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DIKIW: Data, Information, Knowledge, Intelligence, Wisdom and their

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 Business Management Dynamics
Vol.2, No.10, Apr 2013, pp.49-62

DIKIW: Data, Information, Knowledge, Intelligence, Wisdom and their

Interrelationships
Anthony Liew1

Abstract Key words: Data, Information,

DIKW hierarchy is the model used for discussion of data, information, Knowledge, Intelligence,
knowledge, wisdom and their interrelationships. However, definitions of data, Wisdom, DIKW
information, and knowledge are entrapped in a logical fallacy known as circular
definition. There are some agreements in the definitions without the fallacy. The
missing ‘Intelligence’ in DIKW plays a major role between knowledge and Available online
wisdom. This gives rise to a revised DIKW model here named DIKIW. www.bmdynamics.com
ISSN: 2047-7031

INTRODUCTION
There are quite some discussions on the subject of data, information, knowledge, their definitions and
interrelationships (DIKW hierarchy) i.e. Ahsan and Shah, 2006; Bernstein, 2009; Brodie and Brodie, 2009;
Bierly III, Kessler and Christensen, 2000; Chen et al, 2009; Fricke, 2009; Hoppe, Seising, Nurnberger, and
Wenzel, 2011; Klimesova, 2009; Rowley, 2007; Zins, 2007. However, the definition fallacy continues. Liew
(2007) presented a common phenomenon in the defining of data, information, and knowledge. They were
defined by each other, such circular definitions are logical fallacies. Describing the interrelationships does
not constitute a definition. Defining them and describing their interrelationships are two distinct issues.

DATA
Data are recorded (captured and stored) symbols and signal readings.
 Symbols include words (text and/or verbal), numbers, diagrams, and images (still &/or video), which are the
building blocks of communication.
 Signals include sensor and/or sensory readings of light, sound, smell, taste, and touch.
As symbols, ‘Data’ is the storage of intrinsic meaning, a mere representation. The main purpose of data is to record
activities or situations, to attempt to capture the true picture or real event. Liew (2007)
Agreement from others….
Data are defined as symbols that represent properties of objects, events and their environment. (Ackoff, 1989)
Data are representations whose meanings are dependent upon the representation system (i.e. symbols, language)
used. (Bierly III, Kessler & Christensen, 2000)
Data is given by simple sequences of signs and symbols…(Hoppe, Seising, Nurnberger, & Wenzel, 2011)
Data is understood as a stream of symbols…(Jankowski & Skowron, 2007)
Data are primitive symbolic entities...(Zins, 2007 citing Belkin & Roberstson, 1976, and Blair, 2002);
Data are symbols organized according to established algorithms. (Zins, 2007 citing Debons, 1988);
Data are sets of characters, symbols, numbers and audio/visual bits that are represented and/or encountered in raw
form. (Zins, 2007 citing Haidar Moukdad);
Data are representation of facts or ideas in a formalized manner… (Zins, 2007 citing Holmes, 2001);
Data are representations of facts about the world. (Zins, 2007 citing H. M. Gladney);
Data is a unique set of symbols representing a perception of raw facts. (Zinz, 2007 citing Nicolae Dragulanescu);
Data are a string of symbols (Zins, 2007 citing Thomas J. Froehlich);

1 anthonylautw@yahoo.com

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Datum is the representation of concepts or other entities. (Zins, 2007 citing Wellisch, 1997);
Data is a symbol set that is quantified and/or qualified. (Zins, 2007 citing Wersig & Neveling, 1975);

INFORMATION
Information is a message that contains relevant meaning, implication, or input for decision and/or action.
Information comes from both current (communication) and historical (processed data or ‘reconstructed picture’)
sources. In essence, the purpose of information is to aid in making decisions and/or solving problems or realizing an
opportunity. Liew (2007)
Agreement from others…
Information…has been given meaning by way of relational connection. (Ahsan & Shah, 2006 citing Achoff, 1989)
(Information is)…meaningful to the recipient and is of real or perceived value in current or prospective actions or
decisions. (Bierly III, Kessler & Christensen, 2000 citing Davis & Olson, 1985)
Information…has been given meaning…(Hoppe, Seising, Nurnberger, & Wenzel, 2011)
Information is... given meaning by way of context. (Rowley, 2007 citing Groff & Jones, 2003)
Information is…endowed with meaning, relevance and purpose (Rowley, 2007 citing Awad & Ghaziri, 2004)
…numbers, artificial and natural language, graphic objects that convey significance and meaning. (Zins, 2007
citing Charles Ess);
Information provides meaning…(Zins, 2007 citing Donald Kraft)
Information is related to meaning or human intention. (Zins, 2007 citing Hanne Albrechtsen);
Information is related to meaning and humans (Zins, 2007 citing Holmes 2001);

