graph for a displacement- time graph is found

Dynamics: Motion in a by calculating the gradient.

straight line
Distance - is the number of meters in a stated
length. Scalar quantity. SI unit (m) meter
Displacement - is the number of meters in a
stated length with a given direction. Vector
quantity. SI unit (m) meter
Speed – is the distanced moved over the time
taken. Scalar quantity. SI unit (ms-1)
Speed = Distance
Time
A car travels 1000 m in 100 s i.e 1000m/100s
the speed is = 10ms-1

Velocity – is the displacement moved over

the time taken. Vector quantity. SI unit (ms- Gradient= Y2-Y1 = 30-0 = 10ms-1
1
) X2-X1 3-0

Velocity = Displacement Similarly in a velocity-time graph a body

Time travelling at uniform velocity, covers equal
distances in equal times. Therefore, the
A car travels 1000 m north in 100 s i.e distance travelled can be found by calculating
1000m/100s the speed is = 10ms-1 the area under the graph or using the formula
Distance = velocity x time
Acceleration – is the change in velocity over = 20ms-1 x 5s = 100m.
time. Vector quantity. SI unit (ms-2)

a=v–u where v is the final velocity

t u is the initial velocity

If the initial velocity is zero the equation

becomes
a=v
t

Displacement-Time graphs
In a displacement time graph a body
travelling at uniform velocity, covers equal
distances in equal times. The velocity of the
The velocity-time graph for a body moving Q.1) A car starting from rest with uniform
with uniform acceleration which can be acceleration reaches a velocity of 10ms-1 in
found by calculating the gradient of the slope. 10s and travels with a velocity for 20s. it then
decelerates steadily and comes to rest 50s
Gradient= Y2-Y1 = 40-20 = 4ms-2 after starting.
X2-X1 5-0
Solution
Draw a velocity-time graph and find from it
(a) Acceleration
(b) Deceleration
(c) The total distance travelled.

The distance travelled can be found by

calculating the area under the graph for both
the rectangle and triangle or using the
formula s = ut + ½ at2
Acceleration=gradient of slope y2- y1=
Distance = area of triangle + area of rectangle x2- x1
= ½ x 5s x 20ms-1 + 20ms-1 x 5s
= 50m + 100m = 150m 10ms-1 - 0 = 1ms-2
10s – 0
Or using the formula
Deceleration= gradient of slope y2- y1=
s = ut + ½ at2 x2- x1

Where u = 20ms-1 initial velocity 10ms-1 - 0 = 0.5 ms-2

v = 40ms-1 final velocity 20s – 0
t = 5s
a = (v-u) Total distance travelled = area of triangle for
t both acceleration and deceleration + area of
a = 40-20 = 4ms-2 rectangle
5 (½ x 10 x 10) + (½ x 10 x 20) + (10 x 20) =
50 + 100 + 200 = 350m
Therefore s = (20x5) + ½ (4x52) = 100 + 50=
150m
Equations of motion Newton’s laws of motion

Acceleration = change in velocity First law of motion.

Time taken A body at rest will stay at rest or a body in
motion will continue to move unless an
a = v-u external force makes it behave differently.
t
where (a) is acceleration The first law is another way of saying all
(v) is final velocity matter experiences inertia. Inertia is the
(u) is initial velocity tendency of an object in motion to remain
(t) time taken in motion, or an object at rest to remain at
rest unless acted upon by a force.
First 1st equation v = u + at ………(1) The larger the mass of a body the greater is
where (a) is acceleration its inertia, i.e the harder it is to move.
(v) is final velocity Mass is the amount of matter in a body.
(u) is initial velocity
(t) time taken Second law of motion.
Newton’s second law states that the
Second 2nd equation s = ut + ½ (a t2) …(2) acceleration of an object depends the net
where (a) is acceleration force acting on the object and the mass of the
(v) is final velocity object. The acceleration of the body is
(u) is initial velocity directly proportional to the net force
(t) time taken acting on the body and inversely
(s) distance or displacement proportional to the mass of the body.

