INTERNET OF THINGS

UNIT I
Introduction to Internet of Things

1. Basic Premise and Goal of IoT:

The basic premise and goal of IoT is to “connect the unconnected.” This means that objects
that are not currently joined to a computer network, namely the Internet, will be connected so
that they can communicate and interact with people and other objects.

IoT involves connecting various objects to the Internet, making them smarter and allowing us
to monitor and control the physical world more effectively through an intelligent network. This
integration enhances efficiency, accuracy, and automation, enabling advanced applications.

2. Definition of IoT:

The Internet of Things (IoT) is a technological framework that connects everyday objects to
the Internet, enabling them to communicate and interact with each other and with people. This
connection allows for remote sensing and control of these objects, leading to improved
efficiency, accuracy, and automation in various applications.

3. Genesis of IoT

The term "Internet of Things" was coined by Kevin Ashton in 1999, reflecting the idea of
linking physical objects to the Internet to enhance their functionality. The IoT era is said to
have begun between 2008 and 2009 when the number of Internet-connected devices surpassed
the global human population.
4. Evolutionary Phases of the Internet:

1. Connectivity (Mid-1990s):

• Premise: Initial phase where email and Internet access became available,
primarily for universities and corporations.

• Characteristics: Limited and slow dial-up connections for the average person.
Getting online involved dial-up modems, and even basic connectivity was
considered a small miracle.

• Impact: Marked the beginning of global digital communication and access to

information.

2. Networked Economy:

• Premise: Shift from mere connectivity to using the Internet for efficiency and
profit.

• Characteristics: Growth of e-commerce, digitally connected supply chains,

and online shopping. Vendors and suppliers became closely interlinked with
producers.
 • Impact: Major disruption in traditional retail, with a significant decline in
brick-and-mortar stores. The economy became more digitally intertwined,
enhancing global trade and supply chain management.

3. Immersive Experiences:

• Premise: Emergence of social media, collaboration, and mobility.

• Characteristics: Widespread connectivity across multiple devices (phones,

tablets, laptops). Enhanced communication and collaboration through email,
texting, voice, and video.

• Impact: Digitization of person-to-person interactions, transforming social

dynamics, business communications, and media consumption. Rise of platforms
like Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube.

4. Internet of Things (IoT):

• Premise: Current phase focusing on connecting objects and machines to the

Internet.

• Characteristics: Early stages with the majority of objects still unconnected.

Machines and objects now communicate with each other and humans.

• Impact: Significant increases in data generation and knowledge acquisition.

Enhanced automation and new process efficiencies. Potential to revolutionize
industries such as healthcare, manufacturing, transportation, and smart homes.

Future Potential: IoT is poised to bring about transformative changes, leading to smarter
cities, improved resource management, and innovative consumer products. As more objects
become connected, the insights and efficiencies gained could fundamentally alter how we
interact with the world around us.
5. IoT Network Architecture and Design

While traditional network architectures for IT have served us well for many years, they are not
well suited to the complex requirements of IoT.

The key difference between IT and IoT is the data. While IT systems are mostly concerned with
reliable and continuous support of business applications such as email, web, databases, CRM
systems, and so on.

IoT is all about the data generated by sensors and how that data is used. The essence of IoT
architectures thus involves how the data is transported, collected, analyzed, and ultimately
acted upon.

The following Table takes a closer look at some of the differences between IT and IoT
networks, with a focus on the IoT requirements that are driving new network architectures, and
considers what adjustments are needed.

6. The oneM2M IoT Standardized Architecture

In an effort to standardize the rapidly growing field of machine-to-machine (M2M)

communications, the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) created the
M2M Technical Committee in 2008.

The goal of this committee was to create a common architecture that would help accelerate the
adoption of M2M applications and devices.

Over time, the scope has expanded to include the Internet of Things.
The oneM2M architecture divides IoT functions into three major domains: the application
layer, the services layer, and the network layer. While this architecture may seem simple and
somewhat generic at first glance, it is very rich and promotes interoperability through IT-
friendly APIs and supports a wide range of IoT technologies.

Let’s examine each of these domains in turn:

Applications layer: The oneM2M architecture gives major attention to connectivity between
devices and their applications. This domain includes the application-layer protocols and
attempts to standardize northbound API definitions for interaction with business intelligence
(BI) systems. Applications tend to be industry-specific and have their own sets of data models,
and thus they are shown as vertical entities.

Services layer: This layer is shown as a horizontal framework across the vertical industry
applications. At this layer, horizontal modules include the physical network that the IoT
applications run on, the underlying management protocols, and the hardware. Examples
include backhaul communications via cellular, MPLS networks, VPNs, and so on. Riding on
top is the common services layer. This conceptual layer adds APIs and middleware supporting
third-party services and applications. One of the stated goals of oneM2M is to “develop
technical specifications which address the need for a common M2M Service Layer that can be
readily embedded within various hardware and software nodes, and rely upon connecting the
myriad of devices in the field area network to M2M application servers, which typically reside
in a cloud or data center.” A critical objective of oneM2M is to attract and actively involve
organizations from M2M-related business domains, including telematics and intelligent
transportation, healthcare, utility, industrial automation, and smart home applications, to name
just a few.