KNOWLEDGE
Knowledge is the (1) cognition or recognition (know-what), (2) capacity to act (know-how), and (3) understanding
(know-why) that resides or is contained within the mind or in the brain. The purpose of knowledge is to better our
lives. In the context of business, the purpose of knowledge is to create or increase value for the enterprise and all its
stakeholders. Liew (2007)
Agreement with others…
Knowledge is the human expertise stored in a person’s mind, gained through experience, and interaction with the
person’s environment (Brodie & Brodie, 2009 citing Sunasee & Sewry, 2002);
Knowledge is a state of mind. (Fagan III, 2000)
…embedded in human mind through experience... (Rowley, 2007 citing Awad & Ghaziri, 2004);
Knowledge…exists in the mind of the knower…(Zins, 2007 citing Thomas A. Childers);
Knowledge is a set of conceptual structures held in human brains…(Zins, 2007 citing H. M. Gladney);
Knowledge is in the head of people (Zins, 2007 citing Jo Link-Pezet);
Knowledge understood within our society originates from scripts. The origin of writing system comes
from the need to understand and control agricultural activities in relation to the environment such as
seasonality, drought and flooding. (Segundo, 2002) Knowledge is therefore cumulative and transferable
with the advent of writing system. Segundo defined knowledge as internalized information, integrated
within person’s cognitive structures. Conversely, information is a representation of understood
knowledge. (Segundo, 2002) In other words, information is embedded meaning in messages and
originates from human activities and situational events.
Vizcaya Alnoso (1997) defines knowledge as “process by virtue of which reality is reflected and produced
in human thought”. Knowledge is a product of human intelligence, intellectual activities, and/or
cognitive conscience. Amat (1990) stipulates that if we apply Piaget’s theory of knowledge development,
there are two perspectives of information, i.e. process of knowledge and pre-codified fact. Process of

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knowledge is dependent on the person that knows or the cognitive ability of the subject, as well as on the
abilities of the person to assimilate symbolic knowledge (i.e. know-how and know-why). (Segundo, 2002)
“Piaget emphasizes on this point that not only does the figurative aspect play a role, but the medium,
material, symbol, or language are also converted into meanings when understanding or an operational
interpretation takes place by a subject who knows, and the subject that knows produces symbolic
knowledge” (Segundo, 2002). Wertheimer (1945) called human knowledge productive thought. At the
same time, McHale (1981) denotes that knowledge involves ordering or associating information within a
pre-existing framework within human understanding (Segundo, 2002). The codified fact or figurative
aspect of knowledge has a symbiotic relationship with verbal symbols or language. Language and other
visual symbols (i.e. images) are the medium of meaning used in communication (information and
knowledge transfer) and information processing (interpretation).
Besides memory and information finding, wisdom would also include deeper knowledge that entails
prepositional reasoning. There are basically the “truth-based (epistemic) and value based (axiological)
assumptions built into reasoning” (Hannabuss, 2001). For example, Confucius asserted that one should
have one’s deeds match what was spoken of (common saying “a man is as good as his words”) in order
to establish one’s credibility. Another example, Buddhist philosophy stipulates how partially we perceive
and understand reality. Consequently, the search for inner knowledge or enlightenment is an on-going
process. (Hannabuss, 2001)
However, there is a need to understand the fundamental and related constructs that lead to the
understanding of deep knowledge and wisdom. These include data, information, knowledge, and their
interrelationships. Knowledge can be defined as a clear and certain perception of a subject or object,
and/or the understanding of certain fact. In essence, it is the content that resides in our minds. The
process of acquiring knowledge is therefore through our interpretation of information (meaning). Some
would consider information and knowledge interchangeable, but this is true only to certain extent. This is
true when the same content occupies more than one space. For example, information content of a
communication email also becomes knowledge of the reader once it is read. However, information is by
no means equal to knowledge particularly deep knowledge. The process of information-knowledge
transformation is through learning and human interpretation; and the process of knowledge-information
transformation is achieved by communication of what is known amongst people.
“A knowledgeable person is one who holds justified true belief, or belief supported by fact. However,
being knowledgeable is but one component to wisdom, the other being a demonstration of sound and
serene judgment regarding the conduct of life.” (Bierly III et al., 2000) As such, wisdom is a construct of
multiplicity, and thus arcane to many.

