How does training affect performance?

ENERGY SYSTEMS

ATP-PC (Alactacid): uses stored ATP molecules in the muscles, usually for a few
seconds or one explosive movement. ATP molecule is then unable to provide energy
to working muscles. To continue muscular movement, body now relies on creatine
phosphate in a secondary reaction.

 Source of fuel: Creatine phosphate (PC)

 Efficiency of ATP production: efficient form of energy production as chemical
reactions occur very quickly and are very simple. Fuel is already stored in the
muscle as is the ATP molecules.
 Duration system can operate: approx. 10-12 seconds
 Cause of fatigue: due to inability of body to continually resynthesise ATP
molecules – this occurs when the body has used up all its stored supply of PC.
 By-products of energy production: only by-product is heat – as a result of the
reactions breaking phosphate groups off PC and ATP
 Process and rate of recovery: relatively short from activity. After full depletion
of ATP and PC the body will take approx. 2 minutes to fully regain its normal PC
levels.

Lactic Acid: continues to provide the ATP molecules to create required energy once
ATP system has ceased. This system produces lactic acid as a waste product in the
chemical breakdown of glucose and glycogen (glycolysis) – 100m freestyle, wall
sits, running between 400-1500m

 Source of fuel: Carbohydrates in the form of sugar travelling in the bloodstream

(blood glucose), and glycogen stored in the muscles (muscle glycogen)
 Efficiency of ATP production: Very efficient system – continues to resynthesise
ATP molecules after ATP/PC system has ceased. The breakdown of G&G provides
energy, resulting in resynthesis of ATP molecules to be used for muscular
contraction in a short time.
 Duration system can operate: produces energy for short, high-intensity bursts
of activity lasting approx. one minute at high intensity or up to three minutes for
moderate.
 Cause of fatigue: Large build up of lactic acid on working muscles – which
inhibits the muscle from creating more ATP molecules to use.
 By-products of energy production: large build up of lactic acid in the working
muscles
 Process and rate of recovery: 20 mins – 2 hours for lactic acid to be removed
from the blood. Body’s recovery from this system will be enhanced if active cool
down is completed – aiding the transfer of lactic acid around the body where it
can be reused.

Aerobic energy system: Requires oxygen to make the ATP molecules needed for
exercise. Aerobic exercise is known as steady state exercise, because energy
demands meet the energy being supplied to the body.

 Source of fuel: System uses a combination of 1. Carbohydrates, 2. Fats, and 3.

Proteins.
 Efficiency of ATP production: Very efficient for longer slower duration of
exercise – able to provide endless supply of energy to resynthesise ATP for
extended period.
  Duration system can operate: Can supply energy to the body from 2-3 minutes
to a few hours. However, it is used primarily in endurance exercise which is less
intense and can continue longer.
 Cause of fatigue: Depletion of glucose to the working muscles.
 By-products of energy production: Carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) -
chemical reactions.
 Process and rate of recovery: Dependent on type of activity that has taken
place. High-intensity for extended period will take longer time for recovery than
low intensity. The main factor to be aware of is to replenish glucose & glycogen,
which could take days for full digestion.
TYPES OF TRAINING AND TRAINING METHODS: need to be well understood in
order to select and design appropriate training program for athlete.

Aerobic training: programs will vary in mode, duration, frequency and intensity, but
will all involve the aerobic energy system.
 Mode = type of activity (running, swimming, rowing, cycling)
 Duration = depend on exercise intensity and fitness of athlete. Minimum
of 20-30 mins moderate exercise, 5 days per week is recommended for
health benefits.
 More serious athlete: 6-12 training sessions/week for 4 months (30 mins
– several hours)
 Training intensity – monitored by using heart rate calculations (maximal
heart rate)
 Frequency.

Continuous training: Slow, long-distance training non-stop lasting from 20 minutes

to several hours.
2 types of continuous training:
 Long slow distance: generally at a low intensity equivalent to lactate transition
1 (LT1) – previously referred to as the aerobic threshold.
 High intensity continuous: In lactate transition 2 (LT2) training zone –
previously referred to as anaerobic threshold.
- ADVANTAGES: Time-efficient, easy to follow, improves aerobic
performance
- DISADVANTAGES: Performed at lower intensity because of duration, can
be monotonous, not specific for team sport athletes.

