Center of Mass & Collision

Introduction:
Every physical system has associated with it a certain point whose motion characterises the motion of the
whole system. When the system moves under some external forces, then this point moves as if the entire
mass of the system is concentrated at this point and also the external force is applied at this point for
translational motion. This point is called the center of mass of the system.
COM is an imaginary point, which may or may not be located on the system, and in many (not always)
cases of mechanics, whole mass can be assumed to be concentrated on it. If external force is applied at
Center of Mass then only translational motion is possible not rotational.

Center of Mass of a System of 'N' Discrete Particles

Consider a system of N point masses m1, m2, m3, ........... mn whose position vectors from origin O are given by
𝑟⃗1 , 𝑟⃗2 , 𝑟⃗3 ,............ respectively. Then the position vector of the center of mass C of the system is given by
𝑚1 𝑟⃗1 +𝑚2 𝑟⃗2 +........+𝑚𝑛 𝑟⃗𝑛 ∑𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑟⃗𝑖 y
𝑟⃗𝑐𝑚 = ; 𝑟⃗𝑐𝑚 =
𝑚1 +𝑚2 +........+𝑚𝑛 ∑𝑛
𝑖 =1 𝑚𝑖
m2
1𝑛 m1 COM
𝑟⃗𝑐𝑚 = ∑𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑟⃗𝑖
𝑀 𝑟2
ሬሬሬ⃗
mn
where, 𝑚𝑖 𝑟⃗𝑖 is called the moment of mass of the particle w.r.t O. 𝑟1 𝑟⃗𝑐𝑚
ሬሬሬ⃗
𝑟𝑛
ሬሬሬ⃗
M = (∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 ) is the total mass of the system.

O X
Note:
If the origin is taken at the center of mass then ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑟⃗𝑖 = 0. Hence, the COM is the point about which the
sum of “mass moments” of the system is zero.

Incartition coordinate system:

If co-ordinates of particles of mass m1, m2, ...... are (x1, y1, z1), (x2, y2, z2)....
y

m1(x1y1z1)
m2(x2y2z2)
𝑟1
ሬሬሬ⃗
𝑟𝑛
ሬሬሬ⃗
𝑟3
ሬሬሬ⃗ m3(x3y3z3)
mn(xnynzn)
𝑟𝑛
ሬሬሬ⃗
x
(0,0,0)
z

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then position vector of their centre of mass is

𝑅ሬ⃗𝐶𝑀 = xcm 𝑖̂+ ycm 𝑗̂+ zcm 𝑘̂

̂ )+𝑚2 (𝑥2 𝑖̂+𝑦2 𝑗̂ +𝑧2 𝑘

𝑚1 (𝑥1 𝑖̂+𝑦1 𝑗̂ +𝑧1 𝑘 ̂ )+𝑚3 (𝑥3 𝑖̂+𝑦3 𝑗̂ +𝑧3 𝑘
̂ )+...
=
𝑚1 +𝑚2 +𝑚3 +...

̂
(𝑚1 𝑥1 +𝑚2 𝑥2 +....)𝑖̂+(𝑚1 𝑦1 +𝑚2 𝑦2 ...)𝑗̂ +(𝑚1 𝑧1 +𝑚2 𝑧2 +..)𝑘
=
𝑚1 +𝑚2 +𝑚3 +..

𝑚1 𝑥1 +𝑚2 𝑥2 +....... 𝑚1 𝑦1 +𝑚2 𝑦2 +....... 𝑚1 𝑧1 +𝑚2 𝑧2 +.......

So, xcm = ( ), ycm = ( ), zcm = ( )
𝑚1 +𝑚2 +𝑚3 +...... 𝑚1 +𝑚2 +.......... 𝑚1 +𝑚2 +.........

∑𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑥𝑖 ∑𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑦𝑖 ∑𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑦𝑖
xcm = , ycm = , zcm =
∑𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 ∑𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 ∑𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖

Illustration 1:

Four particles of mass 1 kg, 2 kg, 3 kg and 4 kg are placed at the four vertices A, B, C and D of a square of
side 1 m. Find the position of center of mass of the particles.

Solution:

Assuming D as the origin, DC as x-axis and DA as y-axis, we have y

m1 = 1 kg, (x1, y1) = (0, 1m) (0,1) (1,1)

A m1 m2 B
m2 = 2 kg, (x2, y2) = (1m, 1m)

m3 = 3 kg, (x3, y3) = (1m, 0)

and m4 = 4 kg, (x4, y4) = (0, 0) (0,0) m4 x

m3
D C (1,0)
Co-ordinates of their COM are
𝑚1 𝑥1 +𝑚2 𝑥2 +𝑚3 𝑚3 +𝑚4 𝑥4
xCOM =
𝑚1 +𝑚2 +𝑚3 +𝑚4

(1)(0)+2(1)+3(1)+4(0) 5 1
= = = m = 0.5 m
1+2+3+4 10 2 A B
𝑚1 𝑦1 +𝑚2 𝑦2 +𝑚3 𝑦3 +𝑚4 𝑦4
Similarly, yCOM =
𝑚1 +𝑚2 +𝑚3 +𝑚4 COM

(1)(1)+2(1)+3(0)+4(0) 3 0.3m
= = = 0.3 m 0.5m
1+2+3+4 10
D C
 (xCOM, yCOM) = (0.5 m, 0.3 m)

Thus, position of COM of the four particles is as shown in figure.

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Illustration 2:
Three bodies of equal masses are placed at vertices of an equilateral triangle of side length a, (as shown in
figure). Find out the co-ordinates of centre of mass.

y m
𝑎 𝑎ξ
ቆ ;
2 2
a a

(a,0)
m x
(0,0) a m

Solution:
0×𝑚+𝑎×𝑚+𝑎2×𝑚 𝑎
𝑥𝐶𝑀 = =
𝑚+𝑚+𝑚 2
0×𝑚+0×𝑚+𝑎23×𝑚 𝑎√3
√

𝑦𝐶𝑀 = =
𝑚+𝑚+𝑚 6

Position of COM of Two Particles

Center of mass of two particles of masses m1 and m2 separated by a distance r lies in between the two
particles. The distance of center of mass from any of the particle (r) is inversely proportional to the mass
of the particle (m)
or
COM of two particles divides internally the line joining two particles in inverse ratio of their masses.
Proof :
𝑚1 𝑥1+𝑚2𝑥2
𝑥𝐶𝑀 = 𝑚1+𝑚2

(-d1,0) d1 (0,0) d2 (d2,0)

m1 COM m2

𝑚1 (−𝑑1 )+𝑚2(𝑑2)
0= 𝑚1 +𝑚2
m1d2 = m2d2
𝑑1 𝑚2
=
𝑑2 𝑚1
1
𝑑∝𝑚
Here, d1 = distance of COM from m1
and d2 = distance of COM from m2
From the above discussion, we see that
d1 = d2 = 1/2 if m1 = m2, i.e., COM lies midway between the two particles of equal masses.
Similarly, d1 > d2 if m1 < m2 and d1 < d2 if m2 < m1, i.e., COM is always nearer to the particle having larger
mass.

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Illustration 3:
What are the co–ordinates of the centre of mass of the three particles system shown in figure.
y(m)

2 (8.0kg)

1 (4.0kg)

3kg
x(m)
0 1 2 3

Ans. 1.1m, 1.3 m

Solution:
3×0+8×1+4×2 16
𝑋𝐶𝑂𝑀 = 3+8+4
= 15 = 1.1𝑚
3×0+8×2+4×1 20
𝑌𝐶𝑂𝑀 = 3+8+4
= 15 = 1.3𝑚

Illustration 4:
The position vector of three particles of masses m1 = 1 kg, m2 = 2 kg and m3 = 3kg are 𝑟⃗1 = (𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ )𝑚,
𝑟⃗2 = 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ and 𝑟⃗3 = (2𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂ − 2𝑘̂ )𝑚 respectively. Find the position vector of their center of mass.
Solution:
𝑚1𝑟ሬ⃗1 +𝑚2𝑟ሬ⃗2+𝑚3𝑟ሬ⃗3
The position vector of COM of the three particles will be given by 𝑟⃗𝐶𝑂𝑀 = 𝑚1 +𝑚2+𝑚3
Substituting the values, we get

(1)(𝑖̂+4𝑗̂+𝑘̂ )+(2)(𝑖̂+𝑗̂+𝑘̂ )+(3)(2𝑖̂–𝑗̂–2𝑘̂ ) 1

𝑟⃗𝐶𝑂𝑀 = 1+2+3
= 2 (3𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ − 𝑘̂ )𝑚

Center of Mass of a Continuous Mass Distribution

For continuous mass distribution the center of mass can be located by replacing summation sign with an
integral sign. Proper limits for the integral are chosen according to the situation
y

dm
𝑟⃗

x
(0,0,0)

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∫ 𝑥𝑑𝑚 ∫ 𝑦𝑑𝑚 ∫ 𝑧𝑑𝑚

xcm = , ycm = , zcm =
∫ 𝑑𝑚 ∫ 𝑑𝑚 ∫ 𝑑𝑚

∫ 𝑑𝑚= M (mass of the body)

1
𝑟⃗𝑐𝑚 = ∫ 𝑟⃗𝑑𝑚
𝑀
x, y and z are the cordinets of center of mass of dm mass
Note:
(i) If an object has symmetric mass distribution about x axis then y coordinate of COM is zero and
vice-versa
(ii) Center of mass of uniform bodies lies on their geometric centre’s.

Types of mass distributions:

Linear mass density () :
M,L dx
Mass per unit length = 
𝑀 dm = 𝜆dx
If uniform then 𝜆 =
𝐿
Generally defined for rod, ring, arc etc.

Surface mass density () : M

A
Mass per unit area =  dm
𝑀
If uniform then 𝜎 = dm= 𝜎dA
𝐴
Generally defined for Lamina's like triangular plate,
rectangular plate, disc, square plate etc.

Volume mass density () :

M
Mass per unit length =  V
𝑀 dV
If uniform then 𝜌 = 𝑉

Generally defined for solid sphere, solid cylinder etc.

Center of Mass of a Uniform Rod

Suppose a rod of mass M and length L is lying along the x-axis with its one end at x = 0 and the other at
𝑀
x = L. Mass per unit length of the rod =
𝐿
𝑀
Hence, dm, (the mass of the element dx situated at x = x is) = dx
𝐿

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The coordinates of the element dx are (x, 0, 0). Therefore, x-coordinate of COM of the rod will be
𝐿 𝐿 𝑀
∫0 (𝑥)( 𝐿 𝑑𝑥) 𝐿 𝐿
∫0 𝑥𝑑𝑚 𝐿
xCOM = = = ∫ 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = y
∫ 𝑑𝑚 𝑀 2 0 2
∫ 𝑦𝑑𝑚 dx
The y-coordinate of COM is yCOM = = 0. Similarly, zCOM = 0 x
∫ 𝑑𝑚 x=0 x=x x=L
𝐿
i.e., the coordinates of COM of the rod are ( , 0,0), i.e. it
2
lies at the center of the rod.