INTELLIGENCE
Intelligence requires ability to sense the environment, to make decisions, and to control action. Higher levels of
intelligence may include the ability to recognize objects and events, to present knowledge in a world model, and to
reason about the plan for the future. In advanced forms, intelligence provides the capacity to perceive and
understand, to choose wisely, and to act successfully under a large variety of circumstances as to survive, prosper,
and reproduce in a complex and often hostile environment. (Albus 1991);
Albus (1991) four system elements of intelligence:
1. Sensory processing; monitoring state of external world and internal state.
2. World modeling; best estimate of the state of the world…knowledge of the world…also contains
simulation capability that generates expectations and predictions…(to) make plans and behavioral
choices.
3. Value judgment; determines what is good and bad, rewarding and punishing, important and trivial,
certain and improbable… provides basis for making decisions.
4. Behavior generation; selects goals, plans, and executes tasks.
Intelligence as (mental) processing. (Fagan III, 2000; Sternberg, 1985 in Gottfredson, 2003)
Gardner (1987)’s theory of multiple intelligences:
1. verbal/linguistic
2. logical/mathematical
3. visual/spatial

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4. bodily/kinesthetic
5. musical
6. interpersonal
7. intrapersonal
8. naturalist
9. spiritual
10. existential (8-10 in Sternberg, 1999b)
Neisser et al. (1996) concepts of intelligence:
1. understand complex ideas
2. adapt effectively to environment
3. learn from experience
4. engage in various forms of reasoning
5. overcome obstacles by taking thought
Intelligence is mental processing given environmental context (Sternberg, 1999a)
Theory of successful intelligence proposed by Sternberg (1999a):
1. Intelligence is the ability to achieve success in life in terms of one’s personal standards within one’s
socio-cultural context.
2. Ability to achieve success depends on one’s capitalizing on one’s strengths and correcting or
compensating for one’s weaknesses.
3. Balance of analytical, creative and practical abilities.
4. Balancing of abilities is achieved to adapt to, shape, and select environments.
Mental processes (Sternberg, 1999c)
1. Meta-cognitive skills: problem recognition. problem definition, problem representation. Strategy
formulation, resource allocation, monitoring of problem solving, and evaluation.
2. Learning: implicit (incidental) vs. explicit (selective)
3. Thinking: critical thinking (analyzing, critiquing, judging, evaluating, comparing & contrasting,
assessing); creative thinking (creating, discovering, inventing, imaging, supposing, hypothesizing);
practical thinking (applying, using, utilizing, practicing).
4. Knowledge: declarative vs. procedural
5. Motivation: achievement seeking, belief in own competence (self-efficacy)
Weinberg (1989) three facets of implicit theory of intelligence:
1) practical problem solving ability (reasoning logically, seeing all sides of the problem, keeping an open
mind)
2) verbal ability ( being a good conversationalist, reading often and well)
3) social intelligence (being sensitive to social cues, admitting mistakes, and displaying interest to the world
at large)
In essence, intelligence is thought or mental processing capacities:
1. learning – pattern recognition, memorizing, recalling, correcting mistakes, sense-making
2. conceptualizing – modeling, prioritizing, categorizing
3. analytical thinking – analyzing, interpretation, understanding, scenario playing, evaluating
4. critical thinking – logic, reasoning
5. creative thinking – imaging, imagining, supposing, hypothesizing, simulating
6. quick thinking
7. performing – reading, speaking, music, physical activities etc
8. problem solving, decision making, judging,
9. affective thinking – emotion handling

WISDOM
There are many theories in the literature on intelligence such as psychometric theories, cognitive theories,
genetic-epistemological theories, and social-psychological theories. On the other hand, literature on
wisdom is quite limited to a handful of researchers such that of Sternberg, Staudinger, and Baltes. There
are many attempts to measure intelligence, and far less with creativity tests despite many disagreements
in those tests. As for wisdom, there are no tests thus far to warrant any disagreement.

