
than bacteria may be altered by
into flowering plants, fungi and mammals and thus alter the
genetic engineering
characteristics of these higher organisms. An organism that has
■ To appreciate that there are moral
and environmental problems received genes from a different species is called a transgenic
associated with the use of genetic organism. The major problem is finding a vector that can carry the
engineering gene into the new host. Different vectors have been used for different
hosts. A bacterium, for example, may be a vector to transfer useful
genes into a plant, as described on the page opposite.
Gene therapy*
Gene therapy is the transfer of healthy human genes into a person’s
cells that contain mutant alleles which cause disease. The principle
of gene therapy is outlined below. This technique uses a harmless
virus to transfer the useful gene.

Gene therapy may be able to repair diseased human cells

Empty virus
Virus takes up
coat to act as Virus infects
healthy gene.
gene vector. ‘diseased’ cell
and releases
healthy gene.

Healthy copy
of gene
Cell can now make
Cystic fibrosis is a good candidate for protein product,
gene therapy because: and no longer has
the healthy gene has been identified disease.
and is easily obtained
the diseased tissue in the lungs is easy
to reach via trachea and bronchi Healthy
the coat of an influenza virus can be gene ‘repairs’
used as a gene vector. diseased cell.

Q
1 Why are vectors useful to genetic engineers?
2 What might be the benefits of transferring nitrogen-fixing genes from bacteria to other organisms?
3 Describe one example of gene therapy. Explain why this form of treatment is thought likely to be successful in the
example which you describe.

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 ORGANISMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT

S Moral and environmental concerns about genetic

modification
The benefits claimed for genetically modified products, and potential
problems, are shown in the table below.
Benefits Problems
Engineered organisms can offer higher yields from fewer resources. With Plants engineered for pesticide resistance could cross-pollinate with
plants, for example, this might reduce the need for pesticides and fertilisers. wild relatives, creating ‘superweeds’.
Crops engineered to cope with extreme environmental conditions will Engineered bacteria may escape from the laboratory or the factory,
open up new areas for cultivation, and reduce the risk of famine. with unpredictable consequences.
Genetic engineering gives much more predictable results than ‘New’ organisms might be patented. A company that has spent a lot
selective breeding. of money on developing such an organism might refuse to share its
benefits with other consumers, making the company very powerful.
Foods can be engineered to be more convenient, such as potatoes which How far should we allow research into human gene transfer to go?
absorb less fat when crisps are made, or even to contain medicinal Will we allow the production of ‘perfect’ children, with
products such as vaccines. characteristics seen to be desirable by parents?

How plants may be genetically modified to be useful to humans

Improved shelf life – a gene has been Resistance to envionmental conditions
introduced into tomatoes which inhibits – gene transfer has produced:
the enzymes causing deterioration. ‘Flavr drought resistance – plants with thicker,
Savr’ tomatoes keep for several weeks. more waxy cuticles which can grow well in
Less wastage should mean lower prices. dry areas
uniform fruiting – plants produce flowers
and fruits in response to daylight. Soya bean
plants have been engineered to produce
Resistance to pests and herbicides beans even in temperate regions of the world
A gene is inserted into the crop plant with a different light pattern to their normal
which enables it to make insecticidal habitat.
crystal protein (ICP) which affects the resistance to wind damage – soya plants
guts of caterpillars so that they cannot have been engineered to have stronger stems
feed and eventually die. of a more uniform height which makes them
A gene is inserted which makes the crop more resistant to wind damage and makes
plant resistant to herbicides. The field of machine harvesting of the beans more
growing crop can then be sprayed with the efficient.
herbicide, which will selectively kill the weeds.

Nitrogen fixation – this is the conversion of

nitrogen gas from the atmosphere into a form
that plants can use (see page 254).
+
N2 NH4 amino acids
from • ammonium and other
atmosphere ions compounds

This key step is controlled by enzymes coded for

by genes.

Most plants cannot fix nitrogen but gene transfer

might either:
insert these genes directly into a plant, or
make a plant more likely to form root nodules
with nitrogen-fixing bacteria .
This could:
produce cereal crops which also manufacture
large amounts of protein
reduce the need for nitrogenous fertilisers.
Golden Rice is a genetically engineered variety of rice which produces β-carotene.
This is converted into vitamin A, and the food is designed to be eaten in areas with
vitamin A deficiency.
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 21.5 Gene transfer in higher organisms

S Genetic engineering is used to produce vaccines

The vaccine used to give people artificial immunity must be:
■ effective – it must protect against disease
■ safe – it should not cause health problems.
Hepatitis B is a serious disease of the liver, caused by a virus. The
production of the hepatitis B vaccine is described below.

Hepatitis B Antigen on surface

of hepatitis B virus Antigen gene is isolated
Worldwide over 2000 million people
from hepatitis B virus –
are infected by this virus. The virus Gene which codes for other virus molecules
spreads through body fluids and surface antigen in are discarded.
causes acute infection of the liver. genetic material
of virus.

Yeast cells are removed from

- the medium. They can be recycled
for further antigen Antigen gene from virus is
production. incorporated into the DNA
of a yeast cell.

Purified vaccine contains only surface antigen, and:

provokes immune system to make anti-hepatitis B antibodies
cannot itself cause disease because no whole virus is present
is usually given in two doses – first gives 1 year’s protection,
second (one year later) boosts this to 10 years’ protection.

Yeast cells grow and multiply

in culture medium containing Yeast cells manufacture virus antigen.
all nutrients at correct pH They do not need it so they secrete it
and temperature. into their growth medium.

▲ Genetic engineering provides a safe vaccine against hepatitis B, given to people likely to be
exposed to this virus (such as a surgeon who might come into contact with patients’ blood)

Q
1 Suggest how scientists might be able to develop a vaccine to reduce the
dangers of infection by this virus. In your answer include
a Why the development of a vaccine is important
b How an effective vaccine could be developed, and
a How the scientists can ensure that the vaccine is safe to use.

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 ORGANISMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT

Questions on genetic engineering

1 The diagram below shows the main stages 2 A vaccine against hepatitis B can be made by
in transferring the human insulin gene to a genetic engineering (see page 292).
bacterium. a In this process:
human cell i State which part of the virus is
which transferred to a yeast cell. [1]
secretes
insulin ii State which part of the virus is produced
by the yeast cell. [1]
plasmid bacterium
DNA in nucleus b Before genetic engineering was developed,
vaccines contained viruses that had been
human insulin
plasmid cut
gene (DNA)
heated or treated chemically to stop them
Stage 1 reproducing. Whole virus particles were
present in the vaccine.
Explain why a genetically engineered
vaccine is safer than a vaccine made directly
bacterial plasmid
containing human from hepatitis B virus. [3]
Stage 2
insulin gene
3 The following table lists events from the
identification of a human gene coding for a
plasmid reintroduced
into bacterium hormone ‘‘X’’ to the commercial production of
hormone ‘‘X’’.
Genes can be transferred into plasmids, tiny
circles of DNA which are found in bacteria.
Show the correct sequence of events 1 to 8
a Name the enzyme used by copying the table below and writing the
i to cut the plasmid at stage 1 [1] appropriate number in each box provided. The
ii to stitch the gene and plasmid at stage 2. first (number 1) and last (number 8) have been
[1] completed for you. [5]
b Explain the function of the plasmid in this
Event Number
process. [2]
c Suggest why the insulin produced by genetic Cutting of a bacterial plasmid using
restriction enzyme
engineering is preferable to insulin extracted
Cutting of human DNA with restriction
from the bodies of other animals. [2] enzyme
d Some people are worried about the use of
Identification of the human DNA which 1
genetic engineering. State two concerns codes for hormone ‘‘X’’
about the use of this technique. [2] Many identical plasmids, complete with
human gene, are produced inside the
bacterium
Mixing together human gene and ‘‘cut’’
plasmids to splice the human gene into
the plasmid
Some of the cloned bacteria are put into an 8
industrial fermenter where they breed and
secrete the hormone
The bacterium is cloned
Using the plasmid as a vector, inserting it,
complete with human gene, into a bacterium

