Grade 12

Exam Preparation 2022

(Supported by Investec)

SUBJECT: PHYSICAL SCIENCE

(SUMMARY BOOKLET)
PRESENTER: NATASHA BARTON

Presented by JuniorTukkie@UP

SUPPORTED BY:
Weighting of cognitive levels:

Weighting of prescribed content:

Paper 1 Topics (expanded): Paper 2 Topics (expanded):

Mechanics: Chemical change:

1. Newton I, II, II and Universal Law of 1. Quantitative Aspects of Chemical Change
Gravitation (grade 11) (grade 10 and 11)
2. Momentum and Impulse 2. Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions
3. Vertical Projectile Motion (grade 11)
4. Work Energy and Power 3. Rate and Extent of Reaction
4. Chemical Equilibrium
Waves, sound and light: 5. Acids and Bases
1. The Doppler Effect 6. Electrochemistry (Galvanic and Electrolytic
2. Red and Blue Shifts Cells)

Electricity and magnetism: Matter and materials:

1. Electrostatics (grade 10 and 11) • Organic Chemistry (Nomenclature, Physical
2. Electric Circuits (grade 10, 11 and 12) Properties, Applications, Reactions etc.)
3. Electrodynamics (Generators and Motors)
4. Alternating current

Matter and materials:

1. The Photoelectric Effect
2. Atomic Spectra
NEWTON’S LAWS

FORCES (Vector; Unit: N)

Normal force (𝑁 or 𝐹𝑁 ): Weight (𝑊 or 𝐹𝑔 ): Frictional force (𝑓 or 𝐹𝑓 ):
The force or the component of a The gravitational force the Earth The force that opposes the motion of an object and which acts parallel to the
force which a surface exerts on an exerts on any object on or near its surface.
object with which it is in contact, and surface.
which is perpendicular to the 𝑭𝒈 = 𝒎𝒈 Static frictional force: the force that opposes the tendency of motion of a
surface. where: stationary object relative to a surface. 𝒇𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝒔 = 𝝁𝒔 𝑵
𝒈 = 9,8 𝑚. 𝑠 −2 (on Earth)
Kinetic frictional force: the force that opposes the motion of a moving
Gravitational acceleration on other object relative to a surface. 𝒇𝒌 = 𝝁𝒌 𝑵
planets:
𝑮𝑴 Remember that frictional force:
𝒈= 𝟐
𝒓  Is proportional to the normal force.
where:  Is independent of the area of contact.
M = mass of the planet (kg)  Is independent of the velocity of motion.
r = radius of the planet (m)

Newton's first law of motion: Newton's second law of motion: Newton's third law of motion: Universal Gravitation:
Each body in the universe attracts
When a net force acts on an object, every other body with a force that is
When object A exerts a force on
the object will accelerate in the directly proportional to the product
A body will remain in its state of rest object B, object B
direction of the force and the of their masses and inversely
or motion at constant velocity unless SIMULTANEOUSLY exerts an
acceleration is directly proportional proportional to the square of the
a non-zero resultant/net force acts oppositely directed force of equal
to the force and inversely distance between their centres.
on it. magnitude on object A.
proportional to the mass of the
𝑭𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝟎𝑵
object. 𝑮𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
𝑭𝑨𝑩 = −𝑭𝑩𝑨 𝑭𝒈 =
𝑭𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝒎𝒂 𝒓𝟐
MOMENTUM AND IMPULSE

Momentum: Newton's second law of motion in terms of Impulse:

(Vector; Unit: 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚. 𝑠 −1 ) momentum: (Vector; Unit: N.s)

The product of an object's mass and its velocity. The net (or resultant) force acting on an object The product of the resultant/net force acting on an
𝒑 = 𝒎𝒗 is equal to the rate of change of momentum of object and the time the net force acts on the object.
the object in the direction of the net force.
Linear momentum is a vector quantity with the
𝑰𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒔𝒆 = 𝑭𝒏𝒆𝒕 ∆𝒕
same direction as the velocity of the object. ∆𝒑
𝑭𝒏𝒆𝒕 =
∆𝒕 Impulse = area under a net force versus time graph
Change in momentum:
∆𝒑 = 𝒎𝒗𝒇 − 𝒎𝒗𝒊 Airbags, seatbelts and arrestor beds: Impulse-momentum theorem:
‘The same change in momentum over a longer
Vector diagrams: period of time results in a smaller net force and 𝑰𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒔𝒆 = ∆𝒑
𝒑𝒇 = 𝒑𝒊 + ∆𝒑 therefore less injury/impact.’ 𝑭𝒏𝒆𝒕 ∆𝒕 = 𝒎𝒗𝒇 − 𝒎𝒗𝒊

Principle of conservation of linear momentum: Elastic and inelastic collisions: Principle of conservation of mechanical energy:
(Energy is scalar; Unit: J)
The total linear momentum of an isolated system Step 1) Calculate:
remains constant (is conserved). The total mechanical energy (sum of gravitational
𝟏 𝟏
∑ 𝑬𝒌 (𝒃𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆) = ( 𝒎𝑨 𝒗𝟐𝑨 + 𝒎𝑩 𝒗𝟐𝑩 ) potential energy and kinetic energy) in an isolated
𝟐 𝟐 𝒃𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆
∑ 𝒑𝒃𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 = ∑ 𝒑𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 system remains constant.