Third 3rd equation v2 = u2 + 2as ...……(3) One newton is defined as the force which
where (a) is acceleration gives a mass 1 kg an acceleration of 1ms-2.
(v) is final velocity Force = mass x acceleration
(u) is initial velocity F = ma
(s) distance or displacement
Third law of motion.
If a body A exerts a force on body B, then
Aristotle body B exerts an equal but opposite force on
Aristotle was a Greek philosopher who body A.
believed that a force was needed to keep a
body moving and stated that the velocity (v) For example, when you step forward from
of a body was proportional to the force (F) rest your foot pushes back on the earth and
acting on it, i.e v ∝ F. Aristotle views were exerts an equal but opposite force on you.
later discredited by Newton and Galileo.
Another example is when stepping off a boat
(small boat like a rowing boat), you push
backward on the boat and, although the boat
pushes you forwards with an equal force, the
boat is now moving backwards. This a = F = 3000 = 2.5 ms-2 to the left. *Vector
therefore reduces your forward motion and if m 1200 quantity*
the gap between the boat and jetty is too big
you can fall into the water.

Note that since the friction of the boat on Momentum or Linear-

water is less that the friction of stepping on Momentum
land the boat slides backwards.
Momentum is defined as the mass of the body
Free-Body diagrams multiplied by its velocity and is a useful
Free body diagrams are used to analyze the quantity to consider when bodies are
forces acting on an object. involved in collisions and explosions. Note
momentum is a vector quantity.
For example, a free-body diagram for a plane
flying through the air. Momentum = Mass (kg) x Velocity (ms-1)
p=mxv
SI units kg ms-1 (kilogram meters per second)

Principle of Conservation of Momentum

aka the Conservation of Momentum law.
When two or more bodies act on one another,
as in a collision, the total momentum of the
bodies remains, constant provided no
external forces act (e.g. friction).

Example: A truck of mass 60kg moving with

A small plane of mass 1200kg flying through a velocity of 3ms-1 collides with a stationary
the air will have four forces acting on it: truck of mass 30kg.
thrust, lift, drag and weight. Here the vertical
forces are balance, so the plane will fly at a
constant height. However, there is an
unbalance force of 3000N to the left acting on
the plane, so it will accelerate to the left.

We can calculate the acceleration using

Newton’s 2nd law:
The two move off with the same velocity vf.
Find the momentum before and after for the
Force = mass x acceleration
both trucks
F = ma
Total momentum before = (m1 x v1 + m2 x v2)
Making acceleration the subject of the
= (60 x 3 + 30 x 0)
equation we get:
= 180 kgms-1
Total momentum after = (m1 + m2) vf forward momentum of the bullet =
= (60 + 30) vf 0.01kg x 300 ms-1 = 3 kgms-1
= (90kg) x vf
Backward momentum of rifle =
6 kg x v = (6kg) x v
Using the conservation of momentum law
forward momentum = backward momentum
3 kgms-1 = (6kg) x v
Momentum before = momentum after Therefore
v = 3 = 0.5 ms-1
180 kgms-1 = (90kg) vf 6

180 = vf Thus, the backward momentum of rifle =

90 6 kg x 0.5ms-1 = 3kgms-1

2 ms-1 = vf Rockets and Jets

We get the final velocity to be 2 ms-1 Note if a balloon is inflated and then released,
the balloon goes fling off in the opposite
Explosions direction to that of the escaping air, i.e, the
In explosions momentum acts like vectors i.e, momentum of air exiting the balloon (moving
if they act in the same direction they add to the left) is equal to that of the momentum
together, if they act in opposite direction of the balloon (moving to the right).
they subtract and if they are equal, they
cancel out.