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O R G A N I S AT I O N A N D M A I N T E N A N C E O F O R G A N I S M S

CPHR AA RC AT C
I CT A
E LR IBSITOI LCO
S GAYN D C L A S S I F I C A T I O N O F L I V I N G O R G A N I S M S

Practical assessment
The basis of scientific subjects is experimental: Candidates may be required to do the following:
hypotheses are tested to establish theories and ■ record readings from apparatus
observations and measurements made to provide ■ describe, explain or comment on experimental
the factual background to science. Examiners arrangements and techniques
believe that it is important that an assessment of a ■ complete tables of data
student’s knowledge and understanding of biology ■ draw conclusions from observations and/or
should contain a practical component. from information given
Schools’ circumstances (e.g. the availability of ■ interpret and evaluate observations and
resources) differ greatly, so two alternative ways of experimental data
examining the relevant assessment are provided by ■ plot graphs and/or interpret graphical
Cambridge Assessment International Education information
(CAIE). The two alternatives are: ■ identify sources of error and suggest possible
■ Paper 5 – practical test improvements in procedures
■ Paper 6 – alternative to practical (written ■ plan an investigation, including suggesting
paper). suitable techniques and apparatus.
The following points should be noted for both types Paper 6: Alternative to practical
of practical assessment: This paper is designed to test candidates’
■ the same proportion of marks is available – familiarity with laboratory practical procedures.
20% of the subject total Questions may be set requiring the candidates to:
■ the same practical skills are to be learned and
■ follow carefully a sequence of instructions
developed
■ use familiar, and unfamiliar, techniques to
■ the same benefits to theoretical understanding
record observations and make deductions
come from all practical work.
from them
Paper 5: Practical test ■ recall simple physiological experiments,
The CAIE specification states: e.g. tests for food substances, the use of a
Exercises may be set requiring the candidates to: potometer and the use of hydrogencarbonate
indicator, litmus and Universal Indicator paper
■ follow carefully a sequence of instructions
■ recognise, observe and record familiar, and
■ use familiar, and unfamiliar, techniques to
unfamiliar, biological specimens
record observations and make deductions
■ make a clear line drawing from a photograph
from them
(or other visual representation) of a specimen,
■ perform simple physiological experiments,
indicate the magnification of the drawing and
e.g. tests for food substances and the use of
label, as required
hydrogencarbonate indicator, litmus and
■ perform simple arithmetical calculations
Universal Indicator paper
■ record readings from apparatus
■ use a scalpel or a razor blade, forceps, scissors
■ describe, explain or comment on experimental
and mounted needles skilfully
arrangements and techniques
■ use a hand lens of not less than ×6
■ complete tables of data
magnification to recognise, observe and record
■ draw conclusions from observations and/or
familiar, and unfamiliar, biological specimens
from information given
■ make a clear line drawing of a specimen
■ interpret and evaluate observations and
provided, indicate the magnification of the
experimental data
drawing and label, as required
■ plot graphs and/or interpret graphical
■ perform simple arithmetical calculations.
information

306
 PRACTICAL BIOLOGY

■ identify sources of error and suggest possible that might appear in either the practical test
improvements in procedures or the alternative to practical. These are listed in
■ plan an investigation, including suggesting the table below, and should give you a great deal
suitable techniques and apparatus. of help in dealing with whichever of these papers
Throughout this book there are a number of is used in your practical assessment.
examples of the type of experiment or exercise

List of practical exercises

Exercise Spread reference Comment

Making a key 1.2

Looking at cells 2.1

Measuring the size of objects 2.1

Testing for biochemicals/foods 4.2

Testing leaves for starch 6.1 Factors affecting photosynthesis

Measurement of the rate of photosynthesis 6.2 Includes analysis of experimental design

Photosynthesis and gas exchange 6.6 Use of hydrogencarbonate indicator

Plants and minerals 6.7

Measurement of energy content of food 7.3

Tracing xylem 8.1 Use of eosin

Bubble potometer 8.3

Water loss from leaf surfaces 8.4 Use of cobalt chloride paper

Demonstration of respiration 11.1 Germination and respiration

The measurement of respiration 11.3 Respirometer / measurement of carbon dioxide

released

Investigation of tropisms 14.9 Phototropism and gravitropism

Structure of flowers 16.2

Experimental design: using models for 16.3

pollination

Conditions for germination 16.5 Gives references to enzymes, and the need
for energy

Sampling populations 19.3 Use of quadrats, line transects, pitfall traps

and pooters

Commercial use of enzymes 21.2

Effectiveness of antibiotics 15.1

Enzyme experiments and the scientific method p. 312 Includes drawing tables and graphs

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 PRACTICAL BIOLOGY

Laboratory equipment Apparatus and materials

You will find that the practical paper or the Safety equipment appropriate to the work
alternative to practical will be much more being planned, but at least including eye
straightforward if you recognise certain protection such as safety spectacles or
standard pieces of equipment, and understand goggles.
what they are used for.
3D image Name and function Diagram
■ Watch glass: used for collection and
evaporating liquids with no heat, and for
immersing biological specimens in a liquid.
■ Filter funnel: used to separate solids from
liquids, using a filter paper.

■ Measuring cylinder: used for measuring the

volume of liquids.

■ Thermometer: used to measure temperature.

The other very important measuring device in the laboratory is a balance (weighing machine).
■ Spatula: used to for handling solid chemicals; for
example, when adding a solid to a liquid.
■ Pipette: used to measure and transfer small
volumes of liquids.

■ Stand, boss and clamp: used to support the

apparatus in place. This reduces the risk of
dangerous spills. This is not generally drawn. If the
clamp is merely to support a piece of appartus, it is
usually represented by two crosses as shown.
■ Bunsen burner: used to heat the contents of
other apparatus (e.g. a liquid in a test tube) or for
directly heating solids.
HEAT

■ Tripod: used to support apparatus above a

Bunsen burner.
The Bunsen burner, tripod and gauze are the
most common way of heating materials in
school science laboratories.
■ Gauze: used to spread out the heat from a Bunsen
burner and to support the apparatus on a tripod.
■ Test tube and boiling tube: used for heating
solids and liquids. They are also used to hold
chemicals while other substances are added and
mixed. They need to be put safely in a test tube rack.
■ Evaporating dish: used to collect and
evaporate liquids with or without heating.

■ Beaker: used for mixing solutions and for

heating liquids.

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 PRACTICAL BIOLOGY

Chemical reagents
In accordance with the COSHH (Control of Substances Hazardous to Health) regulations
operative in the UK, a hazard appraisal of the list below has been carried out. The following
codes are used where relevant:
C = corrosive substance; F = highly flammable substance; H = harmful or irritating
substance; O = oxidizing substance; T = toxic substance

Table of hazard symbols

Symbol Description Examples Symbol Description Examples
Oxidising Bleach, sodium Harmful Dilute acids and
These substances provide chlorate, potassium These substances are alkalis
oxygen which allows other nitrate similar to toxic substances
materials to burn more fiercely. but less dangerous.
Highly flammable Ethanol, petrol, Corrosive Concentrated acids
These substances easily acetone These substances attack and akalis
catch fire. and destroy living tissues,
including eyes and skin.
Toxic Mercury, copper Irritant Ammonia, dilute
These substances can cause sulfate These substances are not acids and alkalis
death. They may have their corrosive but can cause
effects when swallowed or reddening or blistering of
breathed in or absorbed the skin.
through the skin.