Step 2) Calculate:
∑ 𝑬𝑴 (𝒕𝒐𝒑) = ∑ 𝑬𝑴 (𝒃𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒎)
Separate before and after a collision: 𝟏 𝟏
∑ 𝑬𝒌 (𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓) = ( 𝒎𝑨 𝒗𝟐𝑨 + 𝒎𝑩 𝒗𝟐𝑩 )
𝟐 𝟐 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝒎𝑨 𝒗𝒊𝑨 + 𝒎𝑩 𝒗𝒊𝑩 = 𝒎𝑨 𝒗𝒇𝑨 + 𝒎𝑩 𝒗𝒇𝑩 𝟏 𝟏
( 𝒎𝒗𝟐 + 𝒎𝒈𝒉) = ( 𝒎𝒗𝟐 + 𝒎𝒈𝒉)
Joined before an explosion: e.g. a bullet in a riffle 𝟐 𝒕𝒐𝒑 𝟐 𝒃𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒎
Step 3) Conclude:
(𝒎𝑨 + 𝒎𝑩 )𝒗𝒊 = 𝒎𝑨 𝒗𝒇𝑨 + 𝒎𝑩 𝒗𝒇𝑩 (𝒈 = scalar)
 If ∑ 𝑬𝒌 (𝒃𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆) = ∑ 𝑬𝒌 (𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓), then the
Joined after a collision: collision was ELASTIC.
A system is isolated when the net external force
e.g. jumping off a skateboard (excluding the gravitational force) acting on the
 If ∑ 𝑬𝒌 (𝒃𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆) ≠ ∑ 𝑬𝒌 (𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓), then the
system is zero.
𝒎𝑨 𝒗𝒊𝑨 + 𝒎𝑩 𝒗𝒊𝑩 = (𝒎𝑨 + 𝒎𝑩 )𝒗𝒇 collision was INELASTIC.
VERTICAL PROJECTILE MOTION

Definitions: Equations of motion: Time symmetry

A to C: ∆𝑡(𝐴 𝑡𝑜 𝐶) = ∆𝑡(𝐶 𝑡𝑜 𝐸)
𝒗𝒇 = 𝒗𝒊 + 𝒂∆𝒕  Acceleration is 9,8 𝑚. 𝑠 −2 downwards. ∆𝑡(𝐴 𝑡𝑜 𝐵) = ∆𝑡(𝐷 𝑡𝑜 𝐸)
𝒗𝒇 𝟐 = 𝒗𝒊 𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂∆𝒚  Velocity is upwards. ∆𝑡(𝐵 𝑡𝑜 𝐶) = ∆𝑡(𝐶 𝑡𝑜 𝐷)
 The object is slowing down.
𝟏 At C: Speed symmetry
∆𝒚 = 𝒗𝒊 ∆𝒕 + 𝒂∆𝒕𝟐
Projectile - An object which has been 𝟐  Acceleration is 9,8 𝑚. 𝑠 −2 downwards. Speed at B = Speed at D
given an initial velocity and then it 𝒗𝒊 + 𝒗𝒇  Velocity is zero. Speed at A = Speed at E
moves under the influence of the ∆𝒚 = ( ) ∆𝒕
𝟐  The object is at its maximum height
gravitational force only. above the ground. C
−2
𝒂 = acceleration (9,8 𝑚. 𝑠 𝐷𝑂𝑊𝑁) C to E:
Free fall -Motion during which the 𝒗𝒊 = initial velocity (𝑚. 𝑠 −1 )  Acceleration is 9,8 𝑚. 𝑠 −2 downwards.
only force acting on an object is the B D
𝒗𝒇 = final velocity (𝑚. 𝑠 −1 )  Velocity is downwards.
gravitational force.
∆𝒚 = displacement (𝑚)  The object is speeding up.
∆𝒕 = time (𝑠) At E:
ALL QUANTITIES ARE VECTORS  The object hits the ground with a
EXCEPT ∆𝒕 !!! maximum velocity downwards. A E
Graphs of motion: Position versus time: Velocity versus time: Acceleration versus time:

Gradient = acceleration = 9,8 𝑚. 𝑠 −2

downwards
Constant = 9,8 𝑚. 𝑠 −2 downwards
Sum of the area under the graph =
Gradient of tangent = velocity
displacement
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

Work: (Scalar; Unit: 𝐽) Mechanical Energy: (Scalar; Unit: 𝐽) Principle of conservation of mechanical energy:

The total mechanical energy (sum of gravitational

Kinetic energy is the energy an object has as a
𝑾 = 𝑭∆𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 potential energy and kinetic energy) in an isolated
result of its motion.
𝟏 system remains constant.
𝑬𝒌 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐
𝑭 = magnitude of the force 𝟐
∆𝒙 = magnitude of the displacement ∑ 𝑬𝑴 (𝒕𝒐𝒑) = ∑ 𝑬𝑴 (𝒃𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒎)
𝜽 = angle between the force and the displacement Gravitational potential energy is the energy that
an object has as a result of its position in a 𝟏 𝟏
𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝑭𝒏𝒆𝒕 ∆𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 gravitational field relative to a reference point. ( 𝒎𝒗𝟐 + 𝒎𝒈𝒉) = ( 𝒎𝒗𝟐 + 𝒎𝒈𝒉)
𝟐 𝒕𝒐𝒑 𝟐 𝒃𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒎
or
𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝑾𝒇 + 𝑾𝑭𝒈 + 𝑾𝑭 + ⋯ 𝑬𝒑 = 𝒎𝒈𝒉 (𝒈 = scalar)
A system is isolated when the net external force
or (excluding the gravitational force) acting on the
𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝑾𝒄 + 𝑾𝒏𝒄 Mechanical energy is the sum of the gravitational
system is zero.
potential energy and kinetic energy of an object.
Positive net work done = Energy gained In an isolated system:
Negative net work done = Energy lost 𝑬𝑴 = 𝑬𝒑 + 𝑬𝒌
∆𝑬𝒌 + ∆𝑬𝒑 = 𝟎, since 𝑾𝒏𝒄 = 𝟎
Conservative and non-conservative forces: Work-energy theorem: Power: (Scalar; Unit: 𝑊)

The work done on an object by a net force is

Conservative force - A force for which the work equal to the change in the object's kinetic energy.
The rate at which work is done or energy is
done in moving an object between two points is
expended.
independent of the path taken. E.g. gravitational 𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 = ∆𝑬𝒌
𝑾
force, the elastic force in a spring and electrostatic 𝑷=
𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝑬𝒌𝒇 − 𝑬𝒌𝒊 ∆𝒕
forces.
When an object moves at a constant speed
Non-conservative force - A force for which the Work-energy theorem in general:
along a rough horizontal surface or a rough
work done in moving an object between two
inclined plane:
points depends on the path taken. E.g. frictional 𝑾𝒏𝒄 = ∆𝑬𝒌 + ∆𝑬𝒑
𝑷𝒂𝒗𝒆 = 𝑭𝒗𝒂𝒗𝒆
force, air resistance, tension in a chord, etc. 𝟏 𝟏
𝑾𝒏𝒄 = ( 𝒎𝒗𝟐𝒇 − 𝒎𝒗𝟐𝒊 ) + (𝒎𝒈𝒉𝒇 − 𝒎𝒈𝒉𝒊 )
𝟐 𝟐
DOPPLER EFFECT

Definition: Equation: Light:

𝒗 ± 𝒗𝑳 Red shift – If the light source is moving Blue shift – If the light source is moving
𝒇𝑳 = ( )𝒇
𝒗 ± 𝒗𝑺 𝑺 away from the observer, then the towards the observer, then the observed
Doppler effect – the change in
observed frequency is lower and the frequency is higher and the observed
frequency (or pitch) of the 𝒗 = 𝒇𝝀
observed wavelength is longer. wavelength is shorter.
sound detected by a listener, 𝟏
because the sound source and 𝒇=
𝑻 (Evidence of the universe expanding.)
the listener have different
𝒗 = speed of sound
velocities relative to the
medium of sound propagation. (≈ 340 𝑚. 𝑠 −1 in air)
or speed of light
(3,0 × 108 𝑚. 𝑠 −1 in a vacuum)
𝒇 = frequency; Unit: Hz
Frequency ≠ Amplitude
𝝀 = wavelength; Unit: m
(pitch) (loudness)
𝑻 = period; Unit: s

Applications: TOWARDS:

Medical: +
Blood flow meter 𝒇𝑳 > 𝒇𝑺 ;
−
Measure foetal heartbeat
Ultrasound machines
𝒗 + 𝒗𝑳
𝒇𝑳 = ( )𝒇
Other: 𝒗 − 𝒗𝑺 𝑺
Radar speed trapping
Astronomy AWAY:

−
𝒇𝑳 < 𝒇𝑺 ;
+

𝒗 − 𝒗𝑳
𝒇𝑳 = ( )𝒇
𝒗 + 𝒗𝑺 𝑺
ELECTROSTATICS

Grade 10 formulae: Electrostatic Force - Electric field:

(Charge = scalar; Unit: C) Coulomb's law: (Vector; Unit: 𝑁. 𝐶 −1 )
(Vector; Unit: N)

A region of space in which an

𝑸 = 𝒏𝒒𝒆 The magnitude of the
electric charge experiences a
electrostatic force exerted by
force.
𝑸𝟏 + 𝑸𝟐 one point charge (𝑸𝟏 ) on
𝑸𝒏𝒆𝒘 =
𝟐 another point charge (𝑸𝟐 ) is Electric field at a point:
directly proportional to the
The electric field at a point is
∆𝑸 = 𝑸𝒏𝒆𝒘 − 𝑸𝒊 product of the magnitudes of
the electrostatic force
the charges and inversely
∆𝑸 experienced per unit positive
∆𝒏 = proportional to the square of
charge placed at that point.
𝒒𝒆 the distance (𝒓) between
them: 𝑭
∆𝒎 = ∆𝒏 × 𝒎𝒆 𝑬𝑸 =
𝒒
𝒌𝑸𝟏 𝑸𝟐
𝑭𝑬 =
mC × 10−3 C 𝒓𝟐 𝒌𝑸
μC × 10−6 C 𝑬𝑸 =
𝒓𝟐
nC × 10−9 C Direction:
pC × 10−12 C ‘Is the force attractive or
repulsive?’
Direction:
−3
mm × 10 m ‘Where will a positive test
cm × 10−2 m charge move?’