Network layer: This is the communication domain for the IoT devices and endpoints. It
includes the devices themselves and the communications network that links them.
Embodiments of this communications infrastructure include wireless mesh technologies, such
as IEEE 802.15.4, and wireless point-to-multipoint systems, such as IEEE 801.11ah. Also
included are wired device connections, such as IEEE 1901 power line communications.
Chapter 4 provides more details on these connectivity technologies. In many cases, the smart
(and sometimes not-so-smart) devices communicate with each other. In other cases, machine-
to-machine communication is not necessary, and the devices simply communicate through a
field area network (FAN) to use-case-specific apps in the IoT application domain. Therefore,
the device domain also includes the gateway device, which provides communications up into
the core network and acts as a demarcation point between the device and network domains.

7. The IoT World Forum (IoTWF) Standardized Architecture

In 2014 the IoTWF architectural committee (led by Cisco, IBM, Rockwell Automation, and
others) published a seven-layer IoT architectural reference model.

Each of the seven layers is broken down into specific functions, and security encompasses the
entire model. The following Figure details the IoT Reference Model published by the IoTWF.

As shown in Figure 2-2 , the IoT Reference Model defines a set of levels with control flowing
from the center (this could be either a cloud service or a dedicated data center), to the edge,
which includes sensors, devices, machines, and other types of intelligent end nodes.

Layer 1: Physical Devices and Controllers Layer

• The first layer of the IoT Reference Model is the physical devices and controllers layer.
This layer is home to the “things” in the Internet of Things, including the various
endpoint devices and sensors that send and receive information.
• The size of these “things” can range from almost microscopic sensors to giant machines
in a factory.
• Their primary function is generating data and being capable of being queried and/or
controlled over a network.
Layer 2: Connectivity Layer

In the second layer of the IoT Reference Model, the focus is on connectivity. The most
important function of this IoT layer is the reliable and timely transmission of data.

More specifically, this includes transmissions between Layer 1 devices and the network and
between the network and information processing that occurs at Layer 3 (the edge computing
layer).

Functions of the connectivity layer are detailed in Figure 2-3

Layer 3: Edge Computing Layer

Edge computing is the role of Layer 3. At this layer, the emphasis is on data reduction and
converting network data flows into information that is ready for storage and processing by
higher layers. One of the basic principles of this reference model is that information processing
is initiated as early and as close to the edge of the network as possible.

Figure 2-4 highlights the functions handled by Layer 3 of the IoT Reference Model.
Another important function that occurs at Layer 3 is the evaluation of data to see if it can be
filtered or aggregated before being sent to a higher layer. This also allows for data to be
reformatted or decoded, making additional processing by other systems easier. Thus, a critical
function is assessing the data to see if predefined thresholds are crossed and any action or alerts
need to be sent.

Upper Layers: Layers 4–7

The upper layers deal with handling and processing the IoT data generated by the bottom layer.
For the sake of completeness, Layers 4–7 of the IoT Reference Model are summarized in Table
2-2.
8. Additional IoT Reference Models

In addition to the two IoT reference models already presented in this chapter, several other
reference models exist. These models are endorsed by various organizations and standards
bodies and are often specific to certain industries or IoT applications. Table 2-3 highlights
these additional IoT reference models.

Four Pillars of IoT with Examples

1. Sensing & Actuation

Sensing and actuation are the foundational elements of IoT. Sensors are devices that detect changes in
the environment, such as temperature, humidity, motion, or light, and convert them into electrical
signals. Actuators are devices that perform physical actions based on the data received from sensors,
such as turning on a motor, opening a valve, or adjusting a thermostat. Together, they enable IoT systems
to interact with the physical world.

Example:
In a smart agriculture system, soil moisture sensors are deployed across a farm to monitor water levels
in the soil. These sensors collect data in real-time and send it to a central system. If the soil moisture
level drops below a certain threshold, the system triggers actuators (e.g., water valves) to irrigate the
fields. This ensures optimal water usage, reduces waste, and improves crop yield. Another example is
a smart thermostat in a home, where temperature sensors detect room conditions and actuators adjust
the HVAC system to maintain a comfortable environment.

Importance:

• Enables real-time monitoring and control of physical environments.

• Reduces human intervention through automation.

• Improves efficiency and accuracy in various applications, from agriculture to industrial

automation.