For example, momentum is conserved in an

explosion when a rifle is fired. The
momentum before firing is zero since both
the bullet and rifle is at rest. During firing
both the rifle and bullet receive equal but Rockets and jets use engines that produce a
opposite momentum so that the momentum high velocity of hot gas when burning fuel
after firing is zero. which leaves the exhaust with large
momentum, which propels the rocket with an
If a rifle of mass 6 kg fires a bullet of mass equally opposite momentum.
0.01kg with a velocity of 300ms-1 find the Note space rockets have to carry their own
velocity of the recoil on the rifle; oxygen supply to burn their fuel, jet engines
use the surrounding air.
Since the law of conservation of momentum
holds, we get forward momentum = Force and Momentum
backward momentum and the velocity of the
recoil can be found. From newton’s second law F = ma
If we sub a = (v-u) c) What is the momentum gain per
t second?
d) What is the value of the force?
we get F = m (v-u) = mv-mu
t t m = 10kg
u = 4 ms-1 initial velocity
where (mv) is the final momentum and (mu) v = 8 ms-1 final velocity
is the initial momentum, the force can now be t = 2s time that the force acts
described by
a) Momentum before = mu= 10 x 4 =
force= change in momentum = rate of change 40kgms-1
time of momentum b) Momentum after = mv = 10 x 8 =
80kgms-1
1) A trolley of mass 2 kg collides with a c) Momentum gain per second =
stationary trolley of mass 1 kg and sticks mu – mv = 80 – 40 = 20 kgms-2
to it. If they move off together with a t 2
velocity of 4 ms-1 what was the initial d) Force = change in momentum per
velocity of the 2kg trolley. second. Therefore, 20N same as gains
per second.
The law of conservation of momentum states;
Momentum before collision = momentum 3) A rocket sends out 50 kg exhaust gas
after collision every second with a velocity of 200ms-1.
What is the force on the rocket?
m1 v1 + m2 v2 = (m1 + m2) v
Force = change of momentum of exhaust gas
where m1 = 2kg, v1 = ?, m2 = 1kg, v2 = 0ms-1 time
and v = 4 ms-1
subbing values in the above equation gives since 50kg of exhaust gas is initially at rest
us; and leaves the rocket with a velocity of
200ms-1 every second the equation goes from
(2 x v1) + (1 x 0) = (2 + 1) 4
2v1 + 0 = 3 x 4 F = mv – mu = mu – m0
2v1 = 12 t t
v1 = 12 = 6ms-1 to
2 F=mv
t
2) The velocity of a jet of mass 10kg so
increases from 4 ms-1 to 8 ms-1 when a F = 50 kg x 200ms-1 = 10000 N
force acts on it for 2s. 1s
a) What is the momentum of the jet
before the force acts?
b) What is the momentum of the jet
after the force acts?
Energy temperature of the body, the greater the
thermal energy.
Energy is the ability to do work. Energy can
come in different forms and enables work to Radiation energy is given in the form of
be done on both men and machine which light from the sun which emits high levels of
requires a supply of it. The SI unit for energy Ultra violet radiation, that is needed for plant
is Joules (J). and animal life.

Forms of energy are; Other forms of energy include;

Gravitational, elastic, electromagnetic,
Chemical energy is stored energy which nuclear energy and sound.
comes from food and fuel. The energy of Sound is a form of energy which travels as
food is released by chemical reactions in our waves.
body when eaten.

Potential energy is the energy a body has Transformation of energy

due to its position i.e, a body above the
earth’s surface has p.e and can-do work. E.g, Energy can be changed from one form to
the water in a mountain reservoir is another another by suitable devices. For example,
example of p.e and is the source of energy for when you have finished charging your phone
hydroelectric power stations in which a water and use it, your battery discharges allowing
turbine drives an electric generator. Other you to use different functions of it. Your
forms of potential energy include a battery, phone can be used to play music i.e going
stretched spring, elastic band and objects on from electric energy to do manual work in
shelves. pushing the speakers for you to hear. You
may have noticed when play game for
Formula for P.E is Ep= mgh excessive periods your phone may get hot.
That’s electrical energy doing work on the
Kinetic energy is the energy a body has due CPU which is then given off as heat. Your
to its motion, i.e, the faster a body moves the cell phone also has a flash light thus going
more k.e it has. E.g, a hammer strikes a nail from electrical energy to light.
into a piece of wood which exerts a force and
does work because of the k.e. it possesses as Conservation of energy
a result of its motion.
This law states that energy cannot be
Formula for K.E is Ek = ½ mv2 created or destroyed but it can be changed
from one form to another.
Electrical energy is delivered by batteries
and generators. For example, a mass (m) at a height (h) above
the ground has P.E = mgh. When it falls, the
Thermal or heat energy is the energy a body velocity increases and it gains K.E from the
has due to its k.e and p.e of its molecules. The P.E. Note, if it starts from rest and air
faster the molecules move, the higher the
resistance is negligible, its velocity (v) on Work done = force x displacement (vector
reaching the ground can be found by using quantity)
the 3rd equation of motion i.e, SI unit is joules (J)

v2 = u2 + 2as = 02 + 2gh = 2gh Example if you have to exert an upward force

of 10N to raise a stone vertically 1.5m then
therefore, if we sub v2 = 2gh in K.E formula the work done is;
we get
W= F x d
2
K.E = ½ mv = ½ m (2gh) = mgh W= 10 x 1.5
W= 15J
So here we see the lost of P.E = gain in K.E
Energy can be attained from alternative
sources such as renewable sources like;

Hydroelectricity- is electricity produced from

hydropower.