The force that a system of point charges exerts on another point charge is equal to the VECTOR addition of all the forces
Superposition of forces (𝑭𝒏𝒆𝒕 ):
each one exerts on it.

The electric field strength at a point due to a system of point charges is equal to the VECTOR addition of all the electric
Superposition of fields (𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒕 ):
field strengths of each one at a specific point.
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
Formulae: Series: Parallel: Graph:
Current:
𝑸
𝑰=
∆𝒕

Potential Difference:
Y-intercept = 𝜺
𝑾
𝑽= Gradient = − 𝒓
𝑸

Ohm's law: The potential r Maximum current

difference across a conductor
is directly proportional to the
current in the conductor at r
constant temperature.

𝑽
𝑹=
𝑰 𝑹𝑺 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + +
𝑹𝒑 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 Equation of a straight line: 𝒚 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒄
Emf: the maximum energy 𝑹𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝑹𝑺 + 𝒓
provided by a battery per unit
𝑹𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝑹𝑷 + 𝒓 Equation of the above graph: 𝑽 = −𝒓𝑰 + 𝜺
charge passing through it. 𝑰𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰𝟐 = 𝑰𝟑
𝑰𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑰𝟑 Hence:
𝜺 = 𝑽𝒆𝒙𝒕 + 𝑽𝒊𝒏𝒕 𝑽𝒆𝒙𝒕 = 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 + 𝑽𝟑 𝜺 is given by the y-intercept
𝑽𝒆𝒙𝒕 = 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑽𝟐 = 𝑽𝟑
𝜺 = 𝑽𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 + 𝑽𝒊𝒏𝒕 𝜺 = 𝑰𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 (𝑹𝑺 + 𝒓) ∆𝑽
𝒓 = - gradient = −
𝜺 = 𝑰𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 (𝑹𝑷 + 𝒓) ∆𝑰
𝜺 = 𝑰(𝑹 + 𝒓)

Work: (Unit: J) Power: (Unit: W) Cost:

The rate at which work is done. 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒕 = 𝒏𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒌𝑾𝒉 × 𝒕𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒇𝒇/𝒌𝑾𝒉

𝑾 = 𝑽𝒒 𝟐
𝑾 = 𝑰 𝑹∆𝒕
𝑾 𝑷 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹 the kilowatt hour (kWh) refers to the
𝑷=
𝑾 = 𝑽𝑰∆𝒕 𝑽𝟐 ∆𝒕 ∆𝒕 use of 1 kilowatt of electricity for 1
𝑾= 𝑽𝟐
𝑹 𝑷 = 𝑽𝑰 𝑷= hour.
𝑹
ELECTRODYNAMICS

AC Generator: DC Generator (Dynamo): DC Motor:

Energy conversion: mechanical to electrical. Energy conversion: electrical to mechanical.
Based on the principle of electromagnetic induction.
Elements: Elements: Elements:
 Magnets  Magnets  Two permanent magnets
 Armature (coil)  Armature (coil)  Armature (coil)
 Carbon brushes  Carbon brushes  Carbon brushes
 Slip rings  Split-ring commutator  Split-ring commutator
 Power supply

Fleming’s right hand (dynamo) rule (for generators): Faradays’ law of Fleming’s left hand rule (for motors):
electromagnetic induction:

∆𝝓
𝜺 = −𝑵
∆𝒕 LM
Thumb: direction of the force

Index finger: magnetic field: N to S

Middle finger:
conventional current: + to -
ALTERNATING CURRENT
Alternating current (AC) is an oscillating electric current that varies sinusoidally with time, reversing its direction of flow periodically.

RMS values: Graphs of voltage versus time: Average Power: (Unit: W)

RMS Potential difference: (Unit: V) Current versus time: Voltage versus time:
For one complete cycle: For one complete cycle: 𝑷𝒂𝒗𝒆 = 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔
The rms potential difference is the AC potential
difference which dissipates/produces the same
amount of energy as an equivalent DC potential 𝑷𝒂𝒗𝒆 = (𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 )𝟐 𝑹
difference. 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 (𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 )𝟐
𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 = 𝑷𝒂𝒗𝒆 =
√𝟐 𝑹
Where: 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑹 −𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥

RMS Current: (Unit: A) Advantages of Ac over DC:

Or Or
 Easier to generate than DC.
The rms current is the alternating current which  Easier to convert from AC to DC than from
dissipates/produces the same amount of energy 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 DC to AC.
as an equivalent direct current (DC).
 It can be transmitted at high voltage and low
𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 current over long distances with less energy
𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 = lost.
√𝟐
−𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥  . Easy to be transformed (step up or step
𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙
Where: 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 = down using a transformer).
𝑹
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

Theory Equations Graph:

Photoelectric effect: the process whereby electrons are 𝟏

ejected from a metal surface when light of suitable frequency is 𝒗 = 𝒇𝝀 𝒇=
𝑻
incident on that surface.
Photoelectric equation:
Threshold frequency (𝒇𝒐 ): the minimum frequency of light
needed to emit electrons from a certain metal surface.
𝑬 = 𝑾𝒐 + 𝑬𝒌(𝐦𝐚𝐱)
Work function (𝐖𝐨 ): the minimum energy that an electron in
the metal needs to be emitted from the metal surface. Energy (of the incident light):
𝒉𝒄
Effect of intensity: the number of electrons emitted per unit 𝑬 = 𝒉𝒇 or 𝑬 =
𝝀
time is proportional to the intensity of incident light. If 𝒇 ≥ 𝒇𝒐
then current can be increased by increasing intensity. Work function (of the metal):
Effect of frequency: The maximum kinetic energy of the 𝒉𝒄
𝐖𝐨 = 𝒇𝒐 𝒉 or 𝐖𝐨 =
photoelectrons is linearly proportional to the frequency of the 𝝀𝒐
incident radiation. Current will NOT increase if 𝑓 of the incident
light is increased. Maximum kinetic energy
(of the photoelectrons):
Significance of the photoelectric effect: The photo-electric
effect establishes the quantum theory and illustrates the 𝟏
𝑬𝒌(𝒎𝒂𝒙) = 𝒎 𝒗𝟐
particle nature of light. 𝟐 𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒙

Equation of a straight line: 𝒚 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒄

Equation of the above graph: 𝑬𝒌(𝒎𝒂𝒙) = 𝒉𝒇 − 𝐖𝐨

Formed when certain
Formed when certain frequencies of
Hence:
frequencies of electromagnetic
electromagnetic radiation are emitted 𝐖𝐨 is given by the y-intercept
radiation passing due to an atom making
through a substance a transition from a ∆𝑬𝒌(𝒎𝒂𝒙)
𝒉 = gradient =
is absorbed. higher energy state to a ∆𝒇
lower energy state
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Molecular formula: A chemical formula that indicates the element Homologous series: A series of organic compounds that can be described by the same general
and numbers of each of the atoms in a molecule. Example: C4H8O formula OR in which one member differs from the next with a CH2 group

Structural formula: A structural formula of a compound shows Functional group: A bond or an atom or a group of atoms that determine(s) the
which atoms are attached to which within the molecule. Atoms are physical and chemical properties of a group of organic compounds
represented by their chemical symbols and lines are used to
represent ALL the bonds that hold the atoms together. Example:
General
formula Suffix

CnH2n+2 -ane

CnH2n -ene
Condensed structural formula: This notation shows the way in
which atoms are bonded together in the molecule, but DOES NOT CnH2n-2 -yne
SHOW ALL bond lines.
Example: CnH2n+1X
-ane
X = F, Cℓ, Br, I

CnH2n+1OH -ol

Hydrocarbon: Organic compounds that consist of hydrogen and

CnH2nO -anal
carbon only (alkanes, alkenes and alkynes).

Saturated compounds: Compounds in which there are no

CnH2nO -one
multiple bonds between C atoms in their hydrocarbon chains
(alkanes).
CnH2nO2 -oic acid
Unsaturated compounds: Compounds with one or more multiple
bonds between C atoms in their hydrocarbon chains (alkenes,
alkynes).
CnH2nO2 -oate
SUMMARY OF NOMENCLATURE RULES FOR ORGANIC CHEMISTRY:

1. Identify the functional group of the molecule to determine the ending (suffix) of its name.

2. The number of C-atoms in the longest continuous chain determines the stem/ parent names of organic
compounds.

3. Number the C-atoms in the main chain so that the functional group is given the lowest number.
4. For alkanes and haloalkanes, number the C-atoms so that the first substituent (alkyl group/branch
or halogen atom) is given the lowest number possible. Halogen atoms are treated as equals to alkyl
groups.
5. If different substituents are attached to the same number C-atom, irrespective from which side it is
numbered, the alphabet prevails.
6. Indicate the number of the C-atom to which functional groups or substituents are attached. Always
include a position number for each substituent, regardless of redundancies. Exclude position
number if obvious.
7. The following prefixes are used for alkyl groups and halogen atoms respectively.

8. If two or more functional groups or substituents are present, indicate this with a prefix (di=2, tri=3,
tetra=4).
9. If two or more different substituents are present, they are alphabetically listed when writing the name
i.e. ethyl before methyl. Note that prefixes di, tri and tetra are NOT taken into consideration when
arranging alkyl groups into alphabetical order i.e. triethyl will come before dimethyl.
10. No spaces are left between words.
11. Numbers are separated from words with a hyphen.
12. Numbers are separated from numbers with a comma.
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Structural isomer: Organic molecules with the same molecular formula, but Physical properties:
different structural formulae
 Boiling point – The temperature at which the vapour pressure of a liquid equals
Chain isomers: Same molecular formula, but different types of chains, e.g. atmospheric pressure.
 Melting point – The temperature at which the solid and liquid phases of a
substance are at equilibrium.
 Vapour pressure – The pressure exerted by a vapour at equilibrium with its
liquid in a closed system.