Illustration 5:
A rod of length L is placed along the x-axis between x = 0 and x = L. The linear density (mass/length)  of
the rod varies with the distance x from the origin as  = Rx. Here, R is a positive constant. Find the position
of center of mass of this rod.
Solution:
Mass of element dx situated at x = x is dm =  dx = Rx dx
The COM of the element has coordinates (x, 0, 0)
𝐿
𝑥3
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 2 [ ]
∫0 𝑥𝑑𝑚 ∫0 (𝑥)(𝑅𝑥)𝑑𝑥 𝑅 ∫0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 3 0 2𝐿
Therefore, x-coordinate of COM of the rod will be xCOM = = 𝐿 = 𝐿 = 𝐿 =
∫ 𝑑𝑚 ∫0 (𝑅𝑥)𝑑𝑥 𝑅 ∫0 𝑥𝑑𝑥 𝑥2 3
[2]
0

dx

x=0 x=x x=L X

∫ 𝑦𝑑𝑚
The y-coordinate of COM of the rod is yCOM = =0 (as y = 0)
∫ 𝑑𝑚
Similarly, zCOM = 0
2𝐿
Hence, the center of mass of the rod lies at [ 3 , 0, 0]

Center of Mass of a Semicircular Ring

Figure shows the object (semi circular ring). By observation we can say that the x-coordinate of the center
of mass of the ring is zero as the half ring is symmetrical about y-axis on both sides of the origin. Only we
are required to find the y-coordinate of the center of mass.

Y Y

Rd𝜃
d𝜃 Y=R
Ycm Ycm 𝜃 sin𝜃𝜃
X
R

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1
To find ycm we use ycm = ∫ 𝑑𝑚𝑦 ...(i)
𝑀
𝑚
𝜆 = 𝜋𝑅

Here for dm we consider an elemental arc of the ring at an angle  from the x-direction of angular width
d. If radius of the ring is R then its y coordinate will be R sin, here dm is given as

𝑀
dm = × R d
𝜋𝑅

So from equation ....(i), we have

1 𝜋 𝑀 𝑅 𝜋
ycm = ∫0 𝜋𝑅 𝑅𝑑𝜃 (R sin ) = ∫0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑀 𝜋
2𝑅
ycm = ...(ii)
𝜋

Center of Mass of Semicircular Disc

Figure shows the half disc of mass M and radius R. Here, we are only required to find the y-coordinate of
the center of mass of this disc as center of mass will be located on its half vertical diameter. Here to find
ycm, we consider a small elemental ring of mass dm of radius x on the disc (disc can be considered to be
made up such thin rings of increasing radii) which will be integrated from 0 to R. Here dm is given as
2𝑀 2𝑀
dm = ( x) dx and (𝜎 = )
𝜋𝑅 2 𝜋𝑅 2

Y
Y
Ycm
dx
Ycm
x
X X
R R

2𝑥
Now the y-coordinate of the element is taken as , as in previous section, we have derived that the
𝜋
2𝑅
center of mass of a semi-circular ring is concentrated at
𝜋
R
1 2𝑥 1 𝑅 4𝑀 2
𝑀 
Here ycm is given as ycm = dm = ∫0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋 𝑀 𝜋𝑅2

4𝑅
ycm =
3𝜋

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Center of Mass of a Solid Hemisphere

The hemisphere is of mass M and radius R. To find its center of mass (only y-coordinate), we consider an
element disc of width dy, mass dm at a distance y from the center of the hemisphere. The radius of this
elemental disc will be given as

(r = radius of elemetnal disc)

By 𝛥ABC

𝑅2 = 𝑦 2 + 𝑟2

𝑟2 = 𝑅2 − 𝑦 2
3𝑀
𝜌=
2𝜋𝑅3

Y Y

dy r
y R
Ycm ycm
X X
R R

3𝑀 3𝑀
The mass dm of this disc can be given as dm = × r2dy = (R2 – y2)dy
2𝜋𝑅 3 2𝑅 3
1 𝑅 1 𝑅 3𝑀 3 𝑅 2
ycm of the hemisphere is given as ycm = ∫ 𝑑𝑚𝑦 = ∫ 3 (R2 – y2) dy y =
3 ∫ (𝑅 − 𝑦2 )𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑀 0 𝑀 0 2𝑅 2𝑅 0

3𝑅
ycm =
8

Center of Mass of a Hollow Hemisphere

A hollow hemisphere of mass M and radius R. Now we consider an elemental circular strip of angular
𝑀
width d at an angular distance  from the base of the hemisphere. This strip will have an area. (𝜎 = )
2𝜋𝑅2

dS = 2R cos  Rd

Y Y

Rcos Rd

Ycm d

X X
R R

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Its mass dm is given as

𝑀
dm = 2R cos  Rd
2𝜋𝑅 2
Here y-coordinate of this strip of mass dm can be taken as R sin. Now we can obtain the centre of mass
of the system as.
𝜋 𝜋
1 1 𝑀
ycm = ∫ 2 𝑑𝑚𝑅 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = ∫ (2 2𝜋𝑅2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑑𝜃)R sin
𝑀 0 𝑀 0 2𝜋𝑅 2
𝜋
𝑅
= R∫ 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑑𝜃  ycm =
0 2

Center of Mass of a Solid Cone

A solid cone has mass M, height H and base radius R. Obviously the center of mass of this cone will lie
somewhere on its axis, at a height less than H/2. To locate the center of mass we consider an elemental
disc of width dy and radius r, at a distance y from the apex of the cone. Let the mass of this disc be dm,

𝑀
which can be given as ( 𝜌 = 1 )
3
𝜋𝑅2𝐻

3𝑀
dm = × r2 dy
𝜋𝑅 2 𝐻
𝑅 𝑟
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝐻 = 𝑦

𝑅𝑦
(𝑟 = 𝐻 )


y

r H

dy

1 𝐻 1 𝐻 3𝑀 𝑅𝑦 2 3 𝐻 3 3𝐻
here ycm can be given as ycm = ∫0 𝑦𝑑𝑚 = ∫0 ቆ 𝜋 ( ) 𝑑𝑦) 𝑦 = ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 =
𝑀 𝑀 𝜋𝑅2𝐻 𝐻 𝐻3 0 4

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Bodies Location of COM

L/2 (L/2,0)
𝐿
X 𝐶𝑂𝑀 [ , 0]
1. ROD 2
(0,0) (L)

X 2𝑅 𝜃
2. Circular Arc 2R  [0, 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ]
 sin 𝜃 2
 2

Semi-circular arc 2𝑅
3. [0, ]
[Half-ring] 𝜋

4𝑅 𝜃
sin 4𝑅 𝜃
4. Disc 3𝜃 2 [0, 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ]
R 3𝜃 2


4𝑅 4𝑅
5. Semi-disc [0, ]
3𝜋 3𝜋
(0,0)
Hollow
Sphere
R/2 𝑅
6. Hollow sphere [0, ]
R 2
(0,0)

Solid

Sphere 3𝑅
7. Solid sphere R 3R/8 [0, ]
8
(0,0)

ℎ
8. Hollow cone h [0, ]
h/3 3

(0,0)

COM 𝐻
9. Solid cone H [0, ]
H/4 4

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Mass Center of composite bodies

Illustration 6:
A composite body is made of joining two or more bodies. Find mass center of the following composite
body made by joining a uniform disk of radius r and a uniform square plate of the same mass per unit
area () and since '2r'.
Solution:

o x

To find mass center the component bodies are assumed particle of masses equal to corresponding bodies
located on their respective mass centers. Then we use equation to find coordinates of the mass center of
the composite body.
To find mass center of the composite body, we first have to calculate masses of the bodies, because their
mass distribution is given.
If we denote surface mass density (mass per unit area) by , masses of the bodies are
Mass of the disk, 𝑚𝑑 =Mass per unit area × Area = 𝜎𝜋𝑟 2
Mass of the square plate, 𝑚𝑝 = Mass per unit area × Area = 𝜎(4𝑟 2 ) = 4𝜎𝑟 2

Location of mass center of the disk, 𝑥𝑑 = Center of the disk = 𝑟 and 𝑦𝑑 = 0

Location of mass center of the square plate, 𝑥𝑝 = Center of the surface plate = 3𝑟 ≠and 𝑦𝑝 = 0

Using equation, we obtain coordinates (xc, yc) of the composite body.

𝑚𝑑𝑥𝑑+𝑚𝑠𝑥𝑠 𝑟(𝜋+12) 𝑚𝑑𝑥𝑑+𝑚𝑠 𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑐 = = and 𝑦𝑐 = =0
𝑚𝑑+𝑚𝑠 (𝜋+4) 𝑚𝑑+𝑚𝑠
𝑟(𝜋+12)
Coordinates of the mass center are ( 𝜋+4 , 0)
( )

Mass Center of truncated bodies (Cavity Problems)

Illustration 7:
A truncated body is made by removing a portion of a body.
Find mass center of the following truncated disk made by removing disk of radius equal to half of the
original disk as shown in the figure. Radius of the original uniform disk is r. (Mass Density = )

o x

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Solution:

To find mass center of truncated bodies we can make use of superposition principle that is, if we add the
removed portion in the same place we obtain the original body. The idea is illustrated in the following
figure.

y y y

o x o x o x

The removed portion is added to the truncated body keeping their location unchanged relative to the
coordinate frame.

Denoting masses of the truncated body, removed portion and original body by mtb, mrp and mob and
location of their mass centers by xtb, xrp and xob, we can write 𝑚𝑡𝑏 𝑥𝑡𝑏 + 𝑚𝑟𝑏 𝑥𝑟𝑝 = 𝑚𝑜𝑏 𝑥𝑜𝑏

From the above equation we obtain position co-ordinate xtb of the mass center of the truncated body.
𝑚𝑜𝑏𝑥𝑜𝑏−𝑚𝑟𝑏𝑥𝑟𝑝
𝑥𝑡𝑏 = ....(1)
𝑚𝑡𝑏

Denoting mass per unit area by , we can express the masses mtb, mrp and mob.

𝑟2 3𝜎𝜋𝑟2
Mass of truncated body, 𝑚𝑡𝑏 = 𝜎 {𝜋 (𝑟 2 − 4 )} = 4

𝜎𝜋𝑟2
Mass of the removed portion 𝑚𝑟𝑝 = 4

Mass of the original body 𝑚𝑜𝑏 = 𝜎𝜋𝑟 2

Mass center of the truncated body 𝑥𝑡𝑏

𝑟
Mass center of the removed portion 𝑥𝑟𝑝 = 2

Mass center of the original body 𝑥𝑜𝑏 = 0

Substituting the above values in equation (1), we obtain the mass the center of the truncated body.

2 𝜎𝜋𝑟 2 𝑟
𝑚𝑜𝑏𝑥𝑜𝑏−𝑚𝑟𝑏𝑥𝑟𝑝 (𝜎𝜋𝑟 )×0−ቆ 4 )( )
2 𝑟
𝑥𝑡𝑏 = = =−
𝑚𝑡𝑏 3𝜎𝜋𝑟2 6
4

Mass center of the truncated body is at point

𝑑𝑟ሬ⃗1 𝑑𝑟ሬ⃗ 𝑑𝑟ሬ⃗ 𝑑𝑟ሬ⃗

𝑣⃗𝑐𝑚 = 𝑚1 𝑚2 2 + 𝑚3 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . +𝑚𝑛 𝑛 = 𝑚1 𝑣⃗1 + 𝑚2 𝑣⃗2 + 𝑚3 𝑣⃗3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . +𝑚𝑛 𝑣⃗𝑛
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

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Motion of Center of Mass and Conservation of Linear Momentum

Displacement of COM due to Displacement of Particles of System:

𝑚1𝑟ሬ⃗1+𝑚2𝑟ሬ⃗2+.....
𝑟⃗𝑐𝑚 = 𝑚1+𝑚2+.....

𝑚1ሬሬሬሬሬሬሬሬሬ⃗
𝑑𝑟1+𝑚2ሬሬሬሬሬሬሬሬሬ⃗
𝑑𝑟2 +.....
𝑑𝑟⃗𝑐𝑚 = 𝑚1 +𝑚2+.....

𝑚1 𝛥𝑟⃗1 +𝑚2 𝛥𝑟⃗2 +.....

displacement of COM 𝛥𝑟⃗𝑐𝑚 =
𝑚1 +𝑚2 +.....