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As such, implicit theories can be useful in developing conceptual framework for defining wisdom.
“Implicit theories are constructions by people that reside in the minds of these individuals. Such theories
need to be discovered rather than invented because they already exist in some form, in people’s head”
(Sternberg, 1985). The simplest and most direct way of finding such implicit theories is to ask people
what they are. Sternberg (1985) citing research findings from editors of Journal of Educational Psychology
revealed several intelligence components:
1. Ability to carry abstract thinking
2. Ability to adapt oneself adequately to relatively new situations in life
3. Practical problem-solving ability (e.g. logical thinking, identifies connections among ideas, see
all aspects of problem)
4. Verbal ability (e.g. articulate)
5. Social competence (e.g. accepts others for what they are, admits mistakes, display interest in the
world as a whole)
Barron’s (1968) research (cited by Sternberg, 1985) on creative writers obtained five major distinctive
attributes:
1. Appear to have a high degree of intellectual capacity
2. Genuinely values intellectual and cognitive matters
3. Values own independence and autonomy
4. Verbally fluent – can express ideas well
5. Enjoys aesthetic impressions – aesthetically reactive
Clayton’s (1975) study revealed descriptive terms for wisdom; experienced, intuitive, introspective,
pragmatic, understanding, gentle, empathetic, intelligent, peaceful, knowledgeable, sense of humor, and
observant. Clayton discovered that the descriptive terms could be clustered into two dimensions of
wisdom, i.e. “affective” and “reflective”. (Sternberg, 1985)
Virtues
The philosophy of Confucius influenced morality and politics in the history of the Chinese. The five main
virtues central to Confucius teachings include Jen (仁 Benevolence), Yi (義 Justice and Obligation), Li (禮
Etiquette), Zhi (智 Perspicacity), and Xin (信 Credibility and Trust). Confucian ideal of Yi denotes an
obligation or duty towards the state, and commitment towards justice or just cause. The precept of Li
pertains to treating others sensitively, with respect, and with consideration for another’s feelings. Xin is a
directive that includes honesty, sincerity, consistency in words and behaviors, and trust, or in one word
‘credibility’. Confucian philosophy also emphasized temperance advocating modesty and self control i.e.
refraining from extravagance and self-aggrandizing boasts. (Dahlsgaard et al., 2005)
Taoist Philosophy cited important virtues such as humanity, justice, propriety, knowledge, and
temperance. In Buddhist philosophy the fundamental five precepts are virtues of abstentions from 1)
harming living things, 2) theft or fraud, 3) misconduct in pleasures, 4) lies or boasting, 5) substance abuse
(e.g. alcohol, drugs). Hindu Philosophy advocates virtue of penance, forbearance, rectitude, knowledge,
experience, faith, valor, fortitude, and charity. Athenian cited virtues include wisdom, courage,
temperance, and justice. Jewish promotes virtues include justice, temperance, prudence, integrity,
leadership, trustworthiness, diligence, understanding, knowledge, respect, and transcendence. Islamic
philosophy includes virtues like justice, contemplation, intellect, understanding, moderation, courage,
and generosity. (Dahlsgaard et al., 2005)
Justice, humanity, temperance, and transcendence (some implied) are the common virtues advocated in
majority of religion, which incidentally, also cite wisdom as the goal of being. Virtue and moral reasoning
can be argued as the supporting ingredients for handling human affairs appropriately, as well as being
part of human nature. Unfortunately, virtue is not the whole of human nature; as such human also
requires mindfulness and knowledge to pursue wisdom and transcendence.
Spirituality
Spirituality is virtuous and emotional in nature that involves understanding and appreciation of one’s
position in the universe, one’s soul, and the divine. Majority of religions, if not all, follow one common
and fundamental ideal: ‘treat others as you would wish to be treated’. Bierly III et al (2000) argue that
spirituality can enhance wisdom in two ways.

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First, “wisdom is gained through self-reflection of experiences and formulation of deeper goals” (Bierly
III et al., 2000). Spirituality helps to clarify one’s goals and align one’s core virtuous values and beliefs
with purpose in life. Wisdom is not merely the result of rational analysis, but also includes a strong
spirituality of pursuing integrity, truth, and rectitude through reflection and diligence. In other words,
spirituality supports wisdom development in the understanding of the difference in what is right and
wrong. In addition, it also supports the notion that the interest of the community and greater good
outweighs individual self-interest. However, this is not to say that greater good should be achieved at the
expense of self-interest. On the contrary, if practical wisdom was to have it, it would be a win-win
situation where all interests are served.
Second, “spirituality provides faith, courage and hope that facilitate wise decision-making and actions”.
(Bierly III et al., 2000) In other words, spirituality provides the guidance and reassurance in the belief that
one is making the right decision and doing the right thing. Moreover, one must also have the strength of
belief to overcome personal barriers and external obstacles for doing the right thing. Spirituality also
promotes passion and dedication to one’s mission whereby the undertaking is believed to be meaningful
and worthy.
For example, James E. Burke’s, former CEO of Johnson and Johnson, decision in the Tylenol tragedy
illustrates action oriented wisdom reflecting the knowledge of what is right and the courage to do it. In
the aftermath, the company’s reputation strengthened, and the overall corporate value increased instead.
Wisdom as Philosophy
Confucius, in the Analects, posits that wisdom involves righteousness, and that wise people is
knowledgeable about the Way (Tao). Wisdom in Buddhism is a form of enlightenment (nirvana) whereby
one would understand and lead life accordance to what is ‘Right’. Aristotle maintains that practical
wisdom is the ability to deliberate well with regard to conduct of life. The Survival of the Wisest, cited by
Bierly III et al (2000), spoke of wisdom as practical value of human survival, and the enhancement of
quality of life. Bierly III et al (2000) citing Beck (1999) describe wisdom as both “knowledge
(understanding the truth) and action (doing what is good)”, Rothberg’s (1993) notion of wisdom as
“socially engaged spirituality” meaning integration of practical lives with spirituality development,
where wisdom is not only the result of inquiry and reflecting relationships between self and society, but
also action taken to transform self and society for a better whole, and Maxwell’s (1984) idea of wisdom as
“including knowledge (rational inquiry) and judgment of value for better ways of living, better
institutions, customs, and social relations.”
Knowledge is necessary but not sufficient for wisdom. In other words, to be wise one must be
knowledgeable, but being knowledgeable does not make one wise. Knowledge may inhibit the pursuit of
wisdom if it obscures perspectives and consequently to positive changes. Hence, it highlights the
importance of critical reflection and sound judgment.
Wisdom as an Expert System
Bloom (1985), and Ericsson and Lehman (1996) treat wisdom as an expert system in association with the
fundamental pragmatics of life where four conditions support the development of wisdom. One,
acquisition of wisdom involves extended and intense process of learning, practice, and the pursuit of
excellence. Two, multiple and cross-related processes are expected in the generation of wisdom. Three,
due to wisdom’s integrative aspects of knowledge and virtue, the preconditions of wisdom development
include cognitive, motivational, social, interpersonal, and spiritual elements. Four, mastery of critical life
experience, guidance of mentors, experience, and social influences are also crucial factors in wisdom
development. In short, “wisdom is intended for the well-being of oneself and others. It also involves an
effective coordination of mind and virtue” that requires interplay of intelligence, cognitive style, and
personality. Moreover, wisdom coordinates knowledge and judgment about fundamental pragmatics of
life with several properties such as
1. Strategies and goals with regard to conduct and meaning of life
2. Limitation of human and knowledge acquisition
3. Uncertainty of reality
4. Superior level of judgment and advice
5. Knowledge with extraordinary scope, depth, and balance

