Lecture notes on Introduction to Statistics (Stat 107o) Chapter 3: MEASURES OF CENTERAL

TENDENCY

CHAPTER 3
3. MEASURES OF CENTERAL TENDENCY
Introduction
 When we want to make comparison between groups of numbers it is good to have a single
value that is considered to be a good representative of each group. This single value is
called the average of the group. Averages are also called measures of central tendency.
 An average which is representative is called typical average and an average which is not
representative and has only a theoretical value is called a descriptive average.
Objectives:
 To comprehend the data easily.
 To facilitate comparison.
 To make further statistical analysis.
The Summation Notation:
 Let X1, X2 ,X3 …XN be a number of measurements where N is the total number of
observation and Xi is ith observation.
 Very often in statistics an algebraic expression of the form X1+X2+X3+...+XN is
used in a formula to compute a statistic. It is tedious to write an expression like this
very often, so mathematicians have developed a shorthand notation to represent a
sum of scores, called the summation notation.
N
 The symbol X
i 1
i is a mathematical shorthand for X1+X2+X3+...+XN

The expression is read, "the sum of X sub i from i equals 1 to N." It means "add up all the
numbers."

Example: Suppose the following were scores made on the first homework assignment for
five students in the class: 5, 7, 7, 6, and 8. In this example set of five numbers, where
N=5, the summation could be written:

The "i=1" in the bottom of the summation notation tells where to begin the sequence of
summation. If the expression were written with "i=3", the summation would start with the
third number in the set. For example:

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Lecture notes on Introduction to Statistics (Stat 107o) Chapter 3: MEASURES OF CENTERAL
TENDENCY

In the example set of numbers, this would give the following result:

The "N" in the upper part of the summation notation tells where to end the sequence of
summation. If there were only three scores then the summation and example would be:

Sometimes if the summation notation is used in an expression and the expression must be
written a number of times, as in a proof, then a shorthand notation for the shorthand
notation is employed. When the summation sign "" is used without additional notation,
then "i=1" and "N" are assumed.

For example:

PROPERTIES OF SUMMATION
n
1.  k  nk where k is any constant
i 1
n n
2.  kX i  k X i where k is any constant
i 1 i 1
n n
3.  (a  bX
i 1
i )  na  b X i
i 1
where a and b are any constant
n n n
4. (X
i 1
i  Yi )   X i   Yi
i 1 i 1

The sum of the product of the two variables could be written:

Example: considering the following data determine

X Y
5 6
7 7
7 8

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Lecture notes on Introduction to Statistics (Stat 107o) Chapter 3: MEASURES OF CENTERAL
TENDENCY

6 7
8 8
5
a) X
i 1
i

5
b) Y
i 1
i

5
c) 10
i 1
5
d) (X
i 1
i  Yi )
5
e) (X
i 1
i  Yi )
5
f) X Y
i 1
i i

X
2
g) i
i 1
5 5
h) ( X i )( Yi )
i 1 i 1
Solutions:
5
a) X
i 1
i  5  7  7  6  8  33
5
b) Y
i 1
i  6  7  8  7  8  36
5
c) 10  5 *10  50
i 1
5
d) (X
i 1
i  Yi )  (5  6)  (7  7)  (7  8)  (6  7)  (8  8)  69  33  36
5
e) (X
i 1
i  Yi )  (5  6)  (7  7)  (7  8)  (6  7)  (8  8)  3  33  36
5
f) X Y
i 1
i i  5 * 6  7 * 7  7 * 8  6 * 7  8 * 8  241
5

X  5 2  7 2  7 2  6 2  8 2  223
2
g) i
i 1
5 5
h) ( X i )( Yi )  33 * 36  1188
i 1 i 1

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Lecture notes on Introduction to Statistics (Stat 107o) Chapter 3: MEASURES OF CENTERAL
TENDENCY