Velocity of Center of Mass of system

𝑑𝑟ሬ⃗ 𝑑𝑟ሬ⃗ 𝑑𝑟ሬ⃗ 𝑑𝑟ሬ⃗
𝑣⃗𝑐𝑚 = 𝑚1 𝑑𝑡1 𝑚2 𝑑𝑡2 + 𝑚3 𝑑𝑡3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . +𝑚𝑛 𝑑𝑡𝑛 = 𝑚1 𝑣⃗1 + 𝑚2 𝑣⃗2 + 𝑚3 𝑣⃗3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . +𝑚𝑛 𝑣⃗𝑛

Here numerator of the right hand side term is the total momentum of the system i.e., summation of
momentum of the individual component (particle) of the system

Hence velocity of center of mass of the system is the ratio of momentum of the system to the mass of the
system.

∴ 𝑃ሬ⃗𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = 𝑀𝑣⃗𝑐𝑚 = 𝑀𝑣⃗𝑐𝑚

Acceleration of Center of Mass of system

𝑑𝑟ሬ⃗ 𝑑𝑟ሬ⃗ 𝑑𝑟ሬ⃗ 𝑑𝑟ሬ⃗
𝑎⃗𝑐𝑚 = 𝑚1 𝑑𝑡1 + 𝑚2 𝑑𝑡2 + 𝑚3 𝑑𝑡3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . +𝑚𝑛 𝑑𝑡𝑛 = 𝑚1 𝑎⃗1 + 𝑚2 𝑎⃗2 + 𝑚3 𝑎⃗3 . . . . . . . . +𝑚𝑛 𝑎⃗𝑛
Net force on system Net Exeternal Force+Net internal Force Net External Force
= = =
𝑀 𝑀 𝑀
(action and reaction both of an internal force must be within the system. Vector summation will cancel
all internal forces and hence net internal force on system is zero)

 𝐹⃗𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝑀𝑎⃗𝑐𝑚

where 𝐹⃗𝑒𝑥𝑡 is the sum of the 'external' forces acting on the system. The internal forces which the particles
exert on one another play absolutely no role in the motion of the center of mass.

If no external force is acting on a system of particles, the acceleration of center of mass of the system will
be zero. If ac = 0, it implies that vc must be a constant and if vcm is a constant, it implies that the total
momentum of the system must remain constant. It leads to the principal of conservation of momentum in
absence of external forces.

If 𝐹⃗𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 0 then= 𝑣⃗𝑐𝑚 constant

“If resultant external force is zero on the system, then the net momentum of the system must
remain constant”.

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Motion of COM in a moving system of particles :

(1) COM at rest :
If Fext = 0 and Vcm = 0, then COM remains at rest. Individual components of the system may move
and have non-zero momentum due to mutual forces (internal), but the net momentum of the
system remains zero.
(i) All the particles of the system are at rest.
(ii) Particles are moving such that their net momentum is zero.
Example:

2m 2ms 4ms m

(iii) A bomb at rest suddenly explodes into various smaller fragments, all moving in different
directions then, since the explosive forces are internal & there is no external force on the
system for explosion therefore, the COM of the bomb will remain at the original position
and the fragment fly such that their net momentum remains zero.
(iv) Two men standing on a frictionless platform, push each other, then also their net
momentum remains zero because the push forces are internal for the two men system.
(v) A boat floating in a lake, also has net momentum zero if the people on it changes their
position, because the friction force required to move the people is internal of the boat
system.
(vi) Objects initially at rest, if moving under mutual forces (electrostatic or gravitation) also have
net momentum zero.
(vii) A light spring of spring constant k kept compressed between two blocks of masses m1 and
m2 on a smooth horizontal surface. When released, the blocks acquire velocities in opposite
directions, such that the net momentum is zero.
(viii) In a fan, all particles are moving but COM is at rest

(2) COM moving with uniform velocity :

If Fext = 0, then Vcm remains constant therefore, net momentum of the system also remains
conserved. Individual components of the system may have variable velocity and momentum due to
mutual forces (internal), but the net momentum of the system remains constant and COM
continues to move with the initial velocity.

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(i) All the particles of the system are moving with same velocity.
e.g.: A car moving with uniform speed on a straight road, has its COM moving with a
constant velocity.

(ii) Internal explosions / breaking does not change the motion of COM and net momentum
remains conserved. A bomb moving in a straight line suddenly explodes into various
smaller fragments, all moving in different directions then, since the explosive forces are
internal & there is no external force on the system for explosion therefore, the COM of the
bomb will continue the original motion and the fragment fly such that their net momentum
remains conserved.
(iii) Man jumping from cart or buggy also exert internal forces therefore net momentum of the
system and hence, Motion of COM remains conserved.
(iv) Two moving blocks connected by a light spring on a smooth horizontal surface. If the
acting forces is only due to spring then COM will remain in its motion and momentum will
remain conserved.
(v) Particles colliding in absence of external impulsive forces also have their momentum
conserved.

(3) COM moving with acceleration :

If an external force is present then COM continues its original motion as if the external force is
acting on it, irrespective of internal forces.
Example:
Projectile motion : An axe thrown in air at an angle  with the horizontal will perform a
complicated motion of rotation as well as parabolic motion under the effect of gravitation

Illustration 8:
If man walks from A to B find displacement of man and plank.
l
m1

rough
A m2 B
smooth
−𝑚1
Ans. S2 = ℓ
𝑚1 +𝑚2

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Solution:
Initial momentum of system man and plank is zero.
Net ext. force on this system is zero.
Thus = 𝑃ሬ⃗𝑠𝑦𝑠 0  𝑣⃗𝑐𝑚 =0  𝑠⃗𝑐𝑚 =0
 𝑚1 𝑠⃗1 + 𝑚2 𝑠⃗2= 0

Illustration 9:
A block of mass M is placed on the top of a bigger block of mass 10 M as shown in figure. All the surfaces
are frictionless. The system is released from rest. Find the distance moved by the bigger block at the
instant the smaller block reaches the ground.

10 M

2.2m
Solution:
If the bigger block moves towards right by a distance (X), the smaller block will move towards left by a
distance (2.2 –X) (taking the two blocks together as the system).
The horizontal position of CM remains same  M (2.2 – X) = 10 MX
 X = 0.2 m.

Illustration 10:
System released from rest. Find how much m1 moved when m2 is below m1 ?
m1

m2

Solution:
(m1 + m2)system
Same logic
rcm = 0 i

Let m1 moved x
 m2 moved (L – x) m2
L
𝛥𝑟⃗1 = 𝑥𝑖̂
(𝑀+𝑚)𝑣1 +(𝑀)𝑢 𝑚1𝑥𝑖̂−𝑚2 (𝐿−𝑥)+𝑖̂
𝑢 + 𝑣2 = 𝑀+𝑚
 𝛥𝑟𝑐𝑚 = 𝑚1 +𝑚2 X
i
0 = m1x – m2L + m2x
i
𝑚2 𝐿
𝑥=
𝑚1 +𝑚2 f m2
𝑚1 𝐿 } →
𝐿−𝑥=
𝑚1 +𝑚2

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Illustration 11:
A projectile is fired at a speed of 100 m/s at an angle of 37° above the horizontal. At the highest point, the
projectile breaks into two parts of mass ratio 1 : 3, the lighter piece coming to rest. Find the distance from
the launching point to the point where the heavier piece lands.
Solution:
4m

m
com 3m

Internal force do not effect the motion of the centre of mass, the centre of mass hits the ground at the
position where the original projectile would have landed. The range of the original projectile is,
3 4
2𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 2×104 ×5×5
xCOM = = 𝑚 = 960 m
𝑔 10
The center of mass will hit the ground at this position. As the smaller block comes to rest after breaking, it
falls down vertically and hits the ground at half of the range, i.e., at x = 480 m. If the heavier block hits the
ground at x2, then
𝑚1 𝑥1 +𝑚2 𝑥2
xCOM =
𝑚1 +𝑚2
(𝑚)(480)+(3𝑚)(𝑥2 )
960 =
(𝑚+3𝑚)
x2 = 1120 m

Illustration 12:
A shell is fired from a cannon with a speed of 100 m/s at an angle 60° with the horizontal (positive
x-direction). At the highest point of its trajectory, the shell explodes into two equal fragments. One of the
fragments moves along the negative x-direction with a speed of 50 m/s. What is the speed of the other
fragment at the time of explosion.
Solution:
y

100m/s

60°
x

As we know in absence of external force the motion of centre of mass of a body remains unaffected. Thus,
here the centre of mass of the two fragments will continue to follow the original projectile path. The
velocity of the shell at the highest point of trajectory is
vM = u cos  = 100 × cos 60° = 50 m/s

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Let v1 be the speed of the fragment which moves along the negative x-direction and the other fragment
has speed v2. Which must be along positive x-direction. Now from momentum conservation, we have
−𝑚 𝑚
mv = 𝑣1 + 𝑣2
2 2
or 2𝑣 = 𝑣2 – 𝑣1

or 𝑣2 = 2𝑣 + 𝑣1 = (2 × 50) + 50 = 150 𝑚/𝑠

Illustration 13:

A man of mass m is standing on a platform of mass M kept on smooth ice. If the man starts moving on the
platform with a speed v relative to the platform, with what velocity relative to the ice does the platform
recoil ?
Solution:

Consider the situation shown in figure. Suppose the man moves at a speed w towards right and the
platform recoils at a speed V towards left, both relative to the ice. Hence, the speed of the man relative to
the platform is V + w. By the question,

V + w = v, or w = v – V ...(i)

Taking the platform and the man to be the system, there is no external horizontal force on the system. The
linear momentum of the system remains constant. Initially both the man and the platform were at rest.
Thus,

V
ice

0 = MV – mw or MV = m (v – V) [Using (i)]
𝑚𝑣
or, V=
𝑀+𝑚

Illustration 14:

A flat car of mass M is at rest on a frictionless floor with a child of mass m standing at its edge. If child
jumps off from the car towards right with an initial velocity u, with respect to the car, find the velocity of
the car after its jump.
Solution:

Let car attains a velocity 𝑣, and the net velocity of the child with respect to earth will be u – v, as u is its
velocity with respect to car.

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m m

u
M v
M

Initially, the system was at rest, thus according to momentum conservation, momentum after jump must
be zero, as
m(u – v) = Mv
𝑚𝑢
v=
𝑚+𝑀

Illustration 15:
A flat car of mass M with a child of mass m is moving with a velocity v1 on a friction less surface. The child
jumps in the direction of motion of car with a velocity u with respect to car. Find the final velocities of the
child and that of the car after jump.
Solution:
This case is similar to the previous example, except now the car is moving before jump. Here also no
external force is acting on the system in horizontal direction, hence momentum remains conserved in this
direction. After jump car attains a velocity v2 in the same direction, which is less than v1, due to backward
push of the child for jumping. After jump child attains a velocity u + v2 in the direction of motion of car,
with respect to ground.
m m

u
v2
M v1 M

According to momentum conservation (M + m)v1 = Mv2 + m (u + v2)

(𝑀+𝑚)𝑣1−𝑚𝑢
Velocity of car after jump is, 𝑣2 = 𝑀+𝑚
(𝑀+𝑚)𝑣1+(𝑀)𝑢
Velocity of child after jump is, 𝑢 + 𝑣2 = 𝑀+𝑚

Question based on conservation of linear momentum and work-energy theorem :

Illustration 16:
A block of mass m is kept at the edge of movable wedge (mass M). If velocity 𝑉
ሬሬሬ⃗𝑠 given to the block then
find maximum height reached by block. Find maximum height reached by block ?

vs Wedge
m

smooth

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Solution:
Here external net force is 0. So, momentum is conserved.
𝑚𝑉𝑠 = (𝑚 + 𝑀)𝑣 ….(i)
Applying work energy theorem
1 1
𝑚𝑉2𝑆 = (𝑚 + 𝑀)𝑉2 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ ….(ii)
2 2
Let h be the maximum height achieved at this height both (m + M) with move horizontally with same
velocity
Vy=0

M
vx

h max.

