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T L SINGAL : Wireless Communications McGraw-Hill Education © 2010

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Wireless
Communications
T L Singal

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T L SINGAL : Wireless Communications McGraw-Hill Education © 2010

The
Propagation
Models

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The Propagation Models

‰ Propagation Criteria
‰ Free Space Propagation Model
‰ Mobile Point-to-Point Propagation Models
‰ Outdoor Propagation Path-loss Models
‰ Indoor Propagation Path-loss Models
‰ Signal Attenuation due to Foliage
‰ Long Distance Propagation

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Propagation Criteria
¾ In wireless communication, the radio signal
propagates in the space.
¾ The communication through wireless
medium is quite unreliable and unsecured.
¾ A limited operating bandwidth is available
for communication application because there
are many other existing applications of radio
wave propagation in space.

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Propagation Criteria
¾ Accurate prediction of path loss
¾ Estimation of received signal strength in
the radio coverage area
¾ Radio signal coverage - service area
supported by each cell site within which the
service quality requirements such as
minimum received signal power or carrier
signal-to-interference (C/I) ratio are met.

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Radio Signal Coverage

¾ Depends on the propagation environments
in which the service area falls such as
9 Natural terrains (flat, hilly, water, or
foliage)
9 Human-made structures (open,
suburban, or urban areas)
¾ Influenced by a number of factors
including the radio frequency of operation
and the nature of terrain

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Propagation Path Loss

¾ Attenuation of radio signal field intensity due to
multipath propagation, reflection, refraction,
diffraction, absorption, and all other factors
influencing it along its radio path.
¾ It is the signal loss from transmitted power to
received signal level through the wireless medium.
¾ It also depends on a path-loss exponent or
distance-power or path-loss gradient that
signifies the fluctuations around the average
path loss due to shadow fading effects.

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Radio Propagation
Direct path

ht

hr

r
Cell-Site Transmitter Mobile

Pr = P0 r - γ; where Pr is the received signal strength

at ‘r’ meters from the cell site transmitter, and P0 is the
received signal strength at a reference distance, The
path loss exponent, γ shows the rate of increase of
path loss with respect to distance.

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Free Space Propagation Model

™ Used to predict the received signal
strength when the transmitter and
receiver has clear unobstructed line-of-
sight signal path between them.
™ The free space environment could be
categorized as one having less clutter
and foliage.

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Friis’ Free-space Equation

¾ The Friis’ free-space equation is given as
Pr = Pt Gt Gr [λc / (4 π r )] 2
¾ Free-space propagation path loss, Lpf
Lpf = Pt / Pr = [1 / (Gt Gr)] (4 π r / λc) 2
¾ When Gt = Gr = 1 (unity gain),
Lpf = (4 π r / λc) 2
This is called free-space path loss equation.
Lpf (dB) = 32.44+20 log r (km)+20 log fc (MHz)

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Free Space Propagation Path Loss

versus Distance Plot
180
170
Propagation Perth Loss (dB)

fc=300GHz
160
150
fc=30GHz
140
130
fc=3GHz
120
110
fc=300MHz
100
90
80 fc=30MHz

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60 1
5 10 50 100
Distance, r (km)
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Mobile Point-to-Point Propagation Model

™ Free space propagation model does not

apply in a mobile radio environment.
™ Propagation path loss in a mobile radio
environment depends on
9 The distance between mobile and cell-site
9 Carrier frequency of transmission fc (or λc)
9 The antenna heights of base station and
mobile station
9 The local terrain characteristics such as
buildings, hills, forests, etc.

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Obtaining Mobile Point-to-Point Model

The Mobile Point-to-Point Model is obtained in

three steps:
¾ Generate a standard condition
¾ Obtain an area-to-area prediction model
¾ Obtain a Mobile Point-to-Point Model
using area-to-area model as a base
Note: Area-to-area prediction models are not
useful for cellular communication systems
because of the large uncertainty of the
prediction.