Types of measures of central tendency

The Arithmetic Mean

 Is defined as the sum of the magnitude of the items divided by the number of
items.
 The mean of X1, X2 ,X3 …Xn is denoted by A.M ,m or X and is given by:
X 1  X 2  ...  X n
X 
n
n

X i
X  i 1

n
 If X1 occurs f1 times
 If X2occurs f2 times
 .
 .
 If Xn occurs fn times
k

fX i i
Then the mean will be X  i 1 , where k is the number of classes and
k

f
i 1
i

f
i 1
i n

Example: Obtain the mean of the following number

2, 7, 8, 2, 7, 3, 7
Solution:
Xi fi Xifi
2 2 4
3 1 3
7 3 21
8 1 8
Total 7 36

f i Xi
36
X  i 1
4
  5.15
f
7
i
i 1

Arithmetic Mean for Grouped Data

If data are given in the shape of a continuous frequency distribution, then the mean is
obtained as follows:
k

f i Xi Xi =the class mark of the ith class and fi = the frequency of the ith
X  i 1
k
, Where
f
i 1
i

class
Example: calculate the mean for the following age distribution.

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Lecture notes on Introduction to Statistics (Stat 107o) Chapter 3: MEASURES OF CENTERAL
TENDENCY

Class Frequency
6- 10 35
11- 15 23
16- 20 15
21- 25 12
26- 30 9
31- 35 6
Solutions:
 First find the class marks
 Find the product of frequency and class marks
 Find mean using the formula.
Class fi Xi Xifi
6- 10 35 8 280
11- 15 23 13 299
16- 20 15 18 270
21- 25 12 23 276
26- 30 9 28 252
31- 35 6 33 198
Total 100 1575

f i Xi
1575
X  i 1
6
  15.75
f
100
i
i 1

The Mode
- Mode is a value which occurs most frequently in a set of values
- The mode may not exist and even if it does exist, it may not be unique.
- In case of discrete distribution the value having the maximum frequency is the model
value.

Examples:
1. Find the mode of 5, 3, 5, 8, 9
Mode =5
2. Find the mode of 8, 9, 9, 7, 8, 2, and 5.
It is a bimodal Data: 8 and 9
3. Find the mode of 4, 12, 3, 6, and 7.
No mode for this data.
- The mode of a set of numbers X1, X2, …Xn is usually denoted by X̂ .

Mode for Grouped data

If data are given in the shape of continuous frequency distribution, the mode is defined
as:

 1 
X̂  L mo  w 
 1   2 
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Lecture notes on Introduction to Statistics (Stat 107o) Chapter 3: MEASURES OF CENTERAL
TENDENCY

Where:
Xˆ  the mod e of the distribution
w  the size of the mod al class
 1  f mo  f 1
 2  f mo  f 2
f mo  frequencyof the mod al class
f 1  frequencyof the class preceeding the mod al class
f 2  frequencyof the class following the mod al class
Note: The modal class is a class with the highest frequency.
Example: Following is the distribution of the size of certain farms selected at random
from a district. Calculate the mode of the distribution.

Size of farms No. of farms

5-15 8
15-25 12
25-35 17
35-45 29
45-55 31
55-65 5
65-75 3

Solutions:

45  55 is the mod al class,sin ce it is a class with the highest frequency.

L mo  45
w  10
 1  f mo  f 1  2
 2  f mo  f 2  26
f mo  31
f 1  29
f2  5

ˆ  45  10
X 
2 

 2  26 
 45.71

The Median
- In a distribution, median is the value of the variable which divides it in to two equal halves.
- In an ordered series of data median is an observation lying exactly in the middle of the series.
It is the middle most value in the sense that the number of values less than the median is equal
to the number of values greater than it.

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Lecture notes on Introduction to Statistics (Stat 107o) Chapter 3: MEASURES OF CENTERAL
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-If X1, X2, …Xn be the observations, then the numbers arranged in ascending order will be
X[1], X[2], …X[n], where X[i] is ith smallest value.
 X[1]< X[2]< …<X[n]
-Median is denoted by X̂ .
Median for ungrouped data

 X ( n1) 2  ,If n is odd.