Fartlek training: Involves continuous exercise interspersed with ‘sprints’ of varying

distances. The training session may involve a 30-minute run with 15 sprints of 30-120
metres.

- ADVANTAGES: variety of pace, higher intensity of training

- DISADVANTAGES: Not sports specific, higher intensity may increase risk
of injury.

Interval training: involves completing a number of prescribed sessions of exercise,

each followed by a recovery period. It is also used by cyclists to improve their aerobic
capacity.

Circuit training: training involves a series of exercises that are performed one after
the other, in a ‘circuit’, with limited (or no) rest between exercises.
o Each exercise is called a station. Circuits can be designed to improve strength,
muscle endurance, anaerobic fitness or aerobic fitness, depending on how the
specificity and overload principles are applied.
Designing a circuit for aerobic effects:
- Use lighter weights (less than 40% of 1RM
- Extend work period to 30-60 seconds
- Select exercises that use large muscle groups
- Intersperse aerobic activities (run, step ups, bike, skip) with resistance stations.

ADVANTAGES: can cater for large number of participants, workload is

quantifiable, competition indirect (work at own capacity), can provide high
volume of training in a short amount of time.

Results of aerobic training:

- Higher maxV02
- Greater efficiency at carrying oxygen to working muscles due to enlarged heart
- Increased blood volume
- Increased utilisation of fat as an energy source.
Anaerobic training: Intervals of short duration & high intensity can be devised to
target both anaerobic energy systems (i.e. the alactacid and lactic acid energy
systems)
- Athletes who compete in sprint events, such as Anna Meares (silver medallist in
Beijing, 2008), require high intensity anaerobic training.

Changing duration of interval but keeping effort at 95-100% of max effort

will alter training effect.
For example:
- Up to 6 seconds: targets alactic power
- 6-25 seconds: improves alactic capacity
- 25-40 seconds: incorporates lactic power
- 40-60 seconds: improves lactic capacity.

Recovery rates will be influenced by the training status of the athlete

- Recovery rates of 2:6 are used to develop the anaerobic energy system. For
example, if the rep. is 15 seconds in duration, a recovery of 30-90 seconds is
needed.

Speed, acceleration, agility

Speed: training must be performed early in a training session, before an athlete

becomes fatigued
- Intensity of the repetitions should be maximal while the total volume is of the
sprints is kept to a minimum (aim for quality, not quantity)
- Repetitions will range from 20-60 metres at 95-100% intensity.
- Speed cannot be improved if athlete is only expending 75-80% max effort.
- Full recovery is recommended between repetitions (2-5 minutes)

Acceleration: (speed off the mark) is important in most team sports and needs to be
trained specifically.
- E.g. lie on stomach (headfirst) and sprint 15 metres, lie on back (feet first) and
sprint 10 metres, lie on stomach roll sideways and sprint 15 metres.

Agility: is the ability to rapidly change direction without the loss of speed or balance
(agility of lateral speed involves decelerating, adjusting stride pattern and body
position, and accelerating again).
 Power: A powerful athlete is able to apply a large degree of their maximal strength in
a short period of time.
 Formula is: force x distance / time
 No matter what training method you use to develop power, you rely on anaerobic
energy system.

Flexibility: ability to move a muscle through a complete range of motion

 Benefits of improved flexibility include:
o Less tension in muscles
o Increased relaxation
o Increased range of motion and greater ease of movement.
o Decreases DOMS
o Prevents injury

Static stretching: This is where the muscle is slowly taken to the end of its range
and held for a period of time. The stretch may be held for 10–30 seconds. (Bending
over and touching toes or shoulder stretch)

Dynamic stretching: Involves progressively faster and continuous movements

where the muscle is gradually worked to its full range of motion. (Squats, high knees,
leg swings)
Ballistic stretching: Involves a bouncing action at the end of the range of
movement. This type of stretch has the greatest risk of injury. (Bouncing down
repeatedly to touch your toes)

Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) stretching: Involves a

combination of contraction and relaxation of the agonist muscles and antagonist
muscles. Generally, a static stretch is followed by an isometric contraction for
approximately 10 seconds. The muscle is then relaxed and followed by a greater
stretch. (Lying on back with one leg in the air and a partner pushes)

Strength training (resistance training): Resistance training has a number of

health benefits, such as changes in body composition and fats, and increased
core strength to reduce lower back pain.