At maximum height horizontal component velocity of at maximum height vy = 0

Fext = 0
Pi = Pf
mv0 + 0 = mvx + Mvx
𝑚𝑣0
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑀+𝑚
( )

By WPT,
Wall = KE
WM + Wmg = (KE)f – (KE)i
1 1 1
–mghmax = 𝑚𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑀𝑣𝑥2 − 𝑚𝑣20
2 2 2
1 1
–mghmax = 𝑣𝑥2 [𝑚 + 𝑀] − 𝑚𝑣20
2 2
𝑚𝑣0
𝑣𝑥 = hmax. = ?
(𝑀+𝑚)

−𝑚2𝑣20(𝑀+𝑚) 𝑣20
ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2 𝑀+𝑚 + 2𝑔
( )2×𝑚𝑔

Illustration 17:
Each of the blocks shown in figure has mass 1 kg. The rear block moves with a speed of 2 m/s towards the
front block kept at rest. The spring attached to the front block is light and has a spring constant 50 N/m.
Find the maximum compression of the spring. (Assume surface is frictionless)
2m/s
K=50 N/m
1kg 1kg
(rest)

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Solution:
Maximum compression will take place when the blocks move with equal velocity. As no net external
horizontal force acts on the system of the two blocks, the total linear momentum will remain constant. If V
is the common speed at maximum compression, we have,
(1 kg) (2 m/s) = (1 kg)V + (1 kg)V or, V = 1 m/s.
1
Initial kinetic energy = (1 kg) (2 m/s)2 = 2 J.
2
1 1
Final kinetic energy = (1 kg) (1m/s)2 + (1 kg) (1 m/s)2 = 1 J
2 2
The kinetic energy lost is stored as the elastic energy in the spring.
1
Hence, (50 N/m) x2 = 2J – 1J = 1 J or, x = 0.2 m
2

Impulse
Impulse of a force 𝐹⃗ acting on a body for the time interval t = t1 to t = t2 is defined as :
𝑡 𝑑𝑣
ሬሬ⃗
𝐼⃗ = ∫𝑡 2 𝐹𝑑𝑡 ⇒ 𝐼⃗ = ∫ 𝐹⃗ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑚𝑑𝑣⃗
1

𝐼⃗ = 𝑚(𝑣⃗2 − 𝑣⃗1 ) = 𝛥𝑃ሬ⃗ = change in momentum due to force

𝑡
Also, 𝐼⃗𝑅𝑒𝑠 = ∫𝑡 2 𝐹⃗𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑑𝑡 = 𝛥𝑃ሬ⃗ (impulse - momentum theorem)
1

Note :
Impulse applied to an object in a given time interval can also be calculated from the area under force time
(F-t) graph in the same time interval.

F
Area =
Pt–P1

t1 t
t1

Instantaneous Impulse :
There are many cases when a force acts for such a short time that the effect is instantaneous, e.g., a bat
striking a ball. In such cases, although the magnitude of the force and the time for which it acts may each
be unknown but the value of their product (i.e., impulse) can be known by measuring the initial and final
momenta. Thus, we can write.

𝐼⃗ = ∫ 𝐹⃗ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝛥𝑃ሬ⃗ = 𝑃ሬ⃗𝑓 − 𝑃ሬ⃗𝑖

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Important Points :
(1) It is a vector quantity.
(2) Dimensions = [MLT–1]
(3) SI unit = kg m/s
(4) Direction is along change in momentum.
(5) Magnitude is equal to area under the F-t. graph.
(6) 𝐼⃗ = ∫ 𝐹⃗ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐹⃗𝑎𝑣 ∫ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐹⃗𝑎𝑣 𝛥𝑡
(7) It is not a property of a particle, but it is a measure of the degree to which an external force
changes the momentum of the particle.
Illustration 18:
The hero of a stunt film fires 50 g bullets from a machine gun, each at a speed of 1.0 km/s. If he fires
20 bullets in 4 seconds, what average force does he exert against the machine gun during this period.
Solution:
The momentum of each bullet
= (0.050 kg) (1000 m/s) = 50 kg-m/s.
The gun has been imparted this much amount of momentum by each bullet fired. Thus, the rate of change
of momentum of the gun
2𝑚𝑢
= ∫ 𝑁 𝑑𝑡 = 3

In order to hold the gun, the hero must exert a force of 250 N against the gun.

Impulsive force :
A force, of relatively higher magnitude and acting for relatively shorter time, is called impulsive force.
An impulsive force can change the momentum of a body in a finite magnitude in a very short time
interval. Impulsive force is a relative term. There is no clear boundary between an impulsive and
Non-Impulsive force.

Note:
Usually colliding forces are impulsive in nature.
Since, the application time is very small, hence, very little motion of the particle takes place.

Important points :
1. Gravitational force and spring force are always non-Impulsive.
2. Normal, tension and friction are case dependent.
3. An impulsive force can only be balanced by another impulsive force.

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1. Impulsive Normal : In case of collision, normal forces at the surface of collision are always
impulsive
eg.

m1 N1 N2 m2
Ni = Impulsive; Ng = Non-impulsive
N1g m1g N2g m2g

N1
Both normals are Impulsive

N2

N1
N1 N1, N3 = Impulsive; N2 = non-impulsive

N2 N3

Both normals are Impulsive

N1

N2

2. Impulsive Friction : If the normal between the two objects is impulsive, then the friction between
the two will also be impulsive.

N1

Friction at both surfaces is impulsive

N2

N1
N1

N2 N3 Friction due to N2 is non-impulsive and due to N3

and N1 are impulsive.

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3. Impulsive Tensions : When a string jerks, equal and opposite tension act suddenly at each end.
Consequently equal and opposite impulses act on the bodies attached with the string in the
direction of the string. There are two cases to be considered.
(a) One end of the string is fixed : The impulse which acts at the fixed end of the string
cannot change the momentum of the fixed object there. The object attached to the free
end however will undergo a change in momentum in the direction of the string. The
momentum remains unchanged in a direction perpendicular to the string where no
impulsive forces act.
(b) Both ends of the string attached to movable objects : In this case equal and opposite
impulses act on the two objects, producing equal and opposite changes in momentum. The
total momentum of the system therefore remains constant, although the momentum of
each individual object is changed in the direction of the string. Perpendicular to the string
however, no impulse acts and the momentum of each particle in this direction is
unchanged.

T is Impulsive T
A

T is non- impulsive B

C
T is non- impulsive

All normal are impulsive but tension

T is impulsive only for the ball A

For this example :

In case of rod, Tension is always impulsive and in case of spring, Tension is always non-impulsive.

Illustration 19:
A block of mass m and a pan of equal mass are connected by a string going over a smooth light pulley.
Initially the system is at rest when a particle of mass m falls on the pan and sticks to it. If the particle
strikes the pan with a speed v, find the speed with which the system moves just after the collision.

m
v
m

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Solution:

Let the required speed is V.

Further, let J1 = impulse between particle and pan

and J2 = impulse imparted to the block and the pan by the string

Using, impulse = change in momentum

For particle J1 = mv – mV ...(i)

For pan J1 – J2 = mV ...(ii)

For block J2 = mV ...(iii)

𝑣
Solving, these three equation, we get V =
3

Alternative Solution:

Applying conservation of linear momentum along the string;

mv = 3mV
𝑣
we get, V =
3

Illustration 20:

Two identical block A and B, connected by a massless string are placed on a frictionless horizontal plane.
A bullet having same mass, moving with speed u strikes block B from behind as shown. If the bullet gets
embedded into the block B then find:
m m
m u
(a) The velocity of A, B, C after collision. A C B
(b) Impulse on A due to tension in the string

(c) Impulse on C due to normal force of collision.

(d) Impulse on B due to normal force of collision.

Solution:
𝑢
(a) By Conservation of linear momentum v =
3
𝑚𝑢
(b) ∫ 𝑇𝑑𝑡 = 3

𝑢 −2𝑚𝑢
(c) ∫ 𝑁 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑚 (3 − 𝑢) = 3
𝑚𝑢
(d) ∫(𝑁 − 𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑁𝑑𝑡 − ∫ 𝑇 𝑑𝑡 = 3

2𝑚𝑢
∫ 𝑁 𝑑𝑡 = 3

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Collision or Impact
Collision is an event in which an impulsive force acts between two or more bodies for a short time, which
results in change of their velocities.

Note:
(a) In a collision, particles may or may not come in physical contact.
(b) The duration of collision, t is negligible as compared to the usual time intervals of observation of
motion.
(c) In a collision the effect of external non-impulsive forces such as gravity are not taken into a
account as due to small duration of collision (t) average impulsive force responsible for collision
is much larger than external forces acting on the system.

The collision is infact a redistribution of total momentum of the particles. Thus, law of conservation of
linear momentum is indispensable in dealing with the phenomenon of collision between particles.

Line of Impact
The line passing through the common normal to the surfaces in contact during impact is called line of
impact. The force during collision acts along this line on both the bodies.
Direction of Line of impact can be determined by:
(a) Geometry of colliding objects like spheres, discs, wedge etc.
(b) Direction of change of momentum.
If one particle is stationary before the collision then the line of impact will be along its motion after
collision.

Classification of collisions
(a) On the basis of line of impact
(i) Head-on collision : If the velocities of the colliding particles are along the same line before
and after the collision.
(ii) Oblique collision : If the velocities of the colliding particles are along different lines before
and after the collision.

(b) On the basis of energy :

(i) Elastic collision : In an elastic collision, the colliding particles regain their shape and size
completely after collision. i.e., no fraction of mechanical energy remains stored as
deformation potential energy in the bodies. Thus, kinetic energy of system after collision is
equal to kinetic energy of system before collision. Thus, in addition to the linear
momentum, kinetic energy also remains conserved before and after collision.

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(ii) Inelastic collision : In an inelastic collision, the colliding particles do not regain their shape
and size completely after collision. Some fraction of mechanical energy is retained by the
colliding particles in the form of deformation potential energy. Thus, the kinetic energy of
the particles after collision is not equal to that of before collision. However, in the absence
of external forces, law of conservation of linear momentum still holds good.

(iii) Perfectly inelastic : In a perfectly inelastic collision maximum amount of kinetic energy is
lost and both the particles stick together after collision and move with same velocity.

Note :
Actually, collision between all real objects are neither perfectly elastic nor perfectly inelastic, its inelastic in
nature.

Examples of line of impact and collisions based on line of impact

(i) Two balls A and B are approaching each other such that their centers are moving along line CD.

Line of impact and

line of motion
C D
A B

Head on Collision (If line of motion & line of impact is same)

(ii) Two balls A and B are approaching each other such that their center are moving along dotted lines
as shown in figure.
Line of impact

B A Line of motion
of ball A

Oblique Collision

(iii) Ball is falling on a stationary wedge.

Line of motion of ball

Line of impact

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Coefficient of Restitution (e)

The coefficient of restitution is defined as the ratio of the impulses of reformation and deformation of
either body.

impulse of reformation ∫ 𝐹1 𝑓𝑡
e= =
impulse of deformation ∫ 𝐹𝑑 𝑑𝑡

velocity of seperation along line of impact

=
velocity of approach of point of contact along line of impact

The most general expression for coefficient of restitution is

velocity of seperation of points of contact along line of impact

e=
velocity of approach of point of contact along line of impact

Example for calculation of e

Two smooth balls A and B approaching each other such that their centers are moving along line CD in
absence of external impulsive force. The velocities of A and B just before collision be u1 and u2
respectively. The velocities of A and B just after collision be v1 and v2 respectively.