Geothermal energy – is energy created by

tapping into the earth’s “heat reservoirs” and
pumping cool water into the reservoirs and
taking the bi- product (steam and hot water)
back up to the plant which then uses it to
generate electricity and heat.
 Power
The power of a device is the rate at which it
does work, i.e, the work it does per second.
The SI unit is watts (W) and is defined as the
rate of work of 1 joule per second.

1W = 1 Js-1

Power = work done = energy change

time taken time taken

P=w
t

larger units are measured by

1kW = 1000 W = 103 W

Tidal energy waves – is the energy gathered
1MW = 1000000 W = 106W
when waves pass through a turbine
submerged in the sea which produces
Example
electricity. This electricity is then transported
A 500kg load is lifted vertically a height of
back to shore via underwater cables.
10m in 25s by a crane. Calculate the power of
the crane.

1st step calculate the work done by the crane

w = F x d where the force/ weight can be

found using mass x gravity (mxg)
so the work equation becomes

w = mgd or mgh (d and h represents distance)

so work done = (500kg x 10ms-2 x 10m) =

50000J
Solar energy – the sun rays can be collected
therefore, the power P= w = mgh
and harvested using solar panels, it is then
t t
generated into electrical energy which can be
used to supply other forms of energy.
P = 50000J = 2000 W or 2kW.
25
Wind energy – are gained by electrical
generators driven by giant windmills.
Efficiency Pressure = force
Efficiency of a machine can be defined as the area
ratio of output work to the input work.
The efficiency of a machine can be calculated P=F
by; A

Ƞ = work done on load x (100) Pressure in a liquid

work done by effort
or (a) The pressure in a liquid increase with
depth since the further down you go
Ƞ = energy output x (100) the greater the weight of liquid above.
energy input

where Ƞ (eta) is the symbol used to represent

efficiency. Note the value for efficiency is
represented as percentage eg 25% efficient.

Example. A load of 40N is raised 0.5m by a

pulley system when the effort of 10N moves
2.5m. What is the efficiency?

Work done on load = load x distance moved

= 40N x 0.5m = 20J
(b) Pressure at one depth acts equally in
Work done by effort = effort x distance all directions i.e as far and as fast
moved from each hole.
= 10N x 2.5m = 25J

Therefore the efficiency is

Ƞ = work done on load x (100)

work done by effort

Ƞ = 20J x (100) = 80%

25J

Hydrostatics (c) A liquid finds its own level.

Pressure is defined as the force (or thrust)

acting on unit area e.g 1m2 and its SI unit is
newton per meter squared (Nm-2) or pascals
(Pa). Pressure is calculated using the equation
 Solution
(a) P = ρgh = (800 kg m-3) x (10 ms-2) x
(0.5 m) = 4000 Pa

(b) The pressure at Y is transmitted

through the liquid, so that the upward
pressure on the lower face pf the
piston = 4000 Pa
(d) Pressure depends on the density of
the liquid. The denser the liquid, the (c) P = F therefore rearranging to make
greater the pressure at any given A (F) subject of formula we get
depth
F = P x A = 4000 x 0.1 = 400N
Expression for liquid pressure
(d) Since the force is equal to the weight
An expression for the pressure (P) at a depth i.e, F = W therefore W = 400N
(h) in a liquid of density (ρ) also considering from the weight equation W = Mg
a horizontal area (A) can be found using the making M the subject of formula we
expression. get

P = ρgh M = W = 400 = 40 kg
g 10
Work example
The pressure of the liquid column XY
supports the mass M on the light piston.

a) If the density of the liquid is 800 kg

m-3 calculate the pressure at Y due to
the column XY.

b) What is the upward pressure on the

lower surface of the piston?

c) What is the upward force on the lower

surface of the piston if its area is 0.1
m-2.

d) What is the mass of M?