 Strength can be defined as the maximum force generated in a single muscular

contraction.
 Absolute strength is the load a person can lift on a bench press in one repetition.
 Relative strength, on the other hand, takes into account your body size. (If two
athletes can lift 120 kilograms on a bench press, but one weighs 90 kilograms and
the other weighs 80 kilograms, the 80-kilogram athlete has the higher relative
strength.)

Muscle  Refers to an increase in the size of muscle fibres and the connective
hypertrophy tissue between the fibres. It occurs as a result of strength or resistance
training, and enables the muscle to generate more power.

Power/speed  Power, or speed strength, is the ability to generate force quickly.

strength
Muscle  Muscle endurance, or strength endurance, can be defined as the ability of
endurance a muscle group to perform a number of repetitions at a submaximal load
over a longer period of time.

Weight training  Weight training, body weight exercises, band exercises and circuits can
be used to increase muscle endurance
PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING:
 What is the correct type and method of training to improve athlete performance?
 At what intensity does the athlete need to train to improve performance?

Warm up: Range of exercises to get body ready for competition. Move from low to
high intensity and general to sport specific. Increase heart rate, respiratory rate,
cardiac output etc.
- Increases temperature, improves joint mobility
 Application to Aerobic training:
o General warm up: running for 5-10 minutes
o Stretching – dynamic leg swings, static hamstrings and calf stretches.
o Get muscles working, reduce injury, reduce DOMS
o EXAMPLE: 10 minutes, increase heart rate to 70% MHR. Progress from
lower to higher intensities and general to sport specific movements
 Application to Resistance training:
o Stretch using foam rollers, some kind of cardio (light to get going, bike or
treadmill)
o EXAMPLE: 10 minutes, increase blood flow to muscle group being used
and prepare athlete for heavy lifting. Specific movements required.

Cool down: Opposite of warm up – involves movements that help speed up recovery.
Allows body to slowly adjust its systems back to resting state. Move from medium to
low intensity. Move from sport specific movements to general movements.
 Application to Aerobic training:
o EXAMPLE: 5-10 minutes. Progress from medium to lower intensities and
sport specific to general movements.
 Application to Resistance training:
o EXAMPLE: 5-10 minutes. Progress from medium to lower intensities.

Overload: Progressive increase of training workload as the athlete adapts to training.

Ensures intensity of training remains the same once adaptations have occurred.
 Application to Aerobic training:
o Workload increase is through increase in intensity or duration of training
o EXAMPLE: Soccer player trains at 80% MHR on a treadmill with 2 degree
incline at 16km/hr for 45 minutes, 4 times a week. As their body adapts,
they are now only training at 75% MHR. Change incline, speed and
duration to train at 80% again.
 Application to Resistance training:
o Workload increase is through increase in resistance, reps, or sets and
reduced rest periods.
o EXAMPLE: Rugby league player bench presses 100kg (12RM) – 3 sets
with 2 minutes rest. As their body adapts, they are now able to bench
press 100kg 16 times (making this their 16RM). What needs to change to
cause further training adaptions? – complete 5 sets instead of 3, weight to
120, the rest period to 1 minute.

Reversibility: When training stops, adaptions that were made are lost. The rate at
which these are lost is usually similar to that at which they were gained. Elite level
athletes tend to lose more than recreational athletes as they have greater adaptions.
 Application to Aerobic training:
o Effects seen approximately 4-6 weeks after training stops.
 o EXAMPLE: Avoided by maintaining 2 sessions of aerobic training per
week
 Application to Resistance training:
o Effects seen approximately 2 weeks after training stops.
o EXAMPLE: Avoided by maintaining 1 session of resistance training per
week at the same intensity of previous training