Just Before collision Just After collision

u1 u2 v1 v2

Line of Impact Line of Impact

C D C D
A B A B

u1 > u2 v1 < v2
u2 v v0
u1 v v1
N N v N N
m m m m m m
d d R R
1 1 2 1
2 2

Deformation Reformation

 Fext = 0 momentum is conserved for the system.

 m1u1 + m2 u2 = (m1 + m2)v in between (during collision) = m1v1 + m2v2

𝑚1 𝑢1+𝑚2𝑢2 𝑚1 𝑣1 +𝑚2 𝑣2
 𝑣= 𝑚1 +𝑚2
= 𝑚 +𝑚 ....(1)
1 2
Impulse of Deformation :

JD = change in momentum of any one body during deformation.

= m2 (v – u2) for m2

= m1 (–v + u1) for m1

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Impulse of Reformation :
JR = change in momentum of any one body during Reformation.
= m2 (v2 – v) for m2
= m1 (v – v1) for m1
Impulse of Reformation (ሬ⃗𝐽𝑅 ) 𝑣 −𝑣 velocity of separation along 𝐿𝑂𝐼
𝑒= = 𝑢2 −𝑢1 = 𝑒 = velocity of approach along 𝐿𝑂𝐼
Impulse of Deformation (𝐽ሬ⃗𝐷) 1 2

Note:
e is independent of shape and mass of object but depends on the material. The coefficient of restitution is
constant for a pair of materials.
(a) e=1 Impulse of Reformation = Impulse of Deformation
Velocity of separation = Velocity of approach
Kinetic energy of particles after collision is equal to that of before collision.
Collision is elastic.
(b) e=0 Impulse of Reformation = 0
Velocity of separation = 0
Kinetic energy of particles after collision is not equal to that of before collision.
Collision is perfectly inelastic.
(c) 0<e<1 Impulse of Reformation < Impulse of Deformation
Velocity of separation < Velocity of approach
Kinetic energy of particles after collision is not equal to that of before collision.
Collision is Inelastic.
Note:
In case of contact collisions e is always less than unity.
 0e1
Important Point:
In case of elastic collision, if rough surface is present then kf < ki (because friction is impulsive).
Where, k is Kinetic Energy.

Rough

A particle ‘B’ moving along the dotted line collides with a rod also in state of motion as shown in the
figure. The particle B comes in contact with point C on the rod.

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To write down the expression for coefficient of restitution e, we first draw the line of impact. Then we
resolve the components of velocities of points of contact of both the bodies along line of impact just
before and just after collision.

Just Before Collision Just After Collision

B C B C
B Line of Impact u1x u2x Line of Impact v1x v2x
u2y v2y
C u1y v1y

𝑉 −𝑉
Then 𝑒 = 𝑢2𝑥−𝑢 1𝑥
1𝑥 2𝑥

Collision in one dimension (Head on)

m1 m2 m1 m2
u1 u2 v1 v2

(a) (b)
Before Collision After Collision
𝑉 −𝑉
𝑒 = 2 1 ⇒ (u1 – u2) e = (v2 – v1)
𝑢1 −𝑢2
By momentum conservation, m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
𝑚1 𝑢1 +𝑚2 𝑢2 −𝑚2 𝑒(𝑢1 −𝑢2 )
v2 = v1 + e(u1 – u2) and v1 =
𝑚1 +𝑚2
𝑚1 𝑢1 +𝑚2 𝑢2 +𝑚1 𝑒(𝑢1 −𝑢2 )
v2 =
𝑚1 +𝑚2
Special Case:
(1) e=0
 v1 = v2
 for perfectly inelastic collision, both the bodies, move with same vel. after collision.
(2) e=1
and m1 = m2 = m,
we get v1 = u2 and v2 = u1
i.e., when two particles of equal mass collide elastically and the collision is head on, they exchange
their velocities., e.g.
4m/s 3m/s 3m/s 4m/s
m m m m

Before Collision After Collision

v1=0
v=0
m
2m/s m m m 2m/s

Before Collision After Collision

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(3) m1 >> m2
𝑚2
m1 + m2 = m1 and =0
𝑚1

 v1 = u1 No change and v2 = u1 + e(u1 – u2)

Illustration 21:

Two identical balls are approaching towards each other on a straight line with velocity 2 m/s and 4 m/s
respectively. Find the final velocities, after elastic collision between them.

m 2m/s 4m/s m

Solution:

The two velocities will be exchanged and the final motion is reverse of initial motion for both.

4m/s m m 2m/s

Illustration 22:

Three balls A, B and C of same mass ‘m’ are placed on a frictionless horizontal plane in a straight line as
shown. Ball A is moved with velocity u towards the middle ball B. If all the collisions are elastic then, find
the final velocities of all the balls.
m m m
A B C

Solution:

A collides elastically with B and comes to rest but B starts moving with velocity u

m m m
u
A B C

After a while B collides elastically with C and comes to rest but C starts moving with velocity u
m m m
u
A B C

 Final velocities
VA = 0 ;

VB = 0 and VC = u

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Illustration 23:
Four identical balls A, B, C and D are placed in a line on a frictionless horizontal surface. A and D are moved
with same speed ‘u’ towards the middle as shown. Assuming elastic collisions, find the final velocities.
u u
A B C D

Solution:
A and D collides elastically with B and C respectively and come to rest but B and C starts moving with
velocity u towards each other as shown
u u
A B B D

B and C collides elastically and exchange their velocities to move in opposite directions
u u
A B C D

Now, B and C collides elastically with A and D respectively and come to rest but A and D starts moving
with velocity u away from each other as shown
u u
A B C D

 Final velocities VA = u (); VB = 0; VC = 0 and VD = u (→)

Illustration 24:
Two particles of mass m and 2m moving in opposite directions on a frictionless surface collide elastically
with velocity v and 2v respectively. Find their velocities after collision, also find the fraction of kinetic
energy lost by the colliding particles.
2v v
m 2m

Solution:
Let the final velocities of m and 2m be v1 and v2 respectively as shown in the figure:
v1 v2
m 2m

By conservation of momentum :
m(2v) + 2m(–v) = m(v1) + 2m (v2)
or 0 = mv1 + 2mv2
or v1 + 2v2 = 0 ...(1)
and since the collision is elastic:

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v2 – v1 = 2v –(–v)
or v2 – v1 = 3v ...(2)
Solving the above two equations, we get,
v2 = v and v1 = –2v
i.e., the mass 2m returns with velocity v while the mass m returns with velocity 2v in the direction shown in
figure:
2v v
m 2m

The collision was elastic therefore, no kinetic energy is lost, KE loss = KEi – KEf
1 1 1 1
or, ቆ2 𝑚(2𝑣)2 + 2 (2𝑚)(−𝑣)) − (2 𝑚(2𝑣)2 + 2 (2𝑚)𝑣 2 ) = 0

Illustration 25:
On a frictionless surface, a ball of mass m moving at a speed v makes a head on collision with an identical
ball at rest. The kinetic energy of the balls after the collision is 3/4th of the original. Find the coefficient of
restitution.
Solution:
As we have seen in the above discussion, that under the given conditions :
m m m m
v v 2’ v 1’

Before Collision After Collision

By using conservation of linear momentum and equation of e, we get,

1+𝑒 1−𝑒
𝑣1′ = ( 2 ) 𝑣 and 𝑣2′ = ( 2 ) 𝑣

3 1 1 3 1
Given that 𝐾𝑓 = 4 𝐾𝑖 or 𝑚𝑣′2 ′2
1 + 𝑚𝑣2 = ( 𝑚𝑣2 )
2 2 4 2
Substituting the value, we get
1+𝑒 2 1−𝑒 2 3 1
( ) +( ) = or 𝑒=
2 2 4 √2

Illustration 26:
A block of mass 2 kg is pushed towards a very heavy object moving with 2 m/s closer to the block (as
shown). Assuming elastic collision and frictionless surfaces, find the final velocities of the blocks.
2m/s very
10m/s heavy
2 kg object

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Solution:
Let v1 and v2 be the final velocities of 2kg block and heavy object respectively then,
v1 = u1 + 1 (u1 – u2) = 2u1 – u2 = –14 m/s
v2 = –2m/s
2m/s very
14m/s heavy
2 kg object

Illustration 27:
A ball is moving with velocity 2 m/s towards a heavy wall moving towards the ball with speed 1m/s as
shown in fig. Assuming collision to be elastic, find the velocity of the ball immediately after the collision.

2m/s 1m/s

Solution:
The speed of wall will not change after the collision. So, let v be the velocity of the ball after collision in the
direction shown in figure. Since collision is elastic (e = 1),

2m/s 1m/s v 1m/s

Before Collision After Collision

separation speed = approach speed

or v–1=2+1
or v = 4 m/s

Illustration 28:
Two balls of masses 2 kg and 4 kg are moved towards each other with velocities 4 m/s and 2 m/s
respectively on a frictionless surface. After colliding the 2 kg ball returns back with velocity 2m/s.
Just before collision Just after collision
2m/s
4m/s 2m/s 2m/s
2kg 4kg 2kg 4kg v2

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Then find:

(a) Velocity of 4 kg ball after collision

(b) Coefficient of restitution e

(c) Impulse of deformation JD

(d) Maximum potential energy of deformation

(e) Impulse of reformation JR

Solution:

(a) By momentum conservation, 2(4) – 4(2) = 2(–2) + 4(v2)  v2 = 1 m/s

velocity of separation 1 3
(b) e= = = = 0.5
velocity of approach 4−(−2) 6

(c) At maximum deformed state, by conservation of momentum, common velocity is v = 0.

JD = m1(v – u1) = m2(v – u2) = 2(0 – 4) = –8 N – s = 4(0 – 2) = – 8 N – s

or = 4(0 – 2) = – 8 N – s

(d) Potential energy at maximum deformed state U = loss in kinetic energy during deformation

or U =  or U = 24 Joule

(e) JR = m1(v1 – v) = m2 (v – v2) = 2 (–2 – 0) = –4 N-s

or = 4(0 – 1) = –4 N-s
𝐽𝑅
or e =
𝐽𝐷

 JR = eJD = (0.5) (–8) = –4 N-s

Collision in two dimension (oblique)

1. A pair of equal and opposite impulses act along common normal direction. Hence, linear
momentum of individual particles do change along common normal direction. If mass of the
colliding particles remain constant during collision, then we can say that linear velocity of the
individual particles change during collision in this direction.

2. No component of impulse act along common tangent direction. Hence, linear momentum or linear
velocity of individual particles (if mass is constant) remain unchanged along this direction.

3. Net impulse on both the particles is zero during collision. Hence, net momentum of both the
particles remain conserved before and after collision in any direction.

4. Definition of coefficient of restitution can be applied along common normal direction, i.e., along
common normal direction we can apply

Relative speed of separation = e (relative speed of approach)

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Illustration 29:

A ball of mass m hits a floor with a speed v0 making an angle of incidence a with the normal. The
coefficient of restitution is e. Find the speed of the reflected ball and the angle of reflection of the ball.

Solution:

The component of velocity v0 along common tangential direction v0 sin  will remain unchanged. Let v be
the component along common normal direction after collision. Applying,

Relative speed of separation = e (Relative speed of approach) along common normal direction,

we get v = ev0 cos 

v(=ev0cos)α
α
v’
v0sinα
β
α
v0sinα
v0
v0cosα

Thus, after collision components of velocity v’ are v0 sin  and ev0 cos 

 𝑣′ = √(𝑣0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼)2 + (𝑒𝑣0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼)2

ev0cosα v’

v0sinα

𝑣0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼
and tan  = or tan  =
𝑒𝑣0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑒

Note :

For elastic collision, e = 1

 v’ = v0 and =

Illustration 30:

A ball of mass m makes an elastic collision with another identical ball at rest. Show that if the collision is
oblique, the bodies go at right angles to each other after collision.