Reagent Use in biology Spread reference

methylene blue A stain for animal cells 2.1, 8.1

iodine in potassium iodide solution (iodine solution) Detection of starch 2.1, 4.2, 6.1, 6.2

Benedict’s solution (or an alternative such as Fehling’s) Detection of a reducing sugar, such as glucose 4.2

Biuret reagent(s) (sodium or potassium hydroxide Detection of protein 4.2

solution and copper sulfate solution)

ethanol/methylated spirit For dissolving lipids in testing for the presence of lipids. Also 4.2, 6.1
used to remove chlorophyll from leaves during starch
testing.
hydrogencarbonate indicator (bicarbonate indicator) Detect changes in carbon dioxide concentration, for example 6.1, 6.2, 6.6, 11.3
in exhaled air following respiration
cobalt chloride paper Detects changes in water content 8.4

pH indicator paper or Universal Indicator solution or Changes in pH during reactions such as digestion of fats to
pH probes fatty acids and glycerol
litmus paper Qualitative detection of pH
glucose Change in water potential of solutions
sodium chloride Change in water potential of solutions
aluminium foil or black paper Foil can be used a heat reflector: black paper as a 6.1, 6.6, 6.7
light absorber
a source of distilled or deionised water Change in water potential of solutions. Also used in making 4.2, 6.7, 21.2
up mineral nutrient solutions.
eosin/red ink To follow the pathway of water absorbed by plants 8.1

limewater A liquid absorbent for carbon dioxide, for example in 11.3

exhaled air

potassium hydroxide Removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, for example 11.3
during experiments on conditions for photosythesis
sodium hydrogencarbonate (sodium bicarbonate) Very mild alkali: use for adjusting pH of solutions for enzyme
activity 309
petroleum jelly (or similar) Blocks pores such as stomata, and so prevents water loss 8.4, 11.3
5.2 Laboratory equipment

P R A C TPI C
RAA LC TBII COAL L
O GBYI O L O G Y

Measurement of variables
In many investigations, biologists need to measure variable quantities
such as volume, temperature, mass and time. It is very important to be
able to read scales accurately and to choose the correct units for the
quantities that have been measured. Some of the common measuring
equipment used in biology laboratories is shown below.

Measuring temperature using a thermometer

Normal temperatures are measured on
°C the Celsius scale, sometimes called
Thermometer °C 100
the Centigrade scale. The unit for
60 90 temperature is the degree Celsius (°C).
80

50 The scale is worked out by

70
checking how long the liquid column is
60 firstly in melting ice and secondly in
40 boiling water.
50

40
30
30 Column of coloured liquid: this gets
longer as the liquid gets hotter, and
20
20 shorter as the liquid gets cooler.
10

Bulb: this contains a coloured liquid.

An electronic thermometer
and probe. Equipment like
this will be necessary if a
scientist needs to measure
temperature above 100C READ RESET
or below 0C.
Temperature probe

Measuring mass using an electronic pan balance

An empty The beaker containing
beaker liquid

Balance How heavy is the liquid?

(weighing machine)

102.4g 312.8g

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 PRACTICAL BIOLOGY

Measuring volume using a beaker or a measuring cylinder

BEAKER MEASURING When using a measuring cylinder, stand the Make sure that you read the
It is not accurate CYLINDER measuring cylinder on a level bench, so that level carefully. You may notice
to use a beaker the liquid is level. that the surface of the fluid
because the scale is curved; this is called the
is not fine enough. meniscus.

Get your eye level

ml ml
with the liquid level.
100 80 It may look as though
cm3
200 90 there is a thick ‘skin’
Liquid on the water. This is
150 80
level because you are
100 70
50 looking at the minute
60 amount of liquid that
70
50 has been drawn up
the glass.
40
Is it cm3 or ml? Some equipment
is scaled in cm3, and some is 30 The volume of liquid is
scaled in ml. It really doesn’t 20 represented by the bottom of
matter – 1 cm3 has exactly the 60 the meniscus.
10
same volume as 1 ml.
Interestingly, plastic beakers
and measuring cylinders
often do not give rise to
a meniscus!

 Reading the measurement from a

measuring cylinder by getting your
eye level with the liquid level

This table gives a summary of the measuring equipment used in laboratories.

Quantity Units Equipment

Volume (fluid) Cubic centimetres (cm3) Measuring cylinder or beaker
3
Litres (dm )
1 litre = 1000 ml
Temperature Degrees Celsius (°C) Thermometer
Time Seconds (s) Stopclock (can be analogue
Minutes (min) or digital)
Mass Grams (g) Balance (usually top pan
Kilograms (kg) balances and electronic)

1 kg = 1000 g

311
 P R A C TPI C
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Enzyme experiments and the

scientific method
What is the scientific method? hydrogen peroxide oxygen + water
When scientists are faced with a problem, they
tackle it using the scientific method. This
Catalase is present in potato tissue. Discs of
starts off with an observation; for example,
potato are put into a solution of hydrogen
a farmer might notice that all his cows have
peroxide. The catalase breaks down the
stopped producing milk. The next step is to
hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen,
produce a hypothesis, a possible explanation
and
for the observation (perhaps the cows’ diet
the oxygen passes into the manometer. The
has been changed). Following this hypothesis,
changing level of the manometer fluid shows
predictions are made, such as: adding more
how much oxygen is being produced, and
protein pellets to the cows’ feed will increase
gives
their yield of milk. Then experiments are
a measure of the activity of the enzyme. The
designed and carried out to test whether or not
rate of oxygen production is measured at
the predictions are true. The data (results of
different temperatures.
the experiment) are analysed and conclusions
drawn. These conclusions will allow the An identical control experiment is also set up,
experimenter to accept or reject the original in which the input variable (the temperature)
hypothesis. is not changed. This confirms that the
changes in temperature, and not an unknown
An illustration of the scientific variable, are causing the changes in enzyme
method activity. A control experiment ensures that the
In an experiment, apparatus is used to measure experiment is a fair test, and that the data
the effect of changing one factor (variable) collected is valid.
on the value of a second factor (variable). For
If the experimenter suspects that an error
example, the experiment illustrated below is
has been made, part of the experiment may
designed to test the hypothesis: temperature
be repeated. Taking a series of results and
affects the activity of catalase.
calculating the mean gives more accurate
Catalase is an enzyme that catalyses the results than taking just one set, as any single
breakdown of hydrogen peroxide: inaccurate result then has less effect on the
overall results.
Manometer

The temperature is varied by Other variables are fixed

the experimenter – this is the (controlled), such as:
independent (input) Variety of potato (a categoric variable –
variable. Temperature is a it can be one of several different sorts)
continuous variable – it can Number of potato discs (a discrete
have any value over a variable – it can be any whole number)
continuous range. The volume Size of potato disc
of oxygen released in a fixed Concentration of Continuous
length of time is measured – hydrogen peroxide variables
this is the dependent pH
(outcome) variable. Volume
is also a continuous variable.