Specificity: Adaptions to training are specific to the training. Applies to: muscle
groups, speed of training, intensity of training, movements, energy systems.
Physiological adaptions occur in response to the stress placed on the body and only to
the sections that experience this.
 Application to Aerobic training:
o If you are a marathon runner, you need to do aerobic training involving
running.
o EXAMPLE: Must train in an environment and at a pace that replicates
competition to get the most specific gains and adaptions. Continuous
training in the outdoors reflects the sport of a marathon runner.
 Application to Resistance training:
o The specific muscle groups used in the sport must be trained. Training
needs to replicate the movements form the sport and be conducted at a
similar speed.
o EXAMPLE: Strength training for swimming would include lateral -pull
downs to replicate the pulling movement of swimming, at the most
efficient speed to increase strength at that speed.

Training Thresholds: The level of intensity needed to ensure a training adaption

occurs. Measured as % of MHR or V02max.
 Application to Aerobic training:
o The aerobic threshold – intensity needed to produce an adaption to
increase aerobic capacity – is normally between 65-75% MHR.
 Application to Resistance training:
o Anerobic threshold – normally between 80-85% MHR. Measured using
Repetition Maximum (RM).
o EXAMPLE: Significant strength and muscular hypertrophy when using 12-
15 RM lifts. Develops anaerobic systems – higher intensities target ATP,
lower (Lactic acid)

Variety: Ensures training sessions use multiple training types and methods, and
exercises within these methods.
- Prevents boredom, ensures complete and full development of fitness.
 Application to Aerobic training:
o Changes to training methods – fartlek, continuous, aerobic interval.
o EXAMPLE: Further variations with the training – 10km flat run on
treadmill, 10 km run outside, bike work.
 Application to Resistance training:
o Using free weights and fixed weights plus some elastic or hydraulic
training.
o EXAMPLE: When working on chest muscles, include incline, flat and
decline activities (ensures whole pectoral muscle is trained) use of
hydraulic machines to increase speed of movement.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ADAPTIONS IN RESPONSE TO TRAINING:

ADAPTION CONSEQUENCE
Resting Heart Rate Decreased resting and submaximal HR Heart works less – is more efficient.
RHR = number of contractions your
heart makes in 1 minute when at rest.
 Untrained RHR – 70BPM
 Elite athlete – less than 40BPM

Stroke Volume Increased at maximal exercise More blood available per beat.
The amount of blood ejected by the left following an endurance training
ventricle during a contraction. Is program.
measured in mL/beat.  Aerobic training = increased size
and wall thickness of left ventricle.

Increased at rest, and in submaximal

and maximal rest.
Cardiac output Increased maximal cardiac output More blood and oxygen delivered to
The amount of blood pumped from the muscles.
heart per minute. Determined by
multiplying HR and SV
Untrained = 15-20L/min
Trained = 25-30L/min
Endurance = 40-45l/min
Oxygen uptake Increased capillaries, myoglobin and More oxygen delivered. Muscles can
Best indicator of cardiorespiratory mitochondria. Increased enzyme extract more oxygen from the blood
endurance as it indicates the max amount activity. Increase as v02 improves. which is then available for ATP
of oxygen that muscles can absorb at that production.
level of work.
Measured in mL/kg of body
weight/minute.
Lung Capacity Increased maximal ventilation, Increase oxygen transport and removal
Lung volume at rest and during exercise increased lung size, working of C02 – waste product of aerobic
is increased by training. Improved lung aerobically (lungs can take on more air) system. More efficient oxygen supply.
function enables more efficient transfer
of oxygen and C02 between lungs and
blood.
Total volume of air inspired (breath in)
and expired (breathe out) is called tidal
volume.
Haemoglobin Increase as more oxygen is carried to More oxygen carried to working
Protein found in red blood cells that the working muscles muscles.
carries oxygen around the body.
Muscle Hypertrophy Increased size with resistance training Increased strength and power.
Refers to muscle becoming bigger and
increasing in size. As an immediate
response to training, the muscle fibres
increase in size as more fluid goes to the
muscle.
Effect on fast/slow twitch muscle fibres: Increased use of fats as an energy Less glycogen depletion; improves
Fast twitch: explosive movements – use source for muscles aerobic performance.
anaerobic system

Slow twitch: longer, slower contractions

– use aerobic system.