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Solution:
In head on elastic collision between two particles, they exchange their velocities. In this case, the
component of ball 1 along common normal direction, v cos 
V0sin

1
V0sin
1 90°
v

V0cos 2
2
V0cos

Before Collision After Collision

becomes zero after collision, while that of 2 becomes v cos . While the components along common
tangent direction of both the particles remain unchanged. Thus, the components along common tangent
and common normal direction of both the balls in tabular form are given below.

Ball Component along common tangent Component along common normal

direction direction

Before collision After collision Before collision After collision

1 v sin  v sin  v cos  0

2 0 0 0 v cos 

From the above table and figure, we see that both the balls move at right angle after collision with
velocities v sin  and v cos .

Note :
When two identical bodies have an oblique elastic collision, with one body at rest before collision, then
the two bodies will go in ⊥ directions.

Illustration 31:
Two spheres are moving towards each other. Both have same radius but their masses are 2 kg and 4 kg. If
the velocities are 4 m/s and 2 m/s respectively and coefficient of restitution is e = 1/3, find.
(a) The common velocity along the line of impact.
(b) Final velocities along line of impact. 2kg
4m/s
A
(c) Impulse of deformation. R R
2m/s
(d) impulse of reformation. B
4kg
(e) Maximum potential energy of deformation.
(f) Loss in kinetic energy due to collision.

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Solution:

A 4m/s C Line of Motion

2 kg

R R
R 4 kg
Line of motion 2m/s B
Line of impact

𝐵𝐶 𝑅 1
In ABC sin  = = = or  = 30°
𝐴𝐵 2𝑅 2
(a) By conservation of momentum along line of impact.
LOI
4sin30° 4sin30°

2kg 4m/s
30°
v
4cos30° 2sin30°
2cos30°
2m/s 30° B 4kg
2s in30°

just before Collision Along LOI maximum deformed State

2(4 cos 30°) – 4(2cos 30°) = (2 + 4)v

or v=0 (common velocity along LOI)

(b) 4sin30°

A v
2kg 1
4kg B
v2
2sin30°

Just After Collision Along LOI

Let v1 and v2 be the final velocity of A and B respectively then, by conservation of momentum
along line of impact,
2(4 cos 30°) – 4(2 cos 30°) = 2(v1) + 4(v2)
or 0 = v1 + 2v2 ...(1)
By coefficient of restitution,
velocity of separation along 𝐿𝑂𝐼
𝑒 = velocity of approach along 𝐿𝑂𝐼
1 𝑣2−𝑣1
or = 3 = 4 𝑐𝑜𝑠 30°+2𝑐𝑜𝑠30° or v2 – v1 = ξ3 ....(2)

from the above two equations,

−2 1
v1= 𝑚/𝑠 and v2 = 𝑚/𝑠
√3 √3

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1 2 2 1 1 2
(c) JD = m1(v – u1) = 2(0 – 4 cos 30°) ( 2 ( ) + 4 ( ) )
2 ξ3 2 ξ3
1 4
(d) JR = eJD = (–4ξ3)= − 𝑁 − 𝑠
3 √3
(e) Maximum potential energy of deformation is equal to loss in kinetic energy during deformation
upto maximum deformed state,
1 1 1
U = m1(u1 cos )2 + m2(u2 cos )2 – (m1 + m2)v2
2 2 2
1 1 1
= 2(4 cos 30°)2 + 4(–2cos 30°)2 – (2 + 4) (0)2 or U = 18 Joule
2 2 2
1 1 1 1
(f) Loss in kinetic energy, KE = m1(u1 cos )2 + m2(u2 cos )2 – ( 2 𝑚1 𝑣12 + 2 𝑚2 𝑣22 )
2 2
1 1 1 2 2 1 1 2
= 2(4 cos 30°)2 + 4(–2 cos 30°)2 – ቆ 2 ( ) + 4 ( ) )
2 2 2 √3 2 √3
KE = 16 Joule

Illustration 32:
Two point particles A and B are placed in line on a frictionless horizontal plane. If particle A (mass 1 kg) is
moved with velocity 10 m/s towards stationary particle B (mass 2 kg) and after collision the two move at
an angle of 45° with the initial direction of motion, then find:
1kg 10 m/s 2kg
A B
(a) Velocities of A and B just after collision.
(b) Coefficient of restitution.
Solution:
The very first step to solve such problems is to find the line of impact which is along the direction of force
applied by A on B, resulting the stationary B to move. Thus, by watching the direction of motion of B, line
of impact can be determined. In this case line of impact is along the direction of motion of B. i.e. 45° with
the initial direction of motion of A.

VA y
45°
45°
VB x

Line of impact

(a) By conservation of momentum, along x direction: mA uA = mAvA cos 45° + mBvB cos 45°
or 1(10) = 1(vA cos 45°) + 2(vB cos 45°)
or vA + 2vB = 10ξ2 ...(1)
along y direction
0 = mAvA sin 45° + mBvB sin 45°
or 0 = 1(vA sin 45°) – 2(vB sin 45°)
or vA = 2vB ...(2)
solving the two equations,
10
𝑉𝐴 = 𝑚/𝑠 and
√2

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velocity of separation along line of impact

(b) 𝑒 = velocity of approach along line of impact

VA

uA A
A 45° B 90°
uAcos45° vAcos90° VB

LOI LOI

Before Collision After Collision

5
𝑣 −𝑣𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 90° √2−0 1
or 𝑒 = 𝐵𝑢 𝑐𝑜𝑠 45°
= 10 = 2
𝐴
√2

Illustration 33:
A smooth sphere of mass m is moving on a horizontal plane with a velocity 3𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ when it collides with a
vertical wall which is parallel to the vector𝑗̂. If the coefficient of restitution between the sphere and the wall
1
is , find
2
(a) the velocity of the sphere after impact,
(b) the loss in kinetic energy caused by the impact.
(c) the impulse 𝐽⃗ that acts on the sphere.
Solution:
Let 𝑣⃗ be the velocity of the sphere after impact.
To find 𝑣⃗ we must separate the velocity components parallel and perpendicular to the wall.
Using the law of restitution, the component of velocity parallel to the wall remains unchanged while
component perpendicular to the wall becomes e times in opposite direction.
ሬ⃗ = 3 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂
Thus, 𝑉 2
ሬ⃗ 1
𝑉

𝑒(3)

1 𝑢
ሬ⃗

3
3
(a) Therefore, the velocity of the sphere after impact is= − 2 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂
1 1 1 1 3 2 27
(b) The loss in K.E. = = 2 𝑚𝑣 2 − 2 𝑚𝑢2 = 2 𝑚(32 + 12 ) − 2 𝑚 ቆ{2} + 12 ) = 8 𝑚

−3𝑖̂ −9𝑚
(c) 𝐽 = 𝑚𝑣𝑓 − 𝑚𝑣𝑖 = 𝑚 ( 2 − 3𝑖̂) = 2 𝑖̂

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Illustration 34:

Two smooth spheres, A and B, having equal radii, lie on a horizontal table. A is of mass m and B is of mass
3m. The spheres are projected towards each other with velocity vector 5𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ and 2𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂ respectively and
when they collide the line joining their centers is parallel to the vector 𝑖̂.

1
If the coefficient of restitution between A and B is , find the velocities after impact and the loss in kinetic
3
energy caused by the collision. Find also the magnitude of the impulses that act at the instant of impact.

Solution:

The line of centers at impact, is parallel to the vector, the velocity components of A and B perpendicular to
are unchanged by the impact.

2 2 y
J J
m 3m
m m
5 3m 2 u 3m v x
1 1

Applying conservation of linear momentum and the law of restitution, we have

in x direction 5m + (3m) (2) = mu + 3 mv ...(i)

1 𝑣−𝑢
and = ...(ii)
3 5−2

Solving these equations, we have u = 2 and v = 3

The velocities of A and B after impact are therefore,

2𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ and 3𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂ respectively

1 29
Before impact the kinetic energy of A is 𝑚(52 + 22 ) = 𝑚
2 2

1 15
and of B is (3𝑚)(22 + 12 ) = 𝑚
2 2

1
After impact the kinetic energy of A is 𝑚(22 + 22 ) = 4𝑚
2
1
and of B is 2 (3𝑚)(32 + 12 ) = 15𝑚

29 15
Therefore, the loss in K.E. at impact is 𝑚+ 𝑚 − 4𝑚 − 15𝑚 = 3𝑚
2 2

To find value of J, we consider the change in momentum along 𝑖̂ for one sphere only.

For sphere B, J = 3m (3 – 2) or J = 3m

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Illustration 35:

A small steel ball A is suspended by an inextensible thread of length ℓ = 1.5 from O. Another identical ball
is thrown vertically downwards such that its surface remains just in contact with thread during downward
motion and collides elastically with the suspended ball. If the suspended ball just completes vertical circle
after collision, calculate the velocity of the falling ball just before collision. (g = 10 ms–2)

0
B
l

Solution:

Velocity of ball A just after collision is √5𝑔𝑙

Let radius of each ball be r and the joining centers of the two balls makes an angle  with the vertical at
the instant of collision, then
𝑟 1
sin  = = or  = 30°
2𝑟 2
r
B A
2r v0 cos30°
𝜃
v0 sin30° v0

Let velocity of ball B (just before collision) be v0. This velocity can be resolved into two components,
(i) v0 cos 30°, along the line joining the center of the two balls and (ii) v0 sin 30° normal to this line. Head-
on collision takes place due to v0 cos 30° and the component v0 sin 30°of velocity of ball B remains
unchanged.

Since, ball A is suspended by an inextensible string, therefore, just after collision, it can move along
horizontal direction only. Hence, a vertically upward impulse is exerted by thread on the ball A. This means
that during collision two impulses act on ball A simultaneously. One is impulsive interaction J between the
balls and the other is impulsive reaction J’ of the thread.

Velocity v1 of ball B along line of collision is given by

J – mv0 cos 30° = mv1

𝐽
or 𝑣1 = 𝑚 − 𝑣0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 0° ....(i)

Horizontal velocity v0 of ball A is given by J sin 30° = mv2

𝐽
or 𝑣2 = 2𝑚 ....(ii)

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mv0 cos30°
mv1
v1
B
B
v2
mv0 sin30° ‘J’
J v2sin30°
mv0 sin30° J
30°
small size
A
mv2

Since, the balls collide elastically, therefore, coefficient of restitution is e = 1.

𝑣 𝑠𝑖𝑛 30°−(−𝑣 )
Hence, 𝑒 = 2𝑣 𝑐𝑜𝑠 30°−1 1 = 1 ...(iii)
0

Solving equations (i), (ii), and (iii),

J = 1.6 mv0 cos 30°
 v1 = 0.6 v0 cos 30° and v2 = 0.8 v0 cos 30°

Since, ball A just completes vertical circle, therefore v2 = √5𝑔ℓ

 0.8v0 cos 30°= √5𝑔ℓ or v0 = 12.5 ms–1

Variable Mass System :

If a mass is added or ejected from a system, at rate  kg/s and relative velocity 𝑣⃗𝑟𝑒𝑙 (w.r.t. the system), then
the force exerted by this mass on the system has magnitude 𝜇|𝑉 ሬ⃗𝑟𝑒𝑙 |.