Hydrogen peroxide solution Potato discs

312
 PRACTICAL BIOLOGY

Dealing with data: Put units in the

column heading, not
Raw data
independent
Manipulated data
derived from the raw data.
recording results beside each number. variable in left- For example, the mean of
hand column three readings would be
Raw data are gathered in a manipulated data.
table during the experiment.
They may then be manipulated Time taken to produce Rate of oxygen
Temperature / °C 5 cm3 of oxygen / s production / cm3 per s
(converted into another form),
20.00
and are often displayed as a
26.25
graph to allow the experimenter
–
to draw conclusions from
30.75
the results.
Present numerical data Do not leave blanks:
■ in decimal form use – for a missing
■ to the same number value and 0 for zero.
of decimal places
■ as true numbers,
e.g. 0.7 not .7

▲ Results are recorded in a table during the experiment. Give an informative title,
such as: The effect of temperature on the activity of catalase.

Drawing a graph Join the points with a smooth curve if

you predict a smooth, gradual change.
A graph is a visual Use straight lines if not.
representation of data Dependent
which often helps to make a variable
on y-axis 24
Rate of oxygen production / cm3 per s

relationship more obvious.

22
Evaluating an experiment
20
Scientists often look back at the
18 Mark points with or
results of their experiments and
the methods used to gather 16

them. This evaluation process 14

Scales on axes in equal increments,
is an important part of the 12 cover all the plotted points, and
scientific method because the make best use of the space.
10
scientist needs to be sure that
the techniques and apparatus Axes should be linear
5 10 15 20 25 30
and if possible unbroken.
used have given the most reliable If a break is necessary to Temperature / ˚C
results before he or she draws make best use of the
scale, show it like this.
conclusions from them. Independent variable on x-axis

Q
1 Using the apparatus shown opposite, ▲ a Rule in the axes in /black.
Temperature Again,
°C Time giveto
taken anevolve
informative title.
Rate of oxygen
student investigated the effect of 10 cm3 of oxygen / s release / cm3 per s
temperature on the activity of the 15 40
enzyme catalase. Here are the results: 25 20
a Copy and complete the table by
35 5
calculating the rate of oxygen
45 20
release.
b Present the data in the form of a 55 40
graph. 65 120
c Explain the shape of the graph. 75 No gas evolved

313
 P R A C TPI C
RAA LC TBII COAL L
O GBYI O L O G Y

Mathematical skills
Accuracy, precision and reliability
Accurate data can be obtained by: Significant figures and decimal places
■ repeating measurements to calculate ■ Significant figures refer to the number
a mean of important single digits in a value, often
■ using a different measuring instrument, a measurement. All non-zero digits are
and checking that readings are the same considered significant. For example, 37
■ using measuring instruments with finer has two significant figures (3 and 7), while
gradations. 567.89 has five significant figures (5, 6, 7, 8
and 9).
■ Zeros to the left of the significant figures
Precise data can be obtained by:
are not significant. For example, 0.00048
■ using measuring instruments with finer has two significant figures: 4 and 8.
gradations – use a stopwatch to measure ■ Decimal places refer to the number of
reaction times (not the clock on the digits after a decimal point in a number. For
classroom wall) or a pH meter rather than example, 34.65 is a number to two decimal
litmus paper. places.
It is important that any manipulated
Errors and anomalies data (for example, a calculated mean)
■ Errors can be random (usually the result is presented to the same number of
of poor technique – not carrying out the significant figures as the input data (for
experiment consistently) or systematic example, a series of measurements of
(consistent technique, but repeating the the same quantity).
error such as inaccurate reading of a A common error in answering numerical
scale). questions is to rely on a calculator – this
■ Anomalous results do not fit in with may give an answer to six significant figures
the pattern of the other results. A large when the measurements were only made to
sample size will allow anomalous results two significant figures, often because of the
to be easily spotted in the data set. They limited scales of the measuring instruments.
can then be discarded, leading to a more
accurate calculation of the mean.

For precise and reliable data

■ Repeat and calculate a mean.
■ Use measuring instruments with appropriate scale divisions.
■ Make sure that the experimental method is the same each time a reading is made.
■ Discard anomalous results

Planning an investigation or experiment

All experiments are basically the same – they must be designed to collect valid data.
■ Identify the independent variable – the one that is to be changed.
■ State how the independent variable is to be changed (which apparatus, for example).
■ Identify the dependent variable, and state how it will be measured or observed.
■ Identify other variables that might affect the experiment, and suggest how these fixed variables can be controlled.
■ Suggest the number of repeat measurements to be made, and the calculation of mean values.
■ Suggest how results will be recorded and how they may be displayed in a graph or chart.
■ Suggest any safety precautions that should be taken.

314
 PRACTICAL BIOLOGY

10
Histogram
9
■ Used when plotting the distribution of continuous data.
■ Shows range of continuous variable (height of 8

buttercup in the example on the right) on y-axis and 7

number/percentage within range (number in this
6
example) on x-axis.

number
■ Each range is drawn in a block. Blocks are drawn in 5

order of increasing or decreasing data. 4

■ Blocks should never overlap, e.g. 25–29, 30–34, 35–39 is
3
correct but 25–30, 30–35, 35–40 is not.
■ The blocks should be of the same width. 2

■ The blocks should be touching. 1

Continuous variables are usually the result of the
0
combined effects of genes and the environment.

4
4

9
–1

–1

–2

–2

–3

–3

–4
0–

5–
10

15

20

25

30

35

40
height of meadow buttercup / cm
70
vitamin C content / mg 100g–1

60

50
Bar chart

40
■ Drawn when one of the variables is
non-numerical.
30
■ The non-numerical variable (type of
20 fruit in this example) is on the x-axis
10 and the numerical variable (vitamin C
content in this example) on the y-axis.
0
■ The blocks should be the same width,
e

ge

ar

um

rry

rry
pl

ar
pe
an

be

be
ap

pl

ub

and can be in any order.

or

sp

w
rh

ra
ra

st

type of fruit tested ■ The blocks should not be touching – the

blocks are not related to one another.

For all forms of graphs and charts: Categoric variables are usually the result of
■ label axes with quantity the effects of genes alone.
■ add units if the data is numerical
■ separate the quantity and units with a solidus (/), e.g.
vitamin concentration / mg per 100 g of tissue (never use a
solidus as part of the unit, e.g. mg/100 g of tissue).
Pie chart
■ Data displayed as proportions of the
vitamins and minerals whole data set.
protein fibre
■ The proportions are displayed as
sectors of a circle (which represents the
whole data set).
■ The sectors should begin at ‘noon’, i.e.
the twelve o’clock position.
fat ■ The sectors should be drawn in rank
order, with the largest first.
■ Charts should preferably not contain
more than six sectors.
An example would be the proportions of
carbohydrate water the different components of a meal.