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6. Balance between mind and virtue

7. Pursuit of well-being of oneself and others
(Baltes and Staudinger, 2000)

Wisdom as Learning
Learning is the input side of wisdom, and it can be defined as acquisition of knowledge, experience, and
skills. There are several types of learning conducive to developing wisdom i.e. experiential learning,
practical theorizing, and meta-learning.
Experiential Learning
The emphasis on experience is the main concept of Andragogy. Many educators affirm the importance of
experiential methods such that of games, simulations, case studies, psychodrama, role-play and
internships. However, experiences and perspectives “change according to language and categories of
analysis we use, and according to the cultural, morale, and ideological vantage points from which they
are viewed” (Brookfield, 1995a). David Kolb’s (1984) experiential learning theory describes how learning
is maximized through cycle of concrete experience to observations and reflection, to formulation of
abstraction and generalization, to application in new situation. Experience should be rich and meaningful
in order for us to gain critical insights. People’s histories, stories, and experiences must be affirmed
critically if they are to be affirmed to avoid blind acceptance or being malleable from obscurantism.
(Bierly III et al., 2000)
Education, training, learning, and ‘seasoning’ of a person can assists in achieving wisdom. Experience
aids people in understanding new knowledge and its integration in existing knowledge, as well as
assigning value to different types of knowledge. (Bierly III et al., 2000)
Aeschylus, one of the three great ancient Greek tragedians, believed “wisdom comes along through
suffering”. Learning from own mistakes is one of the important ways to gain wisdom. However, it should
not be taken out of context by assuming that wisdom is gained only from making mistakes. Nevertheless,
learning from mistakes is useful including vicarious learning. Learning from other people’s mistakes is a
substitute of learning from own mistakes. Vicarious learning may not have the same impact as learning
from own mistakes, but there are much more case examples of other people’s mistakes. One lacks in
impact makes up in volume in vicarious learning. Vicarious learning is conducive in avoidance of serious
mistakes by observing others and hence removes unwarranted foolishness. Other ways of increasing
learning from mistakes with limited risk include simulation or role play, and experimentation.
(Brookfield, 1995a)
Practical Learning
Practical theorizing originates from the attempts to make educational practitioners critically aware of the
informally developed theories and/or implicit theories that guide their practices. Practical theorizing
makes comparison of emerging informal theories amongst practitioners through individual conversations
and structured reflection group participation. In these reflection groups, participants serve as “reflective
mirrors” to reactions and experiences dealing with the given practice. Participants can “re-frame,
broaden, and refine” their own implicit theories of practice. In addition, participants can also use formal
or explicit theories to make comparison to their implicit or emerging theories. Through this process,
experiences and formal theories interplay dialectically to develop emerging and practical theories, hence
the term practical theorizing. (Brookfield, 1995a)
Meta-learning
Meta-learning also known as ‘meta-cognition’ or in layman’s terms ‘leaning how to learn’ lacks a
commonly agreed definition. However, Brookfield (1995a) tentatively defines meta-learning as “attempts
to develop insights into own habitual ways of learning”. Basically, it means people “possesses a self-
conscious awareness of how it is they come to know what they know; and awareness of the reasoning
assumptions, evidence and justifications” that underlie their beliefs in the truth. Although far from
having a plethora of meta-learning research, research suggests that meta-learning process manifests itself
in the diverse contexts of life pragmatism, development of practical intelligence, emotional learning, and
emotional intelligence, which incidentally are also important ingredients in wisdom development.
(Brookfield, 1995a)