FUNCTIONAL GROUP STRONGEST INTERMOLECULAR FORCE

Alkanes, alkenes, alkynes London forces (induced dipole forces)
Haloalkanes (alkyl halides),
Positional isomers: Same molecular formula, but different positions of the side Dipole-dipole forces
ketones, esters, aldehydes
chain, substituents or functional groups on the parent chain, e.g. Alcohols, carboxylic acids* Hydrogen bonds
*carboxylic acids have TWO sites for hydrogen bonds

Increase in number High boiling

of functional groups point More energy
Increase in chain Strong High melting needed to
length (molecular intermolecular point overcome
mass) forces intermolecular
Decrease in number Low vapour forces
of branches pressure

Comparing Intermolecular Forces:

Functional isomers: Same molecular formula, but different functional groups, e.g.
1. Identify the type(s) of intermolecular force(s).
2. Discuss the difference between the two compounds (number of functional groups,
chain length/ molecular mass, number of branches).
3. State how this difference affects the strength of the intermolecular force.
4. State how the physical property is affected by the strength of the intermolecular
forces.
5. State the energy required to overcome the intermolecular forces.
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Addition Reactions: USA Substitution Reactions: SSS

Hydrohalogenation: The addition of a hydrogen halide to an alkene.

Halogenation of alkanes: H-atom substituted with a halogen atom.
Conditions: unreactive solvent, no water present
Conditions: Heat or sunlight (UV light)
Markovnikov’s rule applies – the main product is the one in which the H-
atom bonds to the C-atom with the most H-atoms. Halogenation of alcohols: Hydroxyl (-OH) substituted with a halogen atom.
Conditions:
Halogenation: The reaction of a halogen (Br2, Cℓ2) with a compound.  For tertiary alcohols: room temperature
Conditions: unreactive solvent, no water present.
 For primary and secondary alcohols: Heat
Hydration: The addition of water to a compound.
Hydrolysis of haloalkanes: Halogen atom substituted with a hydroxyl (-OH)
Conditions: excess water as reactant, dilute stong Method 1: Using a strong base
acid catalyst (H2SO4 or H3PO4) Conditions: dilute strong base (NaOH, KOH or LiOH) as a reactant, mild
Markovnikov’s rule applies. heat
Method 2: Using water
Hydrogenation: The addition of hydrogen to an alkene.
Conditions: excess water as a reactant, mild heat.
Conditions: catalyst (Pt, Pd or Ni)

Elimination reactions: SUE Combustion of alkanes: (alkanes are fuels)

Dehydrohalogenation of haloalkanes: The elimination of hydrogen and a

Alkane + O2 → CO2 + H2O ∆H<0
halogen from a haloalkane.
Order for balancing combustion equations:
Conditions: concentrated strong base (NaOH, KOH or LiOH) as a reactant,
C-atoms; H-atoms; O-atoms; whole numbers
strongly heated with reflux.
Zaitsev’s rule applies – the main product is the one in which the H-atom is Esterification:
removed from the C-atom with the least H-atoms.
Esterification: a reaction of an alcohol and a carboxylic acid in the
Dehydration of alcohols: Elimination of water from an alcohol. presence of a concentrated strong acid to form an ester (and water as a by-
Conditions: concentrated strong acid catalyst (H2SO4 or H3PO4), strongly product)
heated
Zaitsev’s rule applies.
Cracking of alkanes: The chemical process in which longer chain
hydrocarbon molecules are broken down to shorter more useful molecules.
Conditions:
Thermal cracking – high temperature and high pressure
Catalytic cracking – a catalyst Conditions: catalyst (H2SO4) and heat
ENERGY AND CHANGE

Theory: Potential energy versus course of reaction graph:

Heat of reaction (ΔH): the energy absorbed or released in a chemical reaction.

Exothermic reactions: reactions that release energy.
ΔH < 0 for exothermic reactions.

Endothermic reactions: as reactions that absorb energy.

ΔH > 0 for endothermic reactions.

Activation energy: the minimum energy needed for a reaction to take place.

Activated complex: as the unstable transition state from reactants to products.

RATE AND EXTENT OF REACTION

Maxwell-Boltzmann (number of particles against kinetic energy)
Theory:
distribution curve:
Reaction rate: the change in concentration of reactants or products per unit time

∆𝒄
𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 = (measured in mol.dm-3.s-1)
∆𝒕

The collision theory is a model that explains reaction rate as the result of particles
colliding with a certain minimum energy to form products. (Particles must collide with the
correct orientation and with kinetic energy greater than or equal to the activation energy).

Factors that affect the rate of chemical reactions: nature of reacting substances,
surface area, concentration (pressure for gases), temperature and the presence of a
catalyst.