How can psychology affect performance:

MOTIVATION

Positive Motivation: the desire to succeed in a task that will make you feel happy,
content or satisfied. Positive reinforcement helps to maintain positive motivation

Negative motivation: the desire to succeed in a task to avoid unpleasant or

undesirable consequences – such as feeling sad, unworthy or a failure. Negative
motivation causes you to think about what you don’t want to happen
Intrinsic motivation: desire that comes from within. When intrinsically motivated,
athletes feel satisfied and content to continue an activity because they enjoy it.
o Intrinsic motivation encompasses an individual’s inward desire to know,
accomplish and experience

Extrinsic motivation: the desire to succeed in a task to gain an external reward

(trophy, money, praise, avoidance of punishment)
o The reward offers more satisfaction than the task itself
o Increase in salaries of professional athletes, there is a general concern that
money is now the driving motivational factor, rather than enjoyment of the
sport itself.

ANXIETY AND AROUSAL:

Anxiety: a negative emotional state that results from perceiving a situation as
threatening, uncontrollable and unavoidable.
o Brings feelings of nervousness, uneasiness, worry, fear or panic
o Two components to anxiety – mental (cognitive) and physical (somatic)

Trait anxiety: behavioural disposition to exhibit anxiety and perceive a wide range of
situations as threatening

State anxiety: temporary feeling of apprehension, tension or inadequacy related to a

specific point in time.

Sources of stress: financial concerns, getting time off work to compete, uncertainty
as to whether they will be selected for a team, competing in front of large crowds, lack
of preparation, expectations and expectations of others.

Arousal: the physical and mental activation or intensity exhibited at a specific point
in time. A highly aroused person is mentally alert.
Signs and symptoms of arousal:
- Profuse sweating
- Negative self-talk
- Butterflies
- Stomach-ache
- Dry mouth
- Headache
- Feeling sick
- Inability to concentrate
- Increased heart rate.

Optimal arousal: factors such as personality, self-expectations, skill level,

experience, and importance placed on the task will influence arousal levels and
determine the most appropriate pre-competition preparation for each athlete
o The inverted U theory proposes that sporting performance improves as arousal
levels increase but there is a threshold point.

PSYCHOLOGICAL STRATEGIES TO ENHANCE MOTIVATION AND MANAGE

ANXIETY

Psychological Strategies that can assist an athlete

Concentration/attention on skills Music: can help to calm an athlete before
(focusing): competition, and aid in concentration.
 Concentration is the ability to focus and
maintain attention on the appropriate cues Cues: can be verbal, visual or physical and have
for the duration of an event a specific meaning to the athlete – coach may
 Athletes must be capable of shutting out have a cue word or sign that reminds the athlete
distractions, concentrating on things that to focus on a particular aspect of play.
matter, and focusing solely on the ‘here and
now’ when performing Distraction training: deliberately introducing
 External distractions: the weather, noise in various types of distractions into training and
crowd, movement in peripheral vision, working hard to stay focused.
unwelcome comments (sledging) from
opponents. Positivity: athletes can look for advantages or
 Internal distractions: own thoughts – such positives in all situations to focus on what they
as worrying about the mistake you just made need to do next, rather than on a bad play or
– anger at a referee’s decision and missed opportunity.
overanalysing a performance
Goal-setting: often describes a road map – SMARTER: ATHLETES GOALS SHOULD HAVE
process that identifies a destination (long-term FOLLOWING CHARACTERISTICS:
goals) and how to get there (short-term)
Specific
Goals can be classified as either outcome or Measurable – establish criteria
process goals: Attainable
 Outcome – generally long-term, e.g. making Realistic
an Olympic team or winning national champ Time Bound
 Process – short term, e.g. reducing number Evaluate
of faults on first serve in tennis, or running a Recorded
personal best in the 100 metres.
Mental Rehearsal – techniques that involve Imagery has been used to improve:
creating mental ‘pictures’ of an upcoming event - Physical skills
or experience. - Perceptual skills (tactics, decision making)
 Allows the athlete to experience the event - Psychological skills (confidence, control,
before it happens commitment and concentration)
 Research indicates that mental rehearsal
enhances learning and performance
 Internal Imagery
 External imagery: watching a video of
yourself to see what you need to improve
Relaxation: Athletes susceptible to states of Progressive muscular relaxation: technique
over-arousal require strategies such as relaxation involves actively contracting specific muscles
techniques, to calm them and lower their arousal and then relaxing them. The athlete focuses on
levels. feeling tension and lack of tension within the
 Nervous system will then respond by lowering muscle.
breathing rate, heart rate and blood pressure.
 This allows the athlete to have more control Centred breathing: allows an athlete to clear
over their movement and greater focus. their mind, relax and focus on what they have to
do:
- Breathing evenly and deeply from the
abdomen
- Breathing in through the nose and out
through the mouth keeping shoulders relaxed
(shouldn’t rise and fall)
- Useful for closed-skill sports or events, such
as pole vault or the tennis serve.