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Wisdom as Interactive Minds

Staudinger and Baltes (1998) considered wisdom “to be inherently tied to collective systems of
knowledge”. They also stipulated that the likelihood of wisdom is influenced by interactions of multiple
minds. Hence they coined the term “interactive minds” to suggest “collective and social-interactions facet
of human life”.
Staudinger (1996) (in Staudinger and Baltes, 1998) proposed that knowledge and judgment related to
wisdom is collective and social-interactive in several ways. First, wisdom is social interactive with
“cultural evolution and ontogenesis” within human communities. Baltes and Smith (1990) ontogenetic
model of wisdom posits that “mentorship and experiences in various social contexts, such as families,
peer groups, or professional socialization, are critical factors in the acquisition of wisdom related
knowledge and judgment”. For example, people tend to seek advice from people valued highly for
difficult life problems. Sometimes, this consultation may take place in our heads where we simulate what
others might advise or do in particular difficult situation in life.
Second, activating and applying wisdom requires interactive minds; applying wisdom related knowledge
and judgment to difficult and uncertain life situation most likely involves more than one individual. This
is because the body of knowledge and skills can be considered too large and complex to be retained by a
single mind. Third, evaluating and validating wisdom also requires interactive minds. Since there is no
absolute criterion of wisdom definition, wisdom can only be recognized and attributed by consensus, as
such, an agreement in subjective majority in essence becomes relatively objective.
Staudinger (1996) differentiated two basic forms of interactive minds, i.e. external and internal dialogue.
External dialogue happens between two or more persons where advice is given to individual seeking
assistance. Internal or virtual dialogue, on the other hand, refers to “mental representation of he or she
has of another person’s opinion or knowledge system”. In other words, internal dialogue means thinking
what others might do or say about the problem at hand. In short, it is a mental simulation. Nevertheless,
both mechanisms are conducive to improving judgment and hence developing wisdom. (Staudinger and
Baltes, 1998)
Wisdom as Critical Reflection
Knowledge and judgment are essential ingredients of wisdom development. Critical reflection can be
found in developmental psychology where an abundance of constructs such as embedded logic, working
intelligence, post-formal reasoning, dialectic thinking, reflective judgment, and epistemic cognition
illustrate how one come to thinking critically, acquire deep knowledge, and make sound judgment.
Critical reflection involves three interrelated processes:
1. Process of questioning and replacing assumptions that were once accepted tacitly as
commonsense.
2. Process of accepting alternative perspective on previously taken for granted ideas, concepts
and reasoning.
3. Process of recognizing and understanding the hegemonic aspect of values in dominant culture,
alienated values of minority ideology, and the ‘natural’ state of the world.
(Brookfield, 1995a)
Critical reflection of assumptions comes in three broad categories – paradigmatic, prescriptive, and
causal. (Brookfield, 1995b)
Paradigmatic assumptions are deeply embedded assumptions about reality. These assumptions are not
recognized as assumptions even when they are pointed out. They are regarded as “objectively valid
renderings of reality” or as facts. It would take a tremendous amount of counterintuitive evidence and
disconfirming evidences to change these beliefs on assumptions once held true. However, once they are
challenged and changed, the impact on people’s lives is profound and pervasive. (Brookfield, 1995b)
Prescriptive assumptions are assumptions about what one thing ought to be in a given situation, i.e. how
one should act, what certain process should look like, what responsibility is expected in given position or
relationship. Essentially, prescriptive assumptions are derivatives of paradigmatic assumptions. For
example, if we believe adult independence, we assume they would choose their own learning interest.
(Brookfield, 1995b)

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Causal assumptions are assumptions of cause-and-effect relationship of all eventual happenings. They
are usually stated in predictive terms i.e. if-then statements. An example of causal assumption would be
if we practice what we preach then others will follow. (Brookfield, 1995b)
Brookfield (1995b) believes that there are six reasons why critical reflection is important to learning and
development of wisdom:
1. Critical reflection helps us take informed actions where actions are critically based, as well as
assumptions investigated, explained, and justified. An informed and well-justified action has a
very good change of achieving the intended effects. Critical reflection in learning and action
thus increases the chance of being productive.
2. Critical reflection helps us develop a rationale for practice. It solidifies the rationale behind the
profession or practice, and thus the commitment and confidence to the practice.
3. Critical reflection helps us avoid self-laceration or self-blame when things do not quite go our
way. It galvanizes our focus on effort and not on factors that may be beyond our control that
leads to guilt or self-blame.
4. Critical reflection grounds us emotionally with proper recognition and management of
uncertainty and difficulties of life situations.
5. Critical reflection enlivens or energizes our professional practice by providing a model of
“passionate skepticism”. It allows us to create an “emotional climate in which accepting change
and risking failure are valued” as well as a “challenging, interesting, and stimulating” work
environment.
6. Critical reflection also increases democratic trust since it promotes independent thinking, and
creates condition under which each individual is “respected, valued, and heard”. Also
“anchored in values of justice, fairness, and compassion”, critical reflection becomes and
important element in the democratic process.
(Brookfield, 1995b)
In Sternberg’s (1985) study, findings suggest “intelligence and wisdom are perceived more similar to each
other than either is perceived as similar to creativity”. This may imply strong interrelationship between
intelligence and wisdom. The implicit theory study also reveals various components of intelligence,
creativity, and wisdom:

INTELLIGENCE DIMENSIONS
1. Practical problem-solving (tends to see attainable goals and accomplish them; has ability to change
directions and use another procedure; is able to apply knowledge to particular problems)
2. Verbal ability (can converse on almost any topic; has demonstrated a good vocabulary; has a good
command of language)
3. Intellectual balance and integration (has ability to recognize similarities and differences; listens to all
sides of an issue; is able to grasp abstract ideas and focus his or her attention to those ideas)
4. Goal orientation and attainment (tends to obtain and use information for specific purposes;
possesses ability for high achievement is motivated by goals)
5. Contextual intelligence (learns and remembers, and gains information from past mistakes or
successes; has the ability to understand and interpret his or her environment; knows what’s going
on in the world)
6. Fluid thought (has a thorough grasp of mathematics, good spatial ability, or both, has a high IQ
level; thinks quickly)

CREATIVITY DIMENSIONS
1. Non-entrenchment (makes up rules as he or she goes along; has a free spirit; is unorthodox)
2. Integration and intellectuality (makes connections and distinctions between ideas and things; has
the ability to recognize similarities and differences; is able to put old information, theories, and so
forth together in a new way)
3. Aesthetic taste and imagination (has an appreciation of art, music, and so forth; can write, draw,
compose music; has good taste)

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4. Decisional skill and flexibility (follows his or her gut feelings in making decisions after weighing the
pros and cons; has ability to change directions and use another procedure)
5. Perspicacity (questions societal norms, truisms, assumptions; is willing to take a stand)
6. Drive for accomplishment and recognition (motivated by goals, likes to be complimented on his or
her work; is energetic)
7. Inquisitiveness and intuition

WISDOM DIMENSIONS
1. Reasoning ability (has the unique ability to look at a problem or situation and solve it; has good
problem solving ability; has a logical mind)
2. Sagacity (considers advices; understands people through dealing with a variety of people; feels he
or she can always learn from other people; is fair)
3. Learning from ideas and environment (attaches importance to ideas; looks at different perspectives;
learns from other people’s mistakes)
4. Judgment (acts within own physical and intellectual limitations; is sensible; has good judgment at
all times; thinks before acting or making decisions)
5. Expeditious use of information (is experienced; seek out information, especially details; learns and
remembers and gains information from past mistakes or successes)
6. Perspicacity (can offer solutions that are on the side of right and truth; is able to see through things -
read between the lines; has the ability to understand and interpret his or her environment)
(Sternberg, 1985)
Implicit theories can provide a useful way of understanding constructs of intelligence, creativity, and
wisdom. The test of an account of implicit theories is whether it accurately and fully reflects the notions
of people have in their heads, and the way in which these people are systemized. People have implicit
theories of intelligence, creativity, and wisdom, and they use these theories in judging themselves as well
as others. (Sternberg, 1985)
Sternberg, (2001) also believes that “wise people recognize the need to balance intelligence and creativity
to achieve both stability and change within societal context”. This balance may come in the form of
dialectic process in which “intelligence represents a thesis, creativity an antithesis, and wisdom a
synthesis”. The convergent view on intelligence is the “ability to adapt to the environment” or acquisition
of skills that lead one to fit into existing environments. Creativity, on the other hand, refers to “the
potential to produce novel ideas” (Kuhn, 1970; cited by Sternberg 2001), basically a breakthrough that
defies contemporary views, paradigm-rejecting notion, or redirecting/reinitiating a given field. This
gives creativity its “antithetical and crowd defying nature” (Sternberg, 2001).
In all likelihood, intelligence is a prerequisite of creativity since creative people usually generate lots of
ideas, analyze them, and choose the better ones. They may also redefine problems, seek seemingly bizarre
connections between ideas that others cannot, and recognize existing body of knowledge that can be
conducive as well as hindrance to generating creative ideas. Wise people exhibit both intelligence and
creativity in one form or another, and an emerging wisdom derived in part from intelligence and
creativity. This entails balance between change (creativity) and stability (intelligence) in societal activities
and human behaviors when wisdom progresses i.e. making head ways in a given field in its quest for
new knowledge and understanding. (Sternberg, 2001)
Sternberg (1990) citing other researchers such as Csilszentmihalyi and Rathunde described components of
wisdom as 1) cognitive process or way of thinking; 2) virtue in which wisdom become best guide for
supreme good and action; 3) personal good that implies intrinsic rewarding experience with highest
enjoyment and happiness available. Kekes’ (1995) four components of wisdom include 1) conception of a
good life; 2) knowledge of good and evil; 3) evaluation using knowledge to actual situation; 4) judgment
(reasonable decision) in complex situation; or in other words, wisdom is a “form of understanding with
reflective attitude and practical concern, and with good judgment about the evaluation of complex
situations”. Small’s (2004) description include intellect acuteness, intelligence, knowledge, speculative
depth, intellectual grasp, sound judgment in choice of means and ends, prudence (avoidance of foolish
act, loss of integrity, credibility etc), virtues; complex interplay of contemplation, truth and reality, and