315
 Index
Index
abiotic factors 240, 241, 260–1 biochemical tests 38–9 plants 10, 22, 23, 33, 88, 89 immune response 99, 112,
acid rain 52, 270, 271 biochemistry basics 36–7 central nervous system (CNS) 154, 118–19
active transport 34, 89, 122 biodegradable waste 114 158–61 inherited conditions 111,
adaptation to environment 2, 10–11, 14, biodiversity 265, 276, 280 centromeres 207, 212 116, 222–3
93, 177, 230–1, 232–5 biogas 114, 284, 285 cervix 190, 194, 200 population growth 260
adrenal glands 140, 167, 168 biological oxygen demand (BOD) 274, characteristics of living organisms 2–3, prevention 112–14, 175,
adrenaline 132, 148, 163, 167, 168 275, 279, 282, 283 18 203, 263
adult stem cells 214, 216, 217 biomass fuels 284–5 CHD see coronary heart disease responsibilities 114–15,
aerobic respiration 24, 46, 106, 123–6, bioreactors 292, 293, 301 chemical reagents 38–9, 309 203
184, 251, 274, 283 biotechnology 292–305 chlorophyll 10, 23, 46–8, 51, 52, 59, 93 sexually transmitted infec-
age structure of population 263 chloroplasts 16, 22, 23, 46, 50, 51 tions 203
biotic factors, population growth 260–1
agriculture 53–4, 58–9, 89, 173, 264–70, cholera 17, 69, 73, 110, 112, 120, 282 smoking effects 134–7
birds 14, 15, 242–4, 266, 276
274–7 cholesterol 63, 70, 106, 295 disinfectants 175, 251
birth 200, 202
AIDS/HIV 99, 110, 112, 203, 263 chordates 6, 14–15 DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) 6, 23, 37,
bleeding 116, 117, 147 99, 208–11, 300–5
albinism 222 blood chromosome mutations 196, 230
alcohol (ethanol) 38, 47, 82, 98, 132, Doll, Richard 136–7
analysis 99 chromosomes 23, 207–9, 212–13,
285, 298 218–19, 224 dominant alleles 219–23, 225
circulatory system 96–109 dormancy of seeds 184, 185, 277
algae 16, 59, 244, 274, 275 chyme 73, 77, 78
clotting 98, 116, 225, 301 drought 69, 268
alimentary canal 72–80 cilia/ciliated cells 26, 116, 129, 135, 194
constituents 97 drugs
alleles 218–23, 225, 301 circulatory system 96–109
fighting disease 97, 98, effect on nervous system
allergies 111, 131 116–18 classification keys 4–5, 7, 14, 21
altitude effects on lungs 101, 129, 132 155
gas exchange in lungs 129 classification of living and non living
alveoli 128–31, 135 things 2–3, 18 see also alcohol; nicotine
glucose levels 148–9 duodenum 73, 77, 79
amino acids 37, 63, 77, 81, 210 groups 223, 228 clones 173, 176, 177
amniotic fluid 196, 197 homeostasis 144, 148–9 CNS see central nervous system
amphibians 14, 281 colon 70, 73, 80 ecological sampling 246–9, 260, 277
blood cells 97–9 economic development, more and less
amylase 40, 41, 76, 78, 79, 251, 285, 296 see also red blood cells; colon/bowel cancer 65, 70
developed countries 69, 70, 106, 136,
anaemia 64, 70, 99, 192 white blood cells colour blindness 224, 225 201, 263, 268–9
anaerobic respiration 124–5, 282, 283, blood pressure 70, 101, 136, 198 communities of organisms 241, 242 ecosystems 240–58
285, 298 blood vessels 100–3 competition 234, 260, 262 education 203, 269, 277, 278, 281, 284
angiosperms 10–11 BOD see biological oxygen demand reducing 13, 174, 181, 184, effectors, nervous system 154, 155,
animal cells 22, 23, 26–7, 33 body mass/weight 68–9, 132, 198 242, 264 157–9
animals body temperature 15, 122, 145–7 concentration gradients 30, 32, 34 egestion 72, 78
captive breeding 277 bolus of food 73, 74, 76 see also water potential electrical impulses, nerves 26, 122, 155,
classification 12–15 bottle feeding 201 gradient 157, 159, 160, 163
eating plants 46, 57 bowels see colon; intestines conception 194, 195, 202 embryonic stem cells 214, 215, 217
endangered species 276, brain 154, 156, 157, 158–9 condensation reactions 36, 37 embryos
277, 280–1 conservation 4, 276–81 human 188, 194–6, 214
breastfeeding 67, 70, 119, 200, 201
farming practices 265 constipation 65, 70, 73 plant 182–4
breathing 130–2
food chains and webs control centre in homeostasis 145, 146 emphysema 117, 135
242–6 bronchial tree 128, 129
controls in experiments 39, 312 emulsification of fats 78, 79
invertebrates 12–13 control systems in animals 154–69
calcium in diet 64, 70 emulsion test 38
livestock farming 166, 173, coronary heart disease (CHD) 70, 106–7,
265 cambium 87, 212 endangered species 276, 280
111, 135, 149, 278
selective breeding 236 cancer 65, 70, 111, 135–7, 231, 272 endocrine system 154, 166–9
coronavirus/COVID-19 18, 68, 110, 111
tissues and organs 27 capillaries 96, 100–2 see also hormones
coughing 130, 135, 156
transport systems 96–109 carbohydrates endoplasmic reticulum 24, 211
cuticle of plants 10, 50, 51, 91, 93, 303
vertebrates 14–15 in the diet 62, 63 endothermic animals 15, 146
cytoplasm 8, 9, 17, 22–4
anthers 179–81 digestion 76, 78 energy
antibiotics 112, 174–5, 203, 234, 265, metabolism 36, 37 active transport 34
Darwin, Charles 232
279 tests 39, 47 ecological pyramids 246–7
data collection 246–9
antibodies 117–19, 200 types 37, 63 flow through ecosystems
data handling 313 242–7
antigens 111, 116–19, 304 see also glucose; glycogen;
maltose; starch; sucrose deamination 81, 140 from food 62, 63, 66–9, 70
antiseptics 175, 251 decomposition 114, 242–3, 250–5
anus 72, 73 carbon cycle 57, 252–3 from sun 46, 122, 242–3,
carbon dioxide defaecation 72, 73, 78 247, 256, 257
aorta 100, 101, 104, 106 deficiency diseases 63, 64, 69, 70, 74,
carbon cycle 252–3 heat 122
aquatic environments 59, 93, 244–5, 111, 201, 263, 268
264, 274–5 entering leaf 50 living processes 3, 67, 122
deforestation 266–7, 270, 276, 280, 284 respiration 122–6
arteries 96, 100–1 forming carbonic acid 56,
140 dehydration of body 73, 113, 142, 201 storage molecules 23, 57,
artificial baby milk 201 denaturation of enzymes 40–1, 52, 77,
from aerobic respiration 68, 123
artificial hormones 168 140, 146, 147
56, 123, 126–8 transducers 46, 160
artificial (inorganic) fertilisers 58, 255, desertification 270, 271, 276
264, 275 from burning fossil fuels energy balance 68–70
52, 252–3, 270–1 development of embryo/fetus 196, 199 environment 240–305
artificial insemination 195, 236, 265 development level of countries 69, 70,
artificial kidney 142–3 gas exchange in lungs 128, adaptation to 2, 10–11, 14,
129, 131 106, 136, 201, 263, 268–9 93, 177, 230, 232–5
artificial selection 236–7 diabetes 99, 119, 149, 216, 295
in greenhouses 54 biotic and abiotic factors