Thrust Force (𝐹
ሬሬሬ⃗𝑡 )

ሬሬሬ⃗𝑡 = 𝑣⃗𝑟𝑒𝑙 (𝑑𝑚)

𝐹
𝑑𝑡
Suppose at some moment t = t mass of a body is m and its velocity is 𝑣⃗. After some time at t = t + dt its
mass becomes (m – dm) and velocity becomes 𝑣⃗ + 𝑑𝑣⃗. The mass dm is ejected with relative velocity 𝑣⃗𝑟 .
Absolute velocity of mass ‘dm’ is therefore (𝑉
ሬ⃗ + 𝑣⃗𝑟 ). If no external forces are acting on the system, the
linear momentum of the system will remain conserved, or 𝑃ሬ⃗𝑖 = 𝑃ሬ⃗𝑓

or ሬ⃗ + 𝑣⃗𝑟 )
𝑚𝑣⃗ = (𝑚 − 𝑑𝑚)(𝑣⃗ + 𝑑𝑣⃗) + 𝑑𝑚(𝑉

or ሬ⃗ + 𝑣⃗𝑟 𝑑𝑚
𝑚𝑣⃗ = 𝑚𝑣⃗ + 𝑚𝑑𝑣⃗ − (𝑑𝑚)𝑣⃗ − (𝑑𝑚)(𝑑𝑣⃗) + (𝑑𝑚)𝑉
The term (dm) (d𝑣⃗) is too small and can be neglected.
𝑑𝑣ሬሬ⃗ 𝑑𝑣ሬሬ⃗ 𝑑𝑚
 md𝑣⃗1 = – 𝑉
ሬ⃗ dm or 𝑚 ( 𝑑𝑡 ) = 𝑚 ( 𝑑𝑡 ) = 𝑣⃗𝑟 (− 𝑑𝑡 )
𝑑𝑣
ሬሬ⃗
Here, 𝑚 (− 𝑑𝑡 ) = thrust force (𝐹⃗𝑡 )

and
𝑑𝑚
− 𝑑𝑡 = rate at which mass is ejecting

𝑑𝑚
or 𝐹⃗𝑡 = 𝑣⃗𝑟 ( 𝑑𝑡 )

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Problems related to variable mass can be solved in following four steps:

1. Make a list of all the forces acting on the main mass and apply them on it.

2. Apply an additional thrust force 𝐹⃗𝑡 on the mass, the magnitude of which is |𝑉 ሬ⃗𝑟 (± 𝑑𝑚)|and
𝑑𝑡
direction is given by the direction of 𝑣⃗𝑟 in case the mass is increasing and otherwise the direction
of – 𝑣⃗𝑟 if it is decreasing.
𝑑𝑣
ሬሬ⃗
3. Find net force on the mass and apply 𝐹⃗𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚 𝑑𝑡
(m = mass at the particular instant)
4. Integrate it with proper limits to find velocity at any time t.

Note :
Problems of one-dimensional motion (which are mostly asked in JEE) can be solved in easier manner just
by assigning positive and negative signs to all vector quantities. Here are few example in support of the
above theory.

Illustration 36:
A flat car of mass m0 starts moving to the right due to a constant horizontal force F. Sand spills on the flat
car from a stationary hopper. The rate of loading is constant and equal to  kg/s. Find the time
dependence of the velocity and the acceleration of the flat car in the process of loading. The friction is
negligibly small.

m0 F

Solution:
Initial velocity of the flat car is zero. Let v be its velocity at time t and m its mass at that instant. Then
t=0 t=t
m0+µt
m0 F vr=v
Ft dm F 2v

At t = 0, v = 0 and m = m0 at t = t, v = v and m = m0 + t
Here, vr = v (backwards)
𝑑𝑚
=𝜇
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑚
 𝐹𝑡 = 𝑉𝑟 = 𝜇𝑣 (backwards)
𝑑𝑡
Net force on the flat car at time t is Fnet = F – Ft

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𝑑𝑣
or 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐹 − 𝜇𝑣 ....(i)
𝑑𝑣
or (𝑚0 + 𝜇𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
= 𝐹 − 𝜇𝑣
𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
or ∫0 𝐹−𝜇𝑣 = ∫0 𝑚 +𝜇𝑡
0
1 1
− 𝜇 [𝑙 𝑛(𝐹 − 𝜇𝑣)]0 = 𝜇 [𝑙𝑛(𝑚0 + 𝜇𝑡)]𝑡0
𝑣

𝐹 𝑚 +𝜇𝑡
⇒ 𝑙𝑛 ( ) = 𝑙𝑛 ( 0 )
𝐹−𝜇𝑣 𝑚0
𝐹 𝑚0 +𝜇𝑡 𝐹𝑡
 = or 𝑣=
𝐹−𝜇𝑣 𝑚0 𝑚0 +𝜇𝑣
𝑑𝑣
From equation (i), = acceleration of flat car at time t
𝑑𝑡
𝐹−𝜇𝑣
or =
𝑚
𝐹𝜇𝑡
𝐹−𝑚 +𝜇𝑡 𝐹𝑚0
0
a =ቆ ) or a=
𝑚0 +𝜇𝑡 (𝑚0 +𝜇𝑡)2

Illustration 37:
A cart loaded with sand moves along a horizontal floor due to a constant force F coinciding in direction
with the cart’s velocity vector. In the process sand spills through a hole in the bottom with a constant rate
kg/s. Find the acceleration and velocity of the cart at the moment t, if at the initial moment t = 0 the cart
with loaded sand had the mass m0 and its velocity was equal to zero. Friction is to be neglected.
Solution:
In this problem the sand spills through a hole in the bottom of the cart. Hence, the relative velocity of the
sand vr will be zero because it will acquire the same velocity as that of the cart at the moment.
vr = 0
𝑑𝑚
Thus, Ft = 0 (𝑎𝑠𝐹𝑡 = 𝑣𝑟 𝑑𝑡 )
and the net force will be F only.
 Feet = F
V
m
F

𝑑𝑣
or m( )=F ....(i)
𝑑𝑡
But here m = m0 – t
𝑑𝑣 𝑣 𝑡 𝐹𝑑𝑡
 (m0 – t) =F or ∫0 𝑑𝑣 = ∫0 𝑚
𝑑𝑡 0 −𝜇𝑡
𝐹 𝐹 𝑚0
 𝑣 = −𝜇 [𝑙 𝑛(𝑚0 − 𝜇𝑡)]𝑡0 or 𝑣 = −𝜇 𝑙𝑛 (𝑚 −𝜇𝑡)
0

From eq. (i), acceleration of the cart

𝑑𝑣 𝐹 𝐹
𝑎= = or 𝑎=
𝑑𝑡 𝑚 𝑚0−𝜇𝑡

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Rocket propulsion :
Let m0 be the mass of the rocket at time t = 0. m its mass at any time t and v its velocity at that moment.
Initially, let us suppose that the velocity of the rocket is u.
v
Ft

At t = t
At t = 0 m0-µt
m0 m=m0-µt
v=u w
v=v
m=m Exhaust velocity = vt

−𝑑𝑚
Further, let ( ) be the mass of the gas ejected per unit time and vr the exhaust velocity of the gases
𝑑𝑡
−𝑑𝑚
with respect to rocket. Usually () and vr are kept constant throughout the journey of the rocket.
𝑑𝑡
Now, let us write few equations which can be used in the problems of rocket propulsion. At time t = t,
−𝑑𝑚
1. Thrust force on the rocket Ft = vr ( ) (upwards)
𝑑𝑡
2. Weight of the rocket W = mg (downwards)
3. Net force on the rocket Fnet = Ft – W (upwards)
−𝑑𝑚
or Fnet = vr ( ) – mg
𝑑𝑡
𝐹
4. Net acceleration of the rocket, 𝑎 = 𝑚
𝑑𝑣 𝑣𝑟 −𝑑𝑚
or = ( )−𝑔
𝑑𝑡 𝑚 𝑑𝑡
𝑣
or 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑚𝑟 (−𝑑𝑚) − 𝑔𝑑𝑡
𝑣 𝑚 −𝑑𝑚 𝑡
or ∫𝑢 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑣𝑟 ∫𝑚 𝑚 − 𝑔 ∫0 𝑑𝑡
0
𝑚0
Thus, v = u – gt + vr n( ) ...(i)
𝑚
Note :
𝑑𝑚 𝑑𝑚
1. 𝐹𝑡 = 𝑣𝑟 (− 𝑑𝑡 ) is upwards, as vr is downwards and is negative.
𝑑𝑡
𝑚0
2. If gravity is ignored and initial velocity of the rocket u = 0, Eq. (i) reduces to v = vr ln( )
𝑚

Illustration 38:
A rocket, with an initial mass of 1000 kg, is launched vertically upwards from rest under gravity. The rocket
burns fuel at the rate of 10 kg per second. The burnt matter is ejected vertically downwards with a speed
of 2000 ms–1 relative to the rocket. If burning stops after one minute. Find the maximum velocity of the
rocket. (Take g as at 10 ms–2)

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Solution:
𝑚0
Using the velocity equation v = u – gt + vr ln( )
𝑚

Here u = 0, t = 60s, g = 10 m/s2, vr = 2000 m/s, m0 = 1000 kg

and m = 1000 – 10 × 60 = 400 kg

1000
We get, v = 0 – 600 + 2000 ln ( )
400

or v = 2000 ln 2.5 – 600

The maximum velocity of the rocket is 200(10 ln 2.5 – 3) = 1232.6 ms–1

C- Frame

We may attach a frame of reference, designated XC,YC, ZC, to the center of mass of a system. Relative to this
frame, the centre of mass is at rest (vCM = 0). This is called the centre of mass or C-frame of reference. In
view of equation P = Mvcm, the total momentum of a system of particles referred to the C-frame of
reference is always zero.

𝑃ሬ⃗ = ∑𝑖 𝑃ሬ⃗𝑖 = 0 in the C-frame of reference.

For that reason, the C-frame is sometimes called the zero momentum frame. The C-frame is important
because many problems can be more simply analyzed in the C-frame compared to ground frame. It is
clear that the C-frame moves with a velocity vCM relative to the ground frame. When no external forces act
on a system, the C-frame can be considered as inertial.

Illustration 39:

The velocities of two particles of masses m1 and m2 relative to an inertial observer are v1 and v2. Determine
the velocity of the centre of mass relative to the observer and the velocity of each particle relative to the
centre of mass.

Solution:
𝑑𝑟𝑐𝑚 1 𝑑𝑟𝑖 ∑𝑖 𝑚𝑖 𝑣𝑖
From equation vcm = = ∑𝑖 𝑚𝑖 = the velocity of the centre of mass relative to the
𝑑𝑡 𝑀 𝑑𝑡 𝑀
observer is
𝑚1 𝑣1 +𝑚2 𝑣2
vcm =
𝑚1 +𝑚2

The velocities of each particle relative to the centre of mass, using the Galilean transformation of velocities
is

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𝑚1 𝑣1 +𝑚2 𝑣2 𝑚 (𝑣 −𝑣 ) 𝑚 𝑣
𝑣1′ 𝐶𝑂𝑀 = v1 – vcm = v1 – ( )= 2 1 2 = 2 12
𝑚1 +𝑚2 𝑚1 +𝑚2 𝑚1 +𝑚2

𝑚1 (𝑣2 −𝑣1 ) 𝑚1 𝑣12

and 𝑣2′ 𝐶𝑂𝑀 = v2 – vcm = =–
𝑚1 +𝑚2 𝑚1 +𝑚2

where v12 = v1 – v2 is the relative velocity of the two particles. Thus, in the C-frame, the two particles appear
to be moving in opposite directions, with velocities inversely proportional to their masses.