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understanding with ability to make good judgments; an ability to make right use of knowledge, insight
and/or capacity to judge rightly in matters relating to life and conduct. Meadiam (in Sternberg 1990) sees
wisdom as attitude towards beliefs, values, knowledge, information, abilities and skills. Birren and Fisher
(in Sternberg 1990) see wisdom as bringing together experience, cognitive abilities, and affect, and
allowed good decisions to be made at an individual and societal level. Staudinger and Pasupathi (2003)
describe wisdom as expert level knowledge and judgment in fundamental pragmatics of life. Baltes and
Kubzmann (2003) describe wisdom as integration of knowledge and character of mind and virtue; as
expert knowledge and judgment about important, difficult and uncertain questions with regard to
meaning and conduct of life; importance of emotion and values, performance for welfare of others.
With the given contributions from various researchers, we can then re-categorize the elements of wisdom:
1. Mindful (Theory-of-mind)
 Intelligence
 Creativity cognitive styles
 Reflective thinking
 Judgment
 Emotional reasoning
 Mental-real distinction

2. Knowledgeable (Knowledge and Skill)

 Factual and procedural knowledge of life
 Life-span contextualism
 Experience, and openness to experience
 Problem solving, planning, and decision-making skills

3. Human Affairs Handling (Issues Handling)

 Understanding human nature
 Recognition and response to human limitations
 Recognition and management of uncertainty
 False belief understanding
 Social understanding and interaction (social intelligence)
 Understanding and managing pragmatics of life

4. Virtue (Value System that builds personality through moral reasoning)

 Integrity
 Credibility (honesty, truthfulness, sincerity, consistency, trust)
 Valor (courage)
 Fairness (equity)
 Temperance (fortitude, forbearance, restraint, self control)
 Benevolence (humanity)
 Justice (rectitude, righteousness)
 Penance
 Modesty
 Prudence (diligence)
 Respect
 Understanding
 Transcendence

In summary, wisdom is 1) understanding of universal truth [知真理], 2) sound judgment [正判斷], and 3)
appropriate execution [成所作].
In conjunction with the DIKW model, the revised model is DIKIW shown in diagram below:

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Understanding universal truth

Sound Judgment Wisdom
Appropriate Execution

Restructuring Intelligence
mental processes

Conceptualized
Knowledge & Constructed
Internalized

Processed Externalized
Information
& Analyzed

Data Captured & Stored

Figure 1 DIKIW

CONCLUSION
The fallacy of circular definition can be avoided in defining terms such as data, information and
knowledge with interrelationships given mindfulness. It makes sense to include intelligence as the unit of
analysis in the DIKW hierarchy since intelligence has inseparable relationships with knowledge and
wisdom. Therefore, it is also fitting to rename the DIKW acronym to DIKIW.
Wisdom, arguably, is sought after by many if not all throughout time. Yet wisdom in its practicality is
still an illusive and profound construct even if we exclude theoretical and transcending wisdom from
examination. Nevertheless, practical wisdom with its multi-facet elements provides a plausible goal for
all individuals and organizations alike that seek a brighter future and the greater good. Practical wisdom
embraced practical problem solving of business, human, and social issues. Presuming that practical
wisdom can be cultivated in individuals systematically and developed in organizations collectively,
practical wisdom would offer nontrivial contributions to society as a whole. Therefore wisdom may well
be the greatest goal as well as journey of human development.

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AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL NOTE
Name: Liew, Chor-Beng Anthony
Organization: Capital Motors Inc.
Position: Director
Address: 53 Nan Kang Road. Sec.3, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC 115
Email: anthonylautw@yahoo.com
Phone: 886-988-062228

Anthony Liew is currently a PhD student at Walden University majoring in knowledge management. He
has a MBA degree from New York University and an EMBA degree from University of Chicago. He also
has extensive experience in marketing and process management in the Taiwan high-end automobile
industry.

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