asexual reproduction 176–7, 237, 292 diaphragm 128–30, 156 240, 241
hydrogencarbonate indica-
assimilating products of digestion 72, tor 56, 127 diarrhoea 73, 110, 113, 142, 263 carbon cycle 252–3
80–2 dicotyledons 10, 11, 183
photosynthesis 46–7, 51, causes of disease 111
autonomic nervous system 158, 159 52, 54, 56, 57 diet effects on breathing 132
autotrophic nutrition 10, 23, 46, 52, transport in blood 97, 98, balanced 62–5
57, 62 effects on phenotype 229
100, 102, 132 coronary heart disease 70, human impacts 114–15,
auxin 171–2 carbon monoxide 132, 135, 198, 270 106, 278 244, 266–75
carnivores 5–6, 235, 240, 242–6, 260, deficiencies 63, 64, 69, 70, nitrogen cycle 254–5
babies 63, 200–2 273, 281 74, 111, 201, 263, 268 positive human effects
bacteria carpel 179, 182, 183 dental decay 75 276–91
antibiotics 112, 174–5, 203, carriers of inherited conditions 222, energy intake and demand water cycle 256–7
234, 265, 279 223, 225 68–9 see also ecosystems
biotechnology 292–3, carrying capacity 260–2 pregnant women 67, 198
300–1 environmental resistance 260–1
catalysts see enzymes dietary fibre 62, 65, 70, 73, 76, 78, 298 enzymes 40–2
characteristics 17, 292 cell division 122, 206, 209, 212–16, 296 diffusion 30–1, 89, 96, 102
decomposers 242, 250–1 clinical use 149, 295
cells 22–9 digestion 63, 72, 76–9 decomposition 251
dental decay 75 enzymes 40 diploid cells 176, 182, 213, 218, 219
disease causing 73, 110, digestion 76–9
movement of substances in disease 110–21 experiments 312–13
112–13 and out 30–5 antibiotics 112, 174–5, 203, factors affecting activity
eutrophication 274, 275 optimum conditions 144 234, 265, 279
genetic engineering 300–1 40–1
structure 8, 17, 22, 23 blood analysis 99 industrial production and
industrial use 292–3 cell surface membranes 22, 23, 30–5, body’s defences 97, 98, use 285, 292, 294–7, 300, 301
natural bactericides 116 102 116–19 mechanism of action 42
nitrogen cycle 254, 255 cellulose 10, 23, 37, 57, 65, 78, 88 bottle-fed babies 201 epidemiological studies 136–7
waste digestion 283, 285 cell walls classification 110, 111 epidermis of plants 27, 50, 51, 87, 93
base pairing 208–11 bacteria 17 epidemiological studies epiglottis 77, 156
316 bile 73, 78, 79
binary fission 8, 292
fungi 8 136–7
fish farming 279
equilibrium 30, 32–4, 261
erythrocytes see red blood cells genetic code 210 immune response 99, 112, 118–19
ethanol (alcohol) 38, 47, 82, 98, 132, genetic engineering 54, 237, 273, immunisation (vaccination) 110–11, natural (organic) fertilisers for plants
285, 298 300–5 114, 119, 263, 304 58, 254, 255, 283
eutrophication 59, 264, 274–5 genotype and phenotype 219–23, implantation of embryo 193–5 natural selection 232–5
see also biological oxy- 229–31 infectious diseases 110–19 negative feedback see feedback
gen demand geotropism 170 infertility treatments 195, 202 control
evaporation germinating seeds 126, 172, 178, ingestion 72, 74–5 nephrons 140, 141
by sun 256, 257, 271 184–5 inheritance 111, 206–27 nerves 26, 122, 154–7, 159, 160, 163
cooling body 146, 147, global warming/climate change 111, insecticides 86, 264, 273 nervous system 154–65
256 268, 269, 271, 274, 276 neurones 26, 154–7
insects 12, 13, 110, 179–81, 303
deforested soil 267 glucagon 148, 167 neurotransmitters 63, 155, 209
insulin 119, 148–9, 167, 300–1
see also transpiration glucose 38 nicotine 134, 135, 197
intercostal muscles 128–30, 156
evolution 2, 4, 10, 159, 219, 232–5, homeostatic control in nitrates, plant requirements 52, 57–9
body 148–9 intestines 70, 73, 78–80
262 nitrogen cycle 254–5
photosynthesis 46, 47, introduced species 244, 276
excretion 2, 3, 72, 78, 81, 140–1 non-biodegradable waste 114, 273,
51, 57 invertebrate animals 12–13
exercise 67–9, 124, 125, 132 286
respiration 63 in vitro fertilisation 195
experimental method 48–9, 312–13 non-infectious diseases 110, 111,
test 39 involuntary actions 156, 158, 159
external digestion 4, 5, 9 119, 131
glycerol 37, 40, 63, 78, 80, 251 iron in diet 64, 69, 70, 192, 198
see also saprotrophic nuclear power plants/nuclear weap-
nutrition glycogen 23, 36, 37, 63, 68, 148 irritability (sensitivity) 2, 3
ons 272
extinction 267, 277, 280 goblet cells 80, 129 nucleic acids 36, 37
eyes/vision 116, 161–3, 225 greenhouse cultivation 53–5 kidneys 140–4
see also DNA; RNA
greenhouse gases/effect 52, 265, kwashiorkor 63, 69, 103
nucleotide base pairing 208–9
faeces 72, 73 270–1 nucleus of cells 16, 22, 23, 207
fair tests 49, 312 see also global warming laboratory equipment 308
nutrient cycles 250–5
famine 69, 177, 268–9 growth and development 2, 3, 196, labour and birth 200
nutrients
fatigue in muscles 105, 124 199, 212 lactation see breastfeeding
eutrophication of water
fats/fatty acids 37, 62, 63, 68, 78–80, growth hormones 166, 167, 279, 301 lactic acid 106, 124, 125 274–5, 279
146 growth of populations 260–4, 292 Lamarck, Jean Baptiste 234 plant minerals 46, 57–9
feedback, positive 274–5 growth substances (auxins) 171–2 larynx 129, 189 nutrition 2, 3
feedback control (negative feedback) guard cells 50 leaf structure 50–1 autotrophic 10, 23, 46,
blood glucose levels 148 gut see alimentary canal leukaemia 99, 215, 267, 272 52, 57, 62
body temperature 145–7 lifestyle risks 106–7, 111, 198 converting food to us-
endocrine system 166, habitat loss 267, 276, 281, 284 light availability, population growth able molecules 72–82
167 habitats 241, 277 260 definitions 72
homeostasis 145–8 haemoglobin 26, 64, 97, 129, 135, light energy, photosynthesis 46, 49, heterotrophic 4, 5, 23,
population size 261 211, 223, 230 50–5, 122, 242–3 46, 57, 62
water balance 140, 143 haemophilia 116, 225, 301 light sensitivity 160–3, 170–1 human 62–85
feedback inhibition 168, 193, 202 haploid cells 176, 182, 190, 213, limiting factors 52–4, 261, 274 ideal diet 62–3
fermentation 174, 284, 285, 292–3, 218–20 Linnaeus, Carolus 6 providing organic mol-
298, 301 heart 70, 96, 101, 104–7, 132, 135, lipase 40, 78, 79, 251, 295–6 ecules 36
fertilisation 176, 178 149, 278 lipids 36–8, 57, 62, 63, 78–80 saprotrophic 8, 9, 17,
human reproduction heat energy 41, 122, 123, 146, 256–7 liver 73, 81–2, 144, 148 250–1
188, 194, 195, 202 heat–temperature relationship 146 lungs 101, 117, 128–37
plant reproduction herbicides (weed killers) 52, 173, lymph/lymph vessels 80, 102, 103 obesity 68, 70, 149