2. Connectivity

Connectivity is the backbone of IoT, enabling devices to communicate with each other and with central
systems. It involves the use of communication protocols and networks to transmit data reliably and
efficiently. Common protocols include MQTT (Message Queuing Telemetry
Transport), CoAP (Constrained Application Protocol), and LoRaWAN (Long Range Wide Area
Network). These protocols are designed to handle the unique challenges of IoT, such as low power
consumption, limited bandwidth, and long-range communication.

Example:
In a wearable fitness tracker, sensors monitor heart rate, steps, and sleep patterns. The device
uses Bluetooth to connect to a smartphone, which then uploads the data to a cloud platform via Wi-Fi
or cellular networks. The cloud platform analyzes the data and provides insights to the user through a
mobile app. Another example is a smart city traffic management system, where sensors on roads and
traffic lights use LoRaWAN to send real-time traffic data to a central control system, which optimizes
traffic flow and reduces congestion.

Importance:
 • Ensures seamless communication between devices and systems.

• Enables real-time data transmission and remote control.

• Supports scalability and interoperability across diverse IoT ecosystems.

3. Data Processing

Data processing involves analyzing raw data collected from sensors to extract meaningful insights. This
can be done at the edge (close to the data source) or in the cloud. Edge computing is used for real-time
processing and decision-making, while cloud computing is used for large-scale data storage and
advanced analytics. Techniques like machine learning and artificial intelligence are often applied to
identify patterns, predict outcomes, and optimize operations.

Example:
In a predictive maintenance system for industrial machinery, sensors on equipment collect data on
vibration, temperature, and pressure. This data is processed at the edge to detect anomalies in real-time.
If an anomaly is detected, the system alerts maintenance teams to prevent equipment failure.
Simultaneously, the data is sent to the cloud for further analysis, where machine learning algorithms
predict future failures and schedule maintenance proactively. Another example is a smart healthcare
system, where wearable devices monitor patient vitals and send data to the cloud for analysis. Doctors
can access this data to make informed decisions about patient care.

Importance:

• Enables real-time decision-making and automation.

• Provides actionable insights through advanced analytics.

• Reduces downtime and operational costs through predictive maintenance.

4. User Interface & Applications

The user interface (UI) and applications are the front-end components of IoT systems, providing users
with access to data and control over devices. This includes dashboards, mobile apps, and web
portals that display real-time data, analytics, and alerts. A well-designed UI ensures that users can easily
interact with the system, monitor performance, and make informed decisions.

Example:
In a smart home system, a mobile app serves as the user interface, allowing homeowners to control
lights, thermostats, security cameras, and appliances remotely. The app displays real-time data, such as
energy consumption and security alerts, and provides options to adjust settings. For instance, if a motion
sensor detects movement, the app sends a notification to the user, who can then view the live camera
feed and take action if necessary. Another example is a smart energy management system, where a
dashboard displays energy usage patterns and recommendations for reducing consumption. Users can
adjust settings to optimize energy usage and lower costs.

Importance:

• Enhances user experience through intuitive and accessible interfaces.

• Provides real-time insights and control over IoT systems.

• Enables users to make data-driven decisions and improve efficiency.

DNA of IoT with Examples

1. Devices

Explanation:
Devices are the physical components of IoT systems, including sensors, actuators, and embedded
systems. Sensors collect data from the environment, while actuators perform actions based on that data.
These devices form the foundation of IoT, enabling interaction with the physical world.

Example:
In a smart home system, devices include motion sensors, smart thermostats, and door locks. Motion
sensors detect movement, smart thermostats monitor and adjust temperature, and door locks can be
controlled remotely. These devices work together to create a secure and energy-efficient home
environment. Another example is a smart agriculture system, where soil moisture sensors, weather
stations, and irrigation controllers are deployed across a farm to monitor and optimize crop growth.

Importance:

• Enable real-time data collection and physical actions.

• Form the foundation for IoT systems.

• Provide the necessary hardware for automation and monitoring.

2. Networks

Explanation:
Networks enable communication between devices and systems, ensuring data is transmitted reliably
and efficiently. IoT networks use various protocols, such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, LoRaWAN, and 5G, to
connect devices to each other and to central systems. These networks must handle challenges like low
power consumption, long-range communication, and high data throughput.

Example:
In a smart city, networks connect traffic sensors, streetlights, and surveillance cameras to a central
control system. For instance, traffic sensors use LoRaWAN to send real-time data to a traffic
management system, which optimizes traffic flow and reduces congestion. Another example is
a wearable fitness tracker, which uses Bluetooth to connect to a smartphone, which then uploads data
to the cloud for analysis.

Importance:

• Ensure seamless communication between devices and systems.

• Enable real-time data transmission and remote control.

• Support scalability and interoperability across diverse IoT ecosystems.