~ 1
X   (X  X ), If n is even
 2  n 2  ( n 2 )  1
 
 


Example: Find the median of the following numbers.

a) 6, 5, 2, 8, 9, 4.
b) 2, 1, 8, 3, 5, 8.
Solutions:
a) First order the data: 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9
Here n=6
~ 1
X  (X n  X n )
2 [ ]
2
[  1]
2

1
 (X [3]  X [ 4 ] )
2
1
 ( 5  6 )  5.5
2
b) Order the data :1, 2, 3, 5, 8
Here n=5
~ X
X n 1
[ ]
2

 X[3]
3
Median for grouped data
If data are given in the shape of continuous frequency distribution, the median is defined
~ w n
X  L med  (  c)
f med 2
Where :
L med  lower class boundary of the median class.
as:
w  the size of the median class
n  total number of observations.
c  the cumulative frequency( less than type) preceeding the median class.
f med  thefrequency of the median class.

Remark:
The median class is the class with the smallest cumulative frequency (less than type) greater
than or equal to n .
2

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Lecture notes on Introduction to Statistics (Stat 107o) Chapter 3: MEASURES OF CENTERAL
TENDENCY

Example: Find the median of the following distribution.

Class Frequency
40-44 7
45-49 10
50-54 22
55-59 15
60-64 12
65-69 6
70-74 3
Solutions:
 First find the less than cumulative frequency.
 Identify the median class.
 Find median using formula.

Class Frequency Cumu.Freq(less

than type)
40-44 7 7
45-49 10 17
50-54 22 39
55-59 15 54
60-64 12 66
65-69 6 72
70-74 3 75

n 75
  37.5
2 2
39 is the first cumulative frequencyto be greater than or equal to 37.5
 50  54 is the median class.

L  49.5, w 5
med
n  75, c  17, f  22
med

~
 X L  w ( n  c)
med f 2
med
 49.5  5 (37.5  17)
22
 54.16
Quantiles
When a distribution is arranged in order of magnitude of items, the median is the value of the
middle term. Their measures that depend up on their positions in distribution quartiles, deciles,
and percentiles are collectively called quantiles.
Quartiles:
- Quartiles are measures that divide the frequency distribution in to four equal parts.

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Lecture notes on Introduction to Statistics (Stat 107o) Chapter 3: MEASURES OF CENTERAL
TENDENCY

- The value of the variables corresponding to these divisions are denoted Q1, Q2, and Q3
often called the first, the second and the third quartile respectively.
- Q1 is a value which has 25% items which are less than or equal to it. Similarly Q2 has
50%items with value less than or equal to it and Q3 has 75% items whose values are
less than or equal to it.
- To find Qi (i=1, 2, 3) we count iN of the classes beginning from the lowest class.
4
- For grouped data: we have the following formula

Q  L Q  w ( iN  c) ,i  1,2,3
i i fQ 4
i
Where :
L Q  lower class boundary of thequartile class.
i
w  the size of thequartile class
N  total number of observatio ns.
c  the cumulative frequency(less than type) preceeding the quartile class.
f Q  thefrequency of thequartile class.
i

Remark:
The quartile class (class containing Qi ) is the class with the smallest cumulative frequency
(less than type) greater than or equal to iN .
4
Deciles:
- Deciles are measures that divide the frequency distribution in to ten equal parts.
- The values of the variables corresponding to these divisions are denoted D1, D2,.. D9
often called the first, the second,…, the ninth decile respectively.
- To find Di (i=1, 2,..9) we count iN of the classes beginning from the lowest class.
10

- For grouped data: we have the following formula

w iN
Di  L Di  (  c) , i  1,2,...,9
f D i 10
Where :
L D i  lower class boundaryof the decile class.
w  the size of the decileclass
N  total number of observations.
c  the cumulative frequency( less than type) preceeding the decile class.
f Di  thefrequency of the decile class.