182–3 264, 303 lymph nodes 103, 118 oesophagus 73, 76, 77
random assortment of herbivores 242–3, 246 lymphocytes 97, 98, 103, 118–19, 203 oestrogen 166, 167, 189, 192, 193,
alleles 219, 220, 231 hermaphrodite plants 178, 180 198, 200
restoring diploid number heterotrophic nutrition 4, 5, 23, 46, magnesium ions 46, 52, 59, 88 oil see fossil fuels; lipids
176, 213 57, 62 organisation of living organisms 26–7
malaria 110, 112, 114
see also sexual reproduc- heterozygous genotype 218–23, organs and organ systems 27, 73,
225, 231 malnutrition 62, 68, 69, 268–9
tion; zygotes 101, 144
HIV/AIDS 99, 110, 112, 203, 263 see also deficiency
fertilisers for plants 58–9, 254, 255, diseases origins of life 2, 256
264, 269, 274–5, 283 homeostasis 144–9 osmoregulation 33, 140–2
maltose 40, 76, 78, 79
fetus 196–9 blood glucose 148 osmosis 32–3, 73, 88–90, 102–3, 142
mammals, classification 5–6, 14, 15
fever 110, 147 body temperature 145–7 ovaries
marasmus 63, 69
fibre in diet 62, 65, 70, 73, 76, 78, 298 disease relationship 110 human 166, 167,
marine environments 245, 273,
fish 14, 101, 244–5, 275, 278–9 internal receptors 160 274, 278 188–90, 192–4, 202, 213
five kingdoms of life 5–18, 21 osmoregulation 140–1 mastication 73, 74, 76 plants 179, 182–3
flaccidity/turgidity of plant cells 23, regulatory functions of mathematical skills 314–17 overnutrition 67–9, 70
33, 50, 89, 90 blood 98 oviducts 188, 190, 194
measurement of variables 48, 310–12
flooding 90, 267–9, 271 homologous pairs of chromosomes ovulation 190, 192–4
212–13, 218–19, 224 meiosis 176, 213, 218, 219, 224, 231
flowering plants 10–11, 178–87 oxygen
homozygous genotype 218–23, 225, membranes
flowers 11, 54, 178–82, 237 eutrophication 264,
231 of cells 22, 23, 30–5, 102
follicle (Graafian) 192, 193, 195 274–5
hormones partially permeable 30,
food, see also nutrition 32, 102, 142, 143 gas exchange 128, 129,
food chains and webs 242–6 birth 200 131
endocrine system 166–9 memory 159
food poisoning 110, 113, 263, 282 menstrual cycle 192–3 population growth 260
food supply 260, 264–9 environmental pollution production by photosyn-
273 mental illness 111
food types 63 thesis 46, 48–9
functions in body 141, meristems 86, 212
forests 242–3, 271, 276, 284 respiration 123, 126,
148, 166 mesophyll cells 26, 27, 50, 88–90 127
fossil fuels 52, 252–3, 270–1, 284 metabolism 36, 40, 67, 140–1
glands 166–7 transport in blood
free radicals 111, 117, 135 methane 251, 265, 270, 271, 283–5
menstrual cycle 192–3 96–102, 104–6
fruit/fruiting 54, 173, 178, 182–3, 303 microorganisms see bacteria; fungi;
plants 170–3 oxygen debt 124, 125
fungal diseases 112 protoctists; yeast
pregnancy 193, 198 oxytocin 200
fungi 4, 5, 8–9, 112, 250–1, 294–5 microscopes 22, 24, 25
production from food
molecules 63 minerals pacemakers 104, 105
gall bladder 73, 78, 79 puberty 166, 167, 189 human nutrition 62, 64 pancreas 73, 78, 79, 148, 149, 167
gametes 206 transport in blood 98 plant nutrition 46, 57–9 parasites 17, 18, 110, 112, 223, 246
humans 188, 190, 192, use in sport 168 mitochondria 8, 24, 123, 190
194 partially permeable membranes 30,
human impacts mitosis 176, 209, 212, 214, 296 32, 102, 142, 143
plants 10, 26, 178–82 monoclonal antibodies 119, 198
affluence effects 262 pathogens 110, 112, 118–19, 197
sexual reproduction monocotyledons 10, 11, 183
176, 177, 206, 213 deforestation 266–7, penis 98, 188–90, 194
270, 276, 280, 284 monoculture 264, 284 peripheral nervous system 154
see also fertilisation;
inheritance; meiosis food webs 244 mouth 72–6, 79, 116 peristalsis 65, 73, 76, 158, 194
gaseous exchange systems 3, 50–1, pollution 260, 270–5, movement of organisms 2, 3, 122 pesticides 86, 260, 264, 270, 273,
56, 128–32 276, 279 movement in and out of cells 30–5, 279, 303
gastric juices 77, 79 positive 276–91 88–9, 102 see also herbicides
generation time 261, 292 since prehistory 262, mucus pH
270 alimentary canal 76–8, enzyme activity effects
genes
human population growth 262–5 80 41
coding for proteins 207,
208 hunting endangered animals 276, fish scales 14 indicators 56
277, 280, 281 from goblet cells 80, 129 regions of gut 73, 76–9
inheritance of character-
istics 218–25 hydrolysis reactions 36–7, 76, 77, in gut 73, 76–8 phagocytes/phagocytosis 34, 97, 98,
251, 285 moved by cilia 26, 129 117, 118
mutations 6, 118, 175,
196, 230–1 hygiene and sanitation 112–14, 175, respiratory pathways phenotype 219–23, 225, 229–31
263, 282 116, 129, 131, 135
role in disease 106–7, phloem 50, 51, 86, 87
111, 136, 222–3, 225 hypothalamus 146, 147 muscles 27, 104–6, 122, 124–5, 156–7 photoreceptors 160, 162, 163
gene therapy 302
ileum 73, 79, 80
mutations 6, 118, 175, 230–1 photosynthesis 46–57 317
 carbon cycle 252–3 random assortment of alleles 219, sexual reproduction 176–87, 206, urea 81, 140–1
control 52–5 220, 231 218–19, 231 urethra 140, 188
energy conversions 122 random sampling 247 sickle cell anaemia 99, 223, 230, 231 urine 81, 140–2, 146, 273, 282
environmental interac- receptors, sensory 145, 147, 154, 157, size of cells 22, 23, 25 urine tests 38, 39, 149, 168, 198, 295
tions 56–7 158, 160–3 skin 14, 21, 111, 116, 144, 146–7 urinogenital systems 188, 190
equations 46, 48 recessive alleles 219–23, 225 smoking 132, 134–7, 162, 197 uterus 188, 190, 192–8, 200
greenhouses 53–5 recycling soil
leaf structure 50–1 natural cycling of atoms deforestation effects 267 vaccination 110–11, 114, 119, 263,
limiting factors 52–4 and molecules 57, 250–6 minerals/nutrients 46, 304
products 46, 47, 51, 57 waste 286–7 58, 59, 88–9, 250, 254–5 vacuoles 22, 23
rate measurement 48–9 water 256–7, 282 water 46, 51, 88, 90 vagina 189–90, 192, 194, 200
requirements 47, 52 red blood cells 26, 33, 81, 97–9, 102, solar energy 46, 122, 242–3, 256, 257 valves 100, 104–6
phototropism 170–1 116, 129 solubility of organic molecules 36–8 variables 49, 310–12
pituitary gland 166, 167, 189, 192, see also haemoglobin species evolution 234–5 variation 2, 228–39
193, 200 reflexes 156–7, 159, 163 sperm 26, 167, 188, 190, 192 artificial selection 236–7
placenta 30, 119, 135, 194–7, 200 refuse, waste management 114–15, sphincters 73, 77, 78, 140
286–7 inheritance 206–7
plants spinal cord and nerves 154, 157, 158 monoculture 264
adaptation to environ- rejection of transplanted tissues 119,
143, 214, 217 starch 23, 36 natural selection 232–5