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Point-to-Point Propagation
Prediction Model
™ Reduces the uncertainty range by including
the terrain contour profiles in the path-loss
predictions.
™ Takes into account the antenna-height gain at
various mobile locations in non-obstructive
condition (radio path may be obstructed by man-
made structures, not by the terrain contour).
™ Useful for designing a mobile cellular system
with a radius of 15 Km or less for each cell.

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Two-ray Point-to-point Propagation

Model (Lee Model)
™Takes into consideration the effect of cell-site
transmitter and mobile receiver antenna heights
™ Assumes the earth surface to be flat for few tens
of kilometers
™ Used to estimate the propagation path loss and the
received signal strength at the mobile
™ A basic system design tool used to generate
9 a signal coverage map
9 an interference area map
9 a handoff occurrence map

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Two-ray Model (Lee Model)

A simple two-ray model can be used to illustrate the
effect of Tx and Rx antenna heights.
Lee model is a simple model based on a direct path
and a ground-reflected path between a cell-site
transmitter and a mobile receiver.
Consider the signal transmission over a smooth,
reflecting, and flat plane such as earth.
Since λc is very small as compared with `r’, a slight
change in `r’ can cause a significant change in the
phase of the received signal.
Use r » (ht ± hr), r » (ht x hr), r1 ~ r, and r2 ~ r
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A Mobile Point-to-point
Propagation Path-loss Model
T

Direct
wave, r1
ht
Reflected
ht + hr wave, r2
θ1
R
A
CS θ2 hr

θ2 hr
B R’
r

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Two-ray Path-loss Equations

¾ The received signal power is given by
Pr = Pt Gt Gr ht2 hr 2 / r4
¾ Pr (dBm) = Pt (dBm) + Gt (dB) + Gr (dB) + 20
log ht + 20 log hr – 40 log r
¾ The propagation path loss in mobile point-to-
point two-ray model is given as
Lpm = r4 / (ht2 hr 2)
Lpm (dB) = 40 log r - 20 log ht - 20 log hr
Note that ht, hr and r have same units

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Near Distance Propagation

¾ Within a 1-Km radius (Near-in distance) of
the cell site, the signal reception at the
mobile unit reduces due to
– Narrow beamwidth in the vertical plane of a
high-gain omnidirectional antenna used at
the cell site
– the near-by surroundings of the cell site
– the antenna height of the cell site
– The road orientation and fewer roads around the
cell site (10-20 dB variation in signal reception
levels)

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The Fraunhofer Distance

™ The Fraunhofer distance, or far-field
distance is given by
rf = 2 L2 / λc
where L is the largest physical linear
dimension of the antenna.
™ To be in the far-field region, rf must
satisfy the conditions: rf » L, and rf » λc
™ The near-field distance df is given as
df = 4 (ht hr) / (λc)

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Propagation Model Over Flat-open

Area or Water
™ The cell site antenna as well as the mobile
antenna is well above the open flat ground
level or water level.
™ There is one direct wave from cell-site
transmitter to mobile receiver, and two
equal-strength reflected waves – one from
the ground close to mobile and other from
ground or water far away from the mobile.

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Propagation over Flat Open Area

or Water
Tx Antenna
(1) Direct Wave
(2) 1st reflected wave
(3) 2nd reflected wave

(1)
ht
(2)

(3) Mobile
Cell Site

hr
Land Water
Land

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Path-loss Equation for Propagation

Model Over Water
™ The propagation path loss for land-to-mobile
propagation over water is given as
Lpw = ( 4 π r / λc)2
Lpw (dB) = 32.44 + 20 log r (km) + 20 log fc (MHz)
™ Lpw varies as 20 dB/decade or 6 dB/octave
with distance between the transmitter and the
receiver.
™ It is same as that of free-space path loss.