3. Data

Explanation:
Data is the lifeblood of IoT, driving insights and decisions. It includes raw data collected from sensors,
processed data used for analytics, and actionable insights delivered to users. Data processing can occur
at the edge (close to the data source) or in the cloud, depending on the application. Advanced
techniques like machine learning and artificial intelligence are often used to analyze data and extract
meaningful insights.

Example:
In a predictive maintenance system for industrial machinery, sensors collect data on vibration,
temperature, and pressure. This data is processed at the edge to detect anomalies in real-time, while also
being sent to the cloud for further analysis. Machine learning algorithms predict future failures and
schedule maintenance proactively, reducing downtime and operational costs. Another example is
a smart healthcare system, where wearable devices monitor patient vitals and send data to the cloud
for analysis. Doctors can access this data to make informed decisions about patient care.

Importance:

• Provides the basis for real-time decision-making and automation.

• Enables advanced analytics and predictive insights.

• Drives efficiency and innovation across various industries.

4. Applications

Explanation:
Applications are the user-facing components of IoT systems, delivering value to end-users. They
include dashboards, mobile apps, and web portals that display real-time data, analytics, and alerts. A
well-designed application ensures that users can easily interact with the system, monitor performance,
and make informed decisions.

Example:
In a smart home system, a mobile app serves as the user interface, allowing homeowners to control
lights, thermostats, security cameras, and appliances remotely. The app displays real-time data, such as
energy consumption and security alerts, and provides options to adjust settings. For instance, if a motion
sensor detects movement, the app sends a notification to the user, who can then view the live camera
feed and take action if necessary. Another example is a smart energy management system, where a
dashboard displays energy usage patterns and recommendations for reducing consumption. Users can
adjust settings to optimize energy usage and lower costs.

Importance:

• Enhance user experience through intuitive and accessible interfaces.

• Provide real-time insights and control over IoT systems.

• Enable users to make data-driven decisions and improve efficiency.

5. Decentralized Intelligence

Explanation:
Decentralized intelligence refers to the ability of edge devices to make autonomous decisions without
relying on a central system. This reduces latency, improves reliability, and enhances scalability. Edge
computing plays a crucial role in enabling decentralized intelligence by processing data locally.

Example:
In autonomous vehicles, edge devices (e.g., cameras, LiDAR sensors) process data in real-time to
make driving decisions, such as braking or changing lanes. This reduces the need for constant
communication with a central system, ensuring quick responses to changing road conditions. Another
example is a smart factory, where edge devices on the production line detect defects and make
adjustments autonomously, reducing downtime and improving efficiency.

Importance:
 • Reduces latency and improves real-time decision-making.

• Enhances reliability and scalability of IoT systems.

• Enables autonomous operation in critical applications.

6. Networked Connectivity

Explanation:
Networked connectivity ensures interoperability and seamless communication across diverse IoT
systems. It involves the use of standardized protocols and technologies to enable devices from different
manufacturers to work together.

Example:
In a smart grid, networked connectivity enables communication between smart meters, renewable
energy sources, and utility companies. For instance, smart meters use standardized protocols
like DLMS/COSEM to send energy consumption data to utility companies, which then optimize
energy distribution. Another example is a smart city, where networked connectivity allows traffic
lights, surveillance cameras, and emergency services to communicate and coordinate responses to
incidents.

Importance:

• Ensures interoperability across diverse IoT systems.

• Enables seamless communication and coordination.

• Supports the integration of new devices and technologies.

Middleware for IoT: Overview Middleware acts as a bridge between IoT devices and applications,
handling data processing, protocol translation, and security. It aggregates data from sensors, translates
protocols (e.g., MQTT to HTTP), and manages devices through OTA updates. For example, in a smart
factory, middleware collects data from machines, processes it to detect anomalies, and sends alerts to
maintenance teams. Platforms like AWS IoT Core and Kaa provide middleware solutions, enabling
seamless integration and scalability. Middleware also ensures security through encryption and
authentication. For instance, in healthcare, middleware encrypts patient data transmitted from wearable
devices to cloud platforms, ensuring privacy. By abstracting complexity, middleware simplifies IoT
development, enabling faster deployment and interoperability across diverse systems.
Communication Middleware for IoT Communication middleware ensures reliable, low-latency
communication between IoT devices and systems. It supports protocols like MQTT, CoAP, and AMQP,
enabling efficient data exchange. For example, in a smart grid, MQTT transmits energy consumption
data from smart meters to utility companies, enabling real-time monitoring and billing. Gateways play
a crucial role by translating protocols, such as converting Zigbee to Wi-Fi for seamless communication.
Edge computing reduces latency by processing data locally, as seen in autonomous vehicles that analyze
sensor data in real-time to avoid collisions. Challenges like interoperability and scalability are addressed
through standardized protocols and distributed architectures. For instance, OMA LwM2M ensures
interoperability across devices, while Fog computing enhances scalability. Communication middleware
is essential for building robust, secure, and scalable IoT systems.