ment 93 in the diet 63 sexual reproduction
agricultural practices relay neurons 157, 158
renewable fuels 284–5 digestion 76, 78 177, 180, 219, 231
264, 266–7 plant storage 23, 47, 48, vascular tissues in plants 10, 11, 27,
cell division 212 replication of DNA 209, 212
51, 57 51, 86–8, 90, 93
cells 22, 23, 26–7, 33 reproduction 2, 3, 176–204
test 39, 47 vectors
classification 10–11 fungi 8
starvation see famine; malnutrition of disease 110, 111
crop yields 53, 54, 89, humans 188–204
stem cells 212, 214–17 in genetic engineering
177, 264, 268 invertebrate animals 13 300, 301, 302
steroid hormones 63, 168
flower structures 179–81 plants 10, 11, 178–87 veins 96, 100–1
stigma 179–82
genetically modified 303 sexual versus asexual vena cava 100, 101, 104
176–7 stimuli
hormones/auxins 170–3 endocrine glands 166 ventilation system 128–30
leaf structure 50–1 resistance to antibiotics 112, 175,
203, 234, 265 plant responses 170–2 vertebrate animals 14–15
mineral deficiencies 59 receptors 154, 160 villi 80, 197
nutrition 46–61 respiration 2, 3, 122–7
aerobic 24, 46, 106, STIs see sexually transmitted infec- viruses 18, 112, 197
photosynthesis 46–57 tions vision 161–3, 225
123–6, 184, 251, 274
poison effects 52 stomach 73, 76, 79 vitamins 62, 64, 198, 263, 298
anaerobic 124, 125, 251,
pollination 178–81, 237 252, 285, 298 stomata 11, 50–2, 88, 90–3 vitamin A 298, 303
reproduction 177–87 blood glucose levels 149 storage molecules 23, 57, 68, 123 vitamin C 39, 64, 69, 74,
respiration 56 carbon cycle 252–3 sucrose, plant transport 52, 57, 86 135, 201
seed banks 277 measurement 126–7 sugars in diet 63, 70, 75 vitamin D 64, 70, 298
selective breeding 54, muscles 124–5 sulfur dioxide 52, 260, 270, 271 voluntary actions 156, 158, 159
237 surface area effects 30, 31, 51, 80, 93
oxidation 57, 66, 123
tissues 27 sustainable development 276–7, waste management 114–15, 282–3,
plants 56
transport systems 86–95 280, 284 286–7
respiratory surface (gas exchange)
tropism 170–2 128 swallowing reflex 77, 156 water
see also fruit; seeds responsibility for disease control sweating 142, 146, 147 in blood 97, 98
plasma of blood 64, 97, 98 114–15, 203 synapses 155, 157, 209 clean and safe 114, 282
platelets 97–9, 116 retina 156, 160, 161–3 decomposition role 251
poisons see toxins ribosomes 210, 211 teeth 15, 70, 74–5 eutrophication 59, 264,
pollination 178–82, 237 rickets 64, 70 temperature 274–5
pollution 260, 270–5, 276, 279 RINGER list of characteristics of decomposition 251 evaporation from leaves
polysaccharides 37, 40, 76, 148 life 2 enzyme activity effects 11, 50, 52, 88, 90–3
population pyramids 263 RNA (ribonucleic acid) 18, 210–11, 40–1, 52, 251 in the gut 78
populations 241 230 heat relationship 146 human requirement 62,
population size and growth 260–4, roots photosynthesis 52–5 64
292 adapted to dry condi- population growth 260 osmoregulation by
positive feedback 274 tions 93 kidneys 140–2
regulating body tem-
practical assessment 306–17 angiosperms 11 perature 15, 145–7 photosynthesis 46, 50,
auxins and tropism 170, 51
predators 234, 235, 240, 260 testes 166, 167, 188–90, 192, 194, 213
172 plant needs and regula-
see also carnivores testosterone 166–8, 189, 190 tion 50, 52, 53
pregnancy 67, 70, 140, 192, 195–200, ferns 10 tissue fluid 64, 98, 101–3, 140, 142,
food storage 87 properties important to
202 144 life 256
pressure gradients 130, 131 hair cells 26, 87, 88 toxins sewage treatment 282–3
producers and consumers 242–4, 246 internal structure 87 alcohol 298 as a solvent 32, 37
progesterone 167, 192, 193, 200 mineral ion uptake 31, broken down in liver
34, 52, 88, 89 transport through plants
prokaryotes 17 81–2 51, 88, 90–1
see also bacteria need for oxygen 59 chemical reagents 309 uptake by roots 86, 88,
protease 77, 78, 79, 251, 295–6 water uptake 86, 88, 90 crossing placenta 197 90
proteins rough endoplasmic reticulum 24, 211 from pathogens 112, water cycle 256–7
antibodies 118 113 water potential gradient 32, 88,
carriers for active trans- saliva 73, 74, 76, 79 lactic acid 106, 124 90, 98
port 34 salt plant effects 52 wavelength of light 49, 52, 54, 243
coded by genes 207, in diet 70 population growth 260 waxy cuticle of plant 50, 51, 91,
208, 210–11, 230 osmoregulation 140, radiation 272 93, 303
defining characteristics 144 release by microorgan- weather see drought; flooding; global
208, 209 in soil 90 isms 73, 100, 112, 113 warming
in the diet 62, 63, 69 sampling, ecological studies 246–9, waste products of me- weed killers (herbicides) 52, 173,
digestion 77–9 260, 277 tabolism 140 264, 303
functions 63 saprotrophic nutrition 8, 9, 17, 250–1 trachea 77, 129 white blood cells 34, 97–9, 103,
structure 6, 36, 37 saturated fats 63, 70, 106, 201 transamination 81 116–19, 135, 203
synthesis 210–11, 230 scavengers 240, 250 transcription of DNA to RNA 210, World Health Organization (WHO)
test 39 scientific method 312–13 211, 230 114
see also enzymes scurvy 64, 69, 74 transducers of energy 46, 160
protoctists 4, 5, 16, 110, 112, 275 seeds 10–11, 126, 178, 182–5, 277 transgenic organisms 302–4 xylem 50, 51, 86–8, 90
puberty 166, 167, 189 selection pressures 175, 234–7 translation of RNA to protein 210,
pulse/pulse rate 100, 104, 106, 117 selective breeding 54, 236–7, 264–5, 211, 230 yeast 8, 125, 285, 298
pyramids 279 transpiration 50, 88, 90–3 yield of crops 53, 54, 89, 177, 264,
senses and sense organs 158, 160–3 transplants and rejection 119, 143, 268
ecosystem numbers/bio-
mass/energy 246–7 sensitivity (irritability) 2, 3, 160, 214, 217
population by age 263 170–2 transport systems 50, 51, 57, 86–95, zygotes 26, 176, 178, 182, 183, 188,
sensory receptors 145, 147, 154, 157, 96–109 194–6
158, 160–3 trophic levels 242–3, 246–7
qualitative/quantitative assessment of
reactions 48, 92 sewage 274, 275, 282–3 tropism 170–2
qualitative/quantitative characteris- sex chromosomes/sex-linked condi- turgidity/flaccidity of plant cells 23,
tics 228 tions 224–5 33, 50, 89, 90
sex hormones see oestrogen; testos- twins 202
radiation terone
heat 146, 147, 233, 271 sex organs 166, 167, 189 umbilical cord 196, 197
ionising 231, 272 sexually transmitted infections (STIs) unbalanced diet 68–70
203 unsaturated fats 63, 278
solar 91, 111, 256, 271
318
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