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Outdoor Propagation Path-loss Models

‰ Okumara Propagation Model

‰ Hata Propagation Model
‰ COST-231 Hata Propagation Model
‰ Longley-Rice Propagation Model
‰ Durkin’s Propagation Model

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Okumara Propagation Model

™ Best suited for large cell coverage
(distances up to 100 km) in urban areas
™ Can extrapolate predictions up to 3 GHz
™ Used for effective base station antenna
heights from 30 m to 1000 m
™ Effective mobile receiver antenna
height taken as 3 m
™ Used by computer simulation tools

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Okumara Model Path-loss

™ For propagation in an urban mobile
environment, path loss is given as
LpO(dB) = Lpf (dB) + αm (fc, r) – αt – αr – Σ αc
¾ Lpf - the free-space path loss in dB
¾ αm - the median attenuation relative to free space,
and is a function of fc and r
¾ αt, αr - the effective base station and mobile
antenna height gain factor respectively
¾ αc is the correction factor gain such as type of
environment

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Hata Propagation Model

™ An empirical model based on Okumura’s
model
™ Extensively used in macro-cellular wireless
mobile communication systems for large cells
exceeding 1 km radio coverage
™ Morphology, and obstructions (natural or
man made) are causes of propagation
impairments that result in signal loss and are
added to the path loss

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Hata Model - Applicability

™ Applicable in the mobile communication
systems operating in the frequency range
between 150 MHz and 1000 MHz
™ Used for effective base station antenna
heights from 30 m to 200 m
™ Effective mobile receiver antenna
height taken as 2 m

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Hata Model Path-loss (Dense Urban)

™ For propagation in a dense urban mobile
environment, median path loss is given as
LpH (dB) = 68.75 + 26.16 log fc –13.82
log ht + (44.9–6.55 log ht) log r
™ Path loss increases @ 26.16 dB per
decade with frequency as well as distance,
which is at a much greater rate than in the
free-space (20 dB per decade)

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Hata Model Path-loss (Urban)

™ For propagation in an urban area, median
path loss is given as
LpH (urban) (dB) = 69.55 + 26.16 log fc – 13.82 log ht – αr
+ (44.9 –6.55 log ht) log r
™ For a large city,
αr (dB) = 8.29 (log 1.54 hr)2 – 1.1; for fc ≤ 300 MHz
αr (dB) = 3.2 (log 11.75 hr)2 – 4.97; for fc ≥ 300 MHz
™ For small to medium city,
αr (dB) = (1.1 log fc – 0.7) hr – (1.56 log fc – 0.8)

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Hata Model (Sub-urban & Rural)

™ For propagation in a sub-urban area,
median path loss is given as
LpH (suburban) (dB) = LpH (urban) (dB) – 2 [ log
(fc /28)]2 – 5.4
™ Forpropagation in an open rural area,
median path loss is given as
LpH (open) (dB) = LpH (urban) (dB) – 4.78 (
log fc )2 + 18.33 log fc – 40.94

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COST-231 Hata Propagation Model

™ Widely used for predicting path loss in mobile
wireless systems operating from 500 MHz to 2000 MHz
™ For propagation in a sub-urban area,
median path loss is given as
LpCH (urban) (dB) = 46.3 + 33.9 log fc – 13.82 log ht –
αr + (44.9 – 6.55 log ht) log r + Cm
¾ Cm = 3 dB for urban environments
¾ Cm = 0 dB for suburban or open environments

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Longley-Rice Propagation Model

™ Also known as the Irregular Terrain Model (ITM)
™ Calculates large-scale median propagation loss
relative to free space propagation loss over
irregular terrain
™ Applicable for point-to-point wireless
communication systems operating over different
terrain conditions
™ Used in the frequency range from 40 MHz up to
100 GHz

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Longley-Rice Propagation Model

™ Used extensively for frequency planning in
television broadcasting
™ Used for preparing tables of channel
allocations for VHF/UHF broadcasting
™ The modified model can be applied to radio
propagation in urban areas for mobile radio
application by adding urban factor which
considers urban clutter near the mobile receiving
antenna

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Longley-Rice Model – Two Parts

™ Has two parts:
¾ a model for predictions over an area
¾ a model for point-to-point link predictions
™ Area-to-area prediction model is used when
the terrain path profile is not available
™ Point-to-point wireless link prediction model
is used when a detailed path profile is
available