Catalyst: as a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself
undergoing a permanent change. (A catalyst increases the rate of a reaction by providing
an alternative path of lower activation energy. It therefore decreases the net activation
energy.)
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
Remember to:
 Use RICEE tables to perform calculations.
Open and closed systems: An open system continuously  Write out Kc expressions with the product and reactant formulae before substituting
interacts with its environment, while a closed system is isolated into it the concentration values.
from its surroundings.  Exclude liquids and solids from the Kc expression.
Reversible reaction: A reaction is reversible when products can
EFFECT ON Kc
be converted back to reactants and vice versa. DISTURBANCE FAVOURED REACTION
VALUE
Chemical equilibrium: It is a dynamic equilibrium when the rate Forward reaction and products
Increase reactant concentration No effect
of the forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse reaction. favoured.
Reverse reaction and products
Factors that influence the position of an equilibrium: pressure Decrease reactant concentration No effect
(gases only), concentration and temperature. The equilibrium favoured.
position is not affected by the addition of a catalyst. Reverse reaction and products
Increase product concentration No effect
favoured.
Factors that influence the value of the equilibrium constant, Forward reaction and products
Kc: Kc is ONLY affected by temperature. Decrease product concentration No effect
favoured.
A high Kc value (Kc > 1) indicates that a lot of product has Increase in pressure* (decrease Reaction with the least number
No effect
formed i.e. equilibrium lies to the right. in volume) of moles gas is favoured.
Decrease in pressure* (increase Reaction with the largest number
A low Kc value (Kc > 1) indicates that a higher concentration of No effect
in volume) of moles gas is favoured.
reactants than products are present i.e. equilibrium lies to the left.
Increase in temperature** of a Forward endothermic reaction
Increases
Le Chatelier's principle: When the equilibrium in a closed forward endothermic reaction. favoured.
system is disturbed, the system will re-instate a new equilibrium Decrease in temperature** of a Reverse exothermic reaction
by favouring the reaction that will oppose the disturbance. Decreases
forward endothermic reaction. favoured.
* Affects the concentrations of all gases (whether reactants or Increase in temperature** of a Reverse endothermic reaction
Decreases
products) on a concentration versus time graph. forward exothermic reaction. favoured.
Decrease in temperature** of a Forward exothermic reaction
** Affects the rate of both the forward and reverse reactions Increases
forward exothermic reaction. favoured.
on a reaction rate versus time graph.
NO effect on equilibrium position.
Addition of a catalyst No effect
Reaction rate increases.
ACIDS AND BASES

Types of reactions with acids:

Arrhenius theory:
Acids produce hydrogen ions (H+/H3O+/hydronium ions) in aqueous solution.  Acid and metal hydroxide → salt + water
Bases produce hydroxide ions (OH-) in aqueous solution.  Acid and metal oxide → salt + water
 Acid and metal carbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide
Lowry-Brønsted theory:
An acid is a proton (H+ ion) donor.  Acid and reactive metal → salt + hydrogen gas
A base is a proton (H+ ion) acceptor.
Equivalence point of a titration: the point at which the acid/base has completely
Strong acids ionise completely in water to form a high concentration of H3O+ ions. reacted with the base/acid.
(For strong acids 𝐾𝑎 values are large. Strong acids form strong electrolytes. Strong
Endpoint of a titration: the point where the indicator changes colour.
acids form weak conjugate bases)
𝒄𝒂 𝑽 𝒂 𝒏𝒂
Weak acids ionise incompletely in water to form a low concentration of H3O+ ions. Titrations: = Dilution: 𝒏𝟏 = 𝒏𝟐 therefore 𝒄𝟏 𝑽𝟏 = 𝒄𝟐 𝑽𝟐
(For weak acids 𝐾𝑎 values are small. Weak acids form weak electrolytes. Weak 𝒄𝒃 𝑽 𝒃 𝒏𝒃
acids form strong conjugate bases)
Hydrolysis: the reaction of a salt with water.
Strong bases dissociate completely in water to form a high concentration of OH-
ions.  Hydrolysis of the salt of a weak acid and a strong base results in an alkaline
(For strong bases 𝐾𝑏 values are large. Strong bases form strong electrolytes. Strong solution, i.e. the pH > 7. Indicator: Phenolphthalein.
bases form weak conjugate acids)
 Hydrolysis of the salt of a strong acid and a weak base results in an acidic
Weak bases dissociate/ionise incompletely in water to form a low concentration of solution, i.e. the pH < 7. Indicator: Methyl orange.
OH- ions. (For weak bases 𝐾𝑏 values are small. Weak bases form weak
electrolytes. Weak bases form strong conjugate acids)  The salt of a strong acid and a strong base does not undergo hydrolysis and the
solution of the salt will be neutral. Indicator: Bromothymol blue.
Concentrated acids/bases contain a large amount (number of moles) of acid/base
in proportion to the volume of water. Auto-ionisation of water: the reaction of water with itself to form H3O+ ions and
OH- ions.
Dilute acids/bases contain a small amount (number of moles) of acid/base in 𝑲𝒘 = [𝑯𝟑 𝑶+ ][𝑶𝑯− ] = 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟒 at 298 K
proportion to the volume of water.
pH scale: a scale of numbers from 0 to 14 used to express the acidity or alkalinity of
Congugate acid –base pairs: a solution.
Acid → H+ + conjugate base 𝒑𝑯 = −𝒍𝒐𝒈[𝑯𝟑 𝑶+ ]

Base + H+ → conjugate base Monoprotic acid: 1 mole of acid produces 1 mole of [H3 O+ ]
Diprotic acid: 1 mole of acid produces 2 mole of [H3 O+ ]
Ampholyte: A substance that can act as either an acid or base.
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
TABLE 4A: STANDARD REDUCTION POTENTIALS TABLE 4B: STANDARD REDUCTION POTENTIALS

Most positive reduction potential Most positive reduction potential Most negative reduction potential Most negative reduction potential
Strongest oxidising agent Weakest reducing agent Weakest oxidising agent Strongest reducing agent