Let us find relation between kinetic energy of a system from ground frame and C-frame we have a system
consisting of many particles, lets say speed of the ith particle is vi. Then kinetic energy of system, K in
ground frame will be summation of individual kinetic energy.
1
Ks = ∑ (2 𝑚𝑖 𝑣𝑖2 )

now 𝑣⃗𝑖 = 𝑣⃗ 𝑖 + 𝑣⃗𝑐

𝑐

where 𝑣⃗𝑖 is velocity of the ith particle in ground, 𝑣⃗𝑖/𝑐 is velocity of the ith particle in reference frame
attached to the CM and 𝑣⃗𝑐 is velocity of CM in ground frame.
𝑚 𝑚
ka =𝜇 = 𝑚 1+𝑚2
1 2

1 1 1
ka = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑣⃗ 2𝑖 + 2 ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑣⃗𝑐2 + 2 · 2 ቆ∑ 𝑚𝑖 ሬሬሬሬ⃗
· 𝑣 𝑖 ሬሬሬሬ⃗
· 𝑣𝑐 )
2 𝑐 𝑐

1 1
ka = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑣⃗ 𝑖2 + (∑ 𝑚𝑖 )𝑣⃗𝑐2 + ቆ∑ 𝑚𝑖 ሬሬሬሬ⃗
· 𝑣 𝑖 ) 𝑣⃗𝑐
2 2 𝑐
𝑐

we can take 𝑣⃗𝑐 out of summation in second and third term as it is constant. Now third term becomes zero,
as
∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑣⃗ 𝑖 = 𝑀𝑣⃗𝑐 .
𝑐 𝑐

𝑣⃗𝑐 is velocity of COM in frame of COM, which is zero. Also it represents momentum of system in C-frame
𝑐

which is zero

1
ቆ2 ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑣⃗ 𝑖2 ) = ks/c
𝑐

1
Thus we get ka = ks/c + 𝑚𝑣2𝑐
2

where ks/c means kinetic energy of system in C-frame. This important conclusion will be again useful in
rotational dynamics we can do little manipulation to write the equation as

𝑃𝑐2
ka = ks/c +
2𝑀

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Two Particles in COM Frame

Illustration 40:
v2 v2
6m/s 3m/s
i
2kg 1kg

(a) 𝑣⃗𝑐𝑚 ሬሬሬሬ⃗

; 𝑣2/𝐶𝑂𝑀 ሬሬሬሬ⃗
; 𝑣1/𝐶𝑂𝑀

(b) KE2 & KE1 in ground frame and KEsys. in ground frame.
(c) KE2 & KE1 in COM frame and KEsys in COM frame.

(d) 𝑃ሬ⃗1/𝑐𝑚 and𝑃ሬ⃗2/𝐶𝑂𝑀 and 𝑃ሬ⃗𝑠𝑦𝑠/𝐶𝑂𝑀

𝑚 𝑚
(e) µ = 𝑚 1+𝑚2
1 2

1
(f) µ(3)2
2
1
(g)
2
𝑚𝑣𝑐𝑚
2
Solution:
6×2+1×3 15
(a) 𝑣⃗𝑐𝑚 = 2+1
= 3 = 5𝑚/𝑠 = 5𝑖̂

𝑣⃗2/𝐶𝑂𝑀 = 6𝑖̂ − 5𝑖̂ = 1𝑖̂

𝑣⃗1/𝐶𝑂𝑀 = 3𝑖̂ − 5𝑖̂ = −2𝑖̂
1
(b) 𝐾𝐸2 = 2 × 2 × (6)2 = 36𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
1
𝐾𝐸1 = 2 × 1 × (3)2 = 4.5𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒

KEsys = 36 + 4.5 = 40.5 Joule

(c) In COM frame v2 = 1, v1 = –2
1
𝐾𝐸2 = 2 × 2 × (1)2 = 1𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
1
𝐾𝐸1 = 2 × 1 × (2)2 = 2𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒

KEsys/COM = 1 + 2 = 3 Joule
(d) 𝑃1/𝑐𝑚 = 1 × −2 = −2𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
𝑃2/𝑐𝑚 = 2 × 1 = 2𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒

Psys/COM = 2 × 1 – 1 × 2 = 0
𝑚 𝑚 2×1 2
(e) µ = 𝑚 1+𝑚2 = 2+1 = 3 𝑘𝑔
1 2
1 1
(f) × ×3×3=3
2 2
1 1
(g) 𝑚𝑣2𝑐𝑚 ⇒ × 3 × (5)2 = 37.5
2 2

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Center of Mass & Collision - JEE (Main + Advanced)

Illustration 41:
v2 v2

m1 m2

Solution:
reduced mass 𝑚 𝑚
𝜇 = 𝑚 1+𝑚2
1 2

𝑚1 𝑚2
|𝑃1/𝑐𝑚 | = 𝑚1 𝑣1/𝑐𝑚 = (𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑙. ) = |𝑃2/𝑐𝑚 |
𝑚1+𝑚2

1
𝐾𝐸𝑠𝑦𝑠/𝐶𝑂𝑀 = µ(𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑙. )2
2
1 1
𝐾𝐸𝑠𝑦𝑠/𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 = 𝜇(𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑙 . )2 + 𝑚𝑣2𝑐𝑚
2 2

total mass
𝐾𝐸𝑠𝑦𝑠/𝑔 = 𝐾𝐸𝑠𝑦𝑠/𝑐𝑚 + 𝐾𝐸𝑐𝑚

Illustration 42:
2kg

1kg

Man jumps at 6m/s w.r.t. final velocity of boat. Find Wman ?

Solution:
There is no external force
So, momentum is conserved
𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 = 0 ….(i)
Let final velocity of Boat be 𝑣(−𝑖̂)
6 = 𝑣𝑀 − 𝑣𝐵
(𝑣𝑀 = 6 − 𝑣) ….(ii)
From equation (i) and (ii)
𝑣𝑀 = 2𝑚/𝑠 𝑣𝐵 = 4𝑚/𝑠

4
1kg
2m/s

2kg

1 1
𝐾𝐸𝑓 = × 1 × (4)2 + × 2 × 22 = 12 Joule
2 2
2
µ=3
Wman = KEf – KEi
1 2 1 1 2 1 2
(2 × 3 × 62 + 2 × 𝑚𝑣𝑐𝑚
2
) − (2 × 3 × 02 + 2 × 𝑚𝑣𝑐𝑚
2
)= 12 Joule
3

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Center of Mass & Collision - JEE (Main + Advanced)

Illustration 43:
8m/s rest v v
K=10N/m
1kg 3kg max. comp.
NLP

Solution:
Wsp = KEf – KEi
1 1 3 1 1 3 1
𝑘 ( 0 − 𝑥2 ) = ( × × 02 + × 𝑚𝑣2𝑐𝑚 ) − ( × × 82 + × 𝑚𝑣2𝑐𝑚 )
2 2 4 2 2 4 2
24
𝑥=√5

KE loss in collision :

v1 v2 v1' v2'
m1 m2 m1 m2
e

KEloss = KEi – KEf

1 2 1 1 2 1
= ( µ𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑝. 2
+ 𝑀𝑣𝑐𝑚 ) − ( µ𝑣𝑠𝑒𝑝 2
+ × 𝑀𝑣𝑐𝑚 )
2 2 2 2
1 2 1 2
= µ𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑝. − µ𝑣𝑠𝑒𝑝
2 2
1 2
𝐾𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 2 µ𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑝. (1 − 𝑒 2 )

𝑣𝑠𝑒𝑝
=𝑒
𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑝

A system of two particles :

Suppose the masses of the particles are equal to m1 and m2 and their velocities in the K reference frame to
𝑣⃗1 and 𝑣⃗2 , respectively. Let us find the expressions defining their momenta and the total kinetic energy in
the C-frame.
The momentum of the first particle in the C-system is
P1/c = m1 𝑣⃗1 = m1( 𝑣⃗1 – 𝑉
ሬ⃗𝑐 )
𝑐

where 𝑉
ሬ⃗𝑐 is the velocity of the centre of mass (of the C system) in the K reference frame. Substituting in this

formula expression 𝑉 ሬ⃗𝑐 = 1 ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑣⃗𝑖 = 1 ∑ 𝑝⃗𝑖 , we obtain

𝑚 𝑚
𝑝⃗𝑖 = 𝜇(𝑣⃗1 − 𝑣⃗2 )
where  is the so called reduced mass of the system.
𝑚1 𝑚2
=
𝑚1 +𝑚2

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similarly, the momentum of the second particle in the C frame is

𝑝⃗2 = 𝜇(𝑣⃗2 − 𝑣⃗1 )
𝑐

The momenta of the two particles in the C-frame are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction; the
modulus of the momentum of each particle is
𝑝⃗1 = 𝜇𝑣𝑟𝑒𝑙
𝑐

where vrel = |𝑣⃗1 − 𝑣⃗2 | is the velocity of one particle relative to another.
Finally, let us consider kinetic energy. The total kinetic energy of the two particles in the C-frame is
2 2
ሬሬሬ⃗
𝑃 ሬሬሬ⃗
𝑃
𝐾 𝑠 = 𝐾1 + 𝐾2 = 2𝑚 + 2𝑚
𝑐 1 2
𝑚1 𝑚2 1 1 1
since in accordance with equation,  = , + = , then
𝑚1 +𝑚2 𝑚2 𝑚2 𝜇

𝑝2 𝜇𝑣2
𝐾𝑠 = 2𝜇 = 2𝑟𝑒𝑙
𝑐

If the particles interact, then total mechanical energy in the C frame is

𝐸 =𝑇+𝑈
where U is the potential energy of interaction of the given particles.
e.g.
u
m1 m2

Illustration 44:
Two blocks A and B of masses m and 2m placed on smooth horizontal surface are connected with a light
spring. The two blocks are given velocities as shown when spring is at natural length.
(i) Find velocity of centre of mass (ii) maximum extension in the spring
K
v m 2m 2v
A B
Solution:
3𝑚𝑣−𝑚𝑣
Velocity of C.M. vcm = =v
3𝑚
In C.O.M. frame. Initial momentum = 0
at the time of maximum elongation both the masses will be moving in same direction with same speed.
Initial relative velocity, vrel = 3v
Dec. in KE = Increase in PE of spring

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Center of Mass & Collision - JEE (Main + Advanced)

1 1
m vrel2 = kx2
2 2
1 𝑚×2𝑚 1
(3v)2 = kx2
2 3𝑚 2
1
3mv2 = kx2
2
6𝑚
x = 𝑣√
𝑘

Objective : To learn how to apply C - frame.

v1
K v2
m m

smooth

Illustration 45:
Two identical blocks of mass m, each are connected by a spring as shown in the figure. At any instant of
time t = 0, one block is given a velocity v1 and other is given a velocity v2 (v1> v2) in the same direction
simultaneously as shown in the figure. Find the maximum energy stored in the spring.
1
Ans. m (v1 – v2)2
4
Solution:
𝑚𝑣1+𝑚𝑣2 𝑣1 +𝑣2
𝑣𝐶𝑂𝑀 = =
2𝑚 2
(𝑣 +𝑣 ) 2𝑣 −𝑣 −𝑣 𝑣 −𝑣
𝑣1𝐶𝑂𝑀 = 𝑣1 − 1 2 2 = 1 21 2 = 1 2 2
𝑣 +𝑣 2𝑣 −𝑣 −𝑣 𝑣 −𝑣
𝑣2𝐶𝑂𝑀 = 𝑣2 − ( 1 2 2) = 2 2 1 2 = 2 2 1

1 𝑣 −𝑣 2 1 𝑣 −𝑣 2
𝐾𝐸𝑆/𝐶𝑂𝑀 = 𝑚 ( 1 2) + 𝑚 ( 1 2)
2 2 2 2
𝑚
= (𝑣1 − 𝑣2 )2
4
Maximum kinetic energy of system (COM) = maximum potential energy is stored in spring.

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