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Durkin’s Propagation Model

™A computer simulator for predicting field
strength contours over irregular terrain
™ Access a topographic database of a proposed
service area
™ Using quantized maps of service area heights,
reconstruct the ground profile information along the
radial line-of-sight path joining the transmitter with the
receiver, including diffraction from obstacles along
this radial path

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Indoor Propagation Environment

More hostile than a typical outdoor
propagation environment
¾ Lack of a line-of-sight condition
¾ Multi-path propagation
¾ Reflection, diffraction, and shadow fading
¾ heavy signal attenuation
¾ close proximity of interference sources
¾ rapid fluctuations in the wireless channel
characteristics

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Indoor Propagation Path-loss Models

‰ Partition and Building Penetration

Losses
‰ Log-distance Propagation Model
‰ Attenuation Factor Path Loss Model

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Partition and Building Penetration

Losses
‰ Hard or fixed partitions
‰ Soft or movable partitions
¾Free space path loss occurs between partitions
¾Signal strength may drop suddenly as it
passes through partitions
¾The amount of partition loss depends on type of
partitions

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N N
p 40 f @ McGraw-Hill Education
∑ PAFi (dB) + ∑ FAFj (dB)
i =1 j =1
T L SINGAL : Wireless Communications McGraw-Hill Education © 2010

Total Partition Loss

N N
p f

Total partition loss, LPL (dB) = ∑ PAFi (dB) + ∑ FAF j (dB)

i =1 j =1

¾ PAFi is the partition attenuation factor due to ith

partition and there are total Np partitions on the same
floor of the building through which the signal travels
¾ FAFj is the floor attenuation factor due to jth
floor and there are total Nf floors in that building
through which the signal travels

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Typical Partition Losses in a Building

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∑ PAFi (dB) + ∑ FAFj (dB)
i =1 j =1
T L SINGAL : Wireless Communications McGraw-Hill Education © 2010

Log-distance Propagation Model

¾ Predicts the path loss which is encountered
by a signal inside a building or densely
populated areas over distance
¾ Based on distance-power law
¾ A combination of a modified power-
distance law and a log normal fading model
that also uses empirical data

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Log-distance Path Loss

¾ Lp (r0) is the path loss at the reference

distance r0 (usually taken as 1 m), and is a
function of frequency of transmission, fc and
distance between transmitter and receiver, r.
¾ Xg is a normal random variable with zero
mean, reflecting the attenuation caused by
flat fading
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Attenuation Factor Path Loss

γSF is the path-loss exponent value for the

same floor, and varies from 1.6 to 3.3 in
indoor environment.
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Attenuation Factor Path Loss

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Signal Attenuation due to Foliage

™ Foliage loss is the loss in signal power
during propagation because of presence of
foliage environment on its way
™ Foliage mainly comprises of dense trees or
vegetation of any type
™ Close proximity of foliage at the cell site
always heavily attenuates the signal and thus
degrades the received signal quality

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Long Distance Propagation

™ The long-distance (upto as large as 1000 km)
propagation occurs due to the phenomenon of super
refraction or duct propagation.
™ The distance of tropospheric wave propagation
is much greater than the line-of-sight
propagation.
™ The electromagnetic waves are continuously
refracted in the duct by the troposphere and reflected
by the earth’s surface.

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Super Refraction
™ A result of temperature inversion in the
atmosphere with height
™ In the troposphere region, the temperature
increases with height rather than usual decrease
of temperature at the rate of 6.5 degree C per km
in the standard atmosphere
™ Only those electromagnetic waves are trapped in
the troposphere which enter with small angles with
respect to horizon

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Propagation in Atmospheric Duct

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Summary
™ Estimation of propagation path loss and the
received signal power levels under different
operating conditions
™ Buildings and obstacles between the
transmitter and the receiver usually
obstruct the propagation path
™ A detailed near field propagation study
within the building need to be conducted

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