Most negative reduction potential Most negative reduction potential Most positive reduction potential Most positive reduction potential
Weakest oxidising agent Strongest reducing agent Strongest oxidising agent Weakest reducing agent

Steps to writing balanced redox reactions

(using a table of standard reduction potentials):
1. Find the table you are most comfortable with (either 4A or 4B)
Oxidation: a loss of electrons/ an increase in oxidation number (OIL/ LEO).
2. Identify the reactants
Reduction: a gain of electrons/ a decrease in oxidation number (RIG/ GER). 3. Underline or highlight the reactants on the table.
Oxidising agent: a substance that is reduced/gains electrons. 4. Draw arrows in the direction of the reaction:
Oxidation half reaction: right to left
Reducing agent: a substance that is oxidised/loses electrons.
Reaction half reaction: left to right
Anode: the electrode where oxidation takes place (AN OX).
5. Write down the oxidation and reduction half-reactions.
Cathode: the electrode where reduction takes place (RED CAT). 6. Balance electrons if necessary.
7. Write down the overall reaction (leaving out spectator ions).
GALVANIC (VOLTAIC) CELLS (A spontaneous (exothermic) reaction takes place in a galvanic cell)

Galvanic cell: a cell in which chemical energy is Functions of salt bridge: Cell potential (EMF): (positive for galvanic cells)
converted to electrical energy o Separates the electrolytes measured in volts (V)
o Completes the circuit 𝑬𝜽𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒍 = 𝑬𝜽𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅𝒆 − 𝑬𝜽𝒂𝒏𝒐𝒅𝒆
Electrolyte: a substance of which the aqueous
solution contains ions OR a substance that o Maintains electrical neutrality Or
dissolves in water to give a solution that conducts 𝑬𝜽𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒍 = 𝑬𝜽𝒓𝒆𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 − 𝑬𝜽𝒐𝒙𝒊𝒅𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
electricity. Cell notation:
Or
For active electrodes:
Anode │ oxidised species ║oxidising agent │ cathode
𝑬𝜽𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒍 = 𝑬𝜽𝒐𝒙𝒊𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕 − 𝑬𝜽𝒓𝒆𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕

For inactive electrodes (Pt or C): Cell potential and Chemical Equilibrium:
Pt│reducing agent│oxidised species║
— Potential difference of a galvanic cell is related to
oxidising agent│oxidised species│Pt
the extent to which the spontaneous cell reaction
Standard conditions: has reached equilibrium.

𝒄𝜽 = 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝑑𝑚−3 — The potential difference decreases as the

𝑻𝜽 = 274 𝐾 (25 °𝐶) concentration of product ions increases and the
concentration of reactant ions decreases.
for gases: 𝒑𝜽 = 1,013 × 105 𝑃𝑎 (1 𝑎𝑡𝑚)
— At equilibrium the potential difference is zero and
the cell is 'flat'.
Standard hydrogen electrode: — Le Chatelier’s principle can be applied to increase
the cell potential, with conditions that favour the
Components: forward reaction.
 Two (separate) half cells
 (Negative) anode ↑ [reactant] ↑ emf
 (Positive) cathode
 External circuit WITHOUT a battery ↓ [reactant] ↓ emf
(electrons flow through the external circuit
from the anode to the cathode) ↑ [product] ↑ emf
 Electrolyte
 Salt bridge Cell notation: Pt│H2(g)│H+(aq) (𝟏 𝒎𝒐𝒍. 𝒅𝒎−𝟑 )
↓ [product] ↓ emf
(negative ions, cations, flow through the salt 𝑬𝜽𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒍 = 𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝑽
bridge to the anode) Electrode surface
No effect on emf
increased
ELECTROLYTIC CELLS (A non-spontaneous (endothermic) reaction takes place in an electrolytic cell)
Electrolysis: the chemical process in which electrical Electroplating: Metal refining:
energy is converted to chemical energy OR the use of
electrical energy to produce a chemical change.

Electrolytic cell: a cell in which electrical energy is

converted into chemical energy.

Components:
 Only ONE beaker
 External circuit WITH a battery/rectified AC
(electrons flow through the external circuit from the
anode to the cathode)
 (Positive) anode
 (Negative) cathode (PANIC)
Ox: Ag(s) → Ag+ + e- Red: Ag+ + e- → Ag(s) Ox: Cu(s) → Cu2+ + 2e- Red: Cu2+ + 2e- → Cu(s)
 Electrolyte
Electrolysis (decomposition) of copper(II) chloride: Electrolysis of concentrated sodium chloride:

High concentration Cℓ- ions are oxidised more easily than H2O High concentration Cℓ- ions are oxidised more easily than H2O
2+
Cu ions are stronger oxidising agents than H2O and will be reduced before H2O H2O is a stronger oxidising agent than Na+ ions and will be reduced instead of Na+
Ox (Anode): 2Cℓ- → Cℓ2 + 2e- Red (Cathode): Cu2+ + 2e- → Cu Ox (Anode): 2Cℓ- → Cℓ2(g) + 2e- Red (Cathode): 2H2O + 2e- → H2(g)+ 2OH-
Reaction: 2Cℓ-(aq) + Cu2+(aq) → Cℓ2(g) + Cu(s) Reaction: 2NaCℓ + 2H2O → 2NaOH + Cℓ2(g) + H2(g)