Remark:
The decile class (class containing Di )is the class with the smallest cumulative frequency
(less than type) greater than or equal to iN .
10

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Lecture notes on Introduction to Statistics (Stat 107o) Chapter 3: MEASURES OF CENTERAL
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Percentiles:
- Percentiles are measures that divide the frequency distribution in to hundred equal
parts.
- The values of the variables corresponding to these divisions are denoted P1, P2,.. P99
often called the first, the second,…, the ninety-ninth percentile respectively.
- To find Pi (i=1, 2,..99) we count iN of the classes beginning from the lowest class.
100
- For grouped data: we have the following formula
w iN
Pi  L Pi  (  c ) , i  1,2,...,99
f Pi 100
Where :
L Pi  lower class boundaryof the percentile class.
w  the size of the percentile class
N  total number of observations.
c  the cumulative frequency( less than type) preceeding the percentile class.
f Pi  thefrequency of the percentile class.

Remark:
The percentile class (class containing Pi )is the class with the smallest cumulative
frequency (less than type) greater than or equal to iN .
100
Example: Considering the following distribution
Calculate:
a) All quartiles.
b) The 7th decile.
c) The 90th percentile.
Values Frequency
140- 150 17
150- 160 29
160- 170 42
170- 180 72
180- 190 84
190- 200 107
200- 210 49
210- 220 34
220- 230 31
230- 240 16
240- 250 12
Solutions:
 First find the less than cumulative frequency.
 Use the formula to calculate the required quantile.

Values Frequency Cum.Freq(less

than type)
140- 150 17 17

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Lecture notes on Introduction to Statistics (Stat 107o) Chapter 3: MEASURES OF CENTERAL
TENDENCY

150- 160 29 46
160- 170 42 88
170- 180 72 160
180- 190 84 244
190- 200 107 351
200- 210 49 400
210- 220 34 434
220- 230 31 465
230- 240 16 481
240- 250 12 493
a) Quartiles:
i. Q1
- determine the class containing the first quartile.
N
 123.25
4
 170  180 is the class containingthe first quartile.

LQ  170 ,
1
w 10
N  493 , c  88 , f Q  72
1

w N
 Q1  LQ1  (  c)
fQ 4
1

10
 170  (123.25  88)
72
 174.90

ii. Q2
- determine the class containing the second quartile.
2* N
 246.5
4
 190  200 is the class containing the sec ond quartile.

LQ  190 ,
2
w  10
N  493 , c  244 , f Q  107
2

w 2* N
 Q2  LQ  (  c)
2
fQ 2
4
10
 170  ( 246.5  244)
72
 190.23

iii. Q3
- determine the class containing the third quartile.

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Lecture notes on Introduction to Statistics (Stat 107o) Chapter 3: MEASURES OF CENTERAL
TENDENCY

3* N
 369.75
4
 200  210 is the class containing the third quartile.

LQ  200 ,
3
w 10
N  493 , c  351 , f Q  49
3

w 3* N
 Q3  LQ 3  (  c)
fQ 4
3

10
 200  (369.75  351)
49
 203.83

b) D7
- determine the class containing the 7th decile.
7* N
 345.1
10
190  200 is the class containing the seventh decile.
LD  190 ,
7
w 10
N  493 , c  244 , f D 107
7

w 7* N
 D7  LD  (  c)
7
fD 10
7

10
 190  (345.1  244)
107
 199.45

c) P90
- determine the class containing the 90th percentile.
90 * N
 443.7
100
 220  230 is the class containing the 90th percentile.
LP  220 ,
90
w 10
N  493 , c  434 , f P  3107
90

w 90 * N
 P90  LP  (  c)
90
fP 100
90

10
 220  (443.7  434)
31
 223.13

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