Meditation and self-hypnosis

How can nutrition and recovery strategies affect performance?

NUTRITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS:

Energy Intake:
 A person’s energy expenditure will influence the number of kilojoules they need to
consume – elite athletes who train more than five hours a day require
more fuel than sedentary people.
 Research indicates that athletes should eat frequently throughout the day. This
helps to stabilise blood sugar levels, and to maintain lower levels of body
fat and higher muscle mass.

Role of the major nutrients:

Carbohydra Carbohydrates are stored as HOW MUCH IS NEEDED?
tes glycogen in the body  Athletes who train at least 20 hours a
(specifically in skeletal muscles week need 7 grams of
and liver). carbohydrate per kilogram of body
 Carbohydrates need to form weight, while a recreational athlete
the basis of each meal and training 3-5 hours per week needs
‘in-between’ snacks aim to 4-5 grams of carbohydrate per
‘top-up’ stores. kilogram of body weight.
Fats Fat is mobilised as an energy HOW MUCH IS NEEDED?
source when the activity is  Athletes need between 60-100 grams
aerobic based of fat. They are required to stick
 Your body requires two mainly to unsaturated fats found in
classes of fatty acids to fish, nuts and nut products like butters
function properly: omega-3 and oil, avocado, olives and olive oil.
and omega-6 fatty acids

Proteins Proteins are made of a HOW MUCH IS NEEDED?

combination of amino acids. This  Training commitments only lead to a
nutrient provides energy in small increase in protein requirements
extreme conditions. for most athletes (1 gram/kg of body
 These acids are critical for weight compared to 0.8 grams for a
growth and repair so many sedentary person).
athletes attempt to increase  Endurance or strength athletes in a
their intake to boost muscle heavy phase of training, and therefore
size and repair. need additional protein (1.4-1.7
g/kilogram of body weight) for muscle
growth and repair.

PRE-PERFORMANCE:
 Fuelling Up: major cause of fatigue and decline in performance is the depletion
of fuels (glycogen stores in the muscles)
 Aim: Maximize glycogen stores 24-48 hours before an event.
o Carbohydrate Loading: way to increase glycogen stores.
 Duration: Depends on the event length. For events under an hour,
increase glycogen 24-36 hours before. For events over 60 minutes, load
for 2-4 days.
 Intake: 7-12 grams of carbohydrates per kilogram of body mass and
reduce training (tapering) to ensure athlete does not expend as much
glycogen as they normally would in the days before competition.
 Example: 60 kg athlete needs 420-720 grams of carbs before the
event.
 Carb loading: making sure eating plan contains complex sources of
carbs such as brown rice, pasta, beans, whole grains and vegetables in
the week prior to competition
 Pre-Event Meal:
o Consume a high-carb meal (2.5 grams of carbs per kg body weight) 3
hours before the event can increase muscle glycogen concentration by
11-17%.
o Adjust for practicality; light meals like cereal bars, yoghurt, smoothies, or
sports drinks if closer to the event.
o Avoid high fat, fibre, and protein close to the event to prevent
gastrointestinal discomfort.

 Hydration: Before exercise athletes should drink 600-750ml on the day of

competition: 500ml in the morning and a further 250ml 20-30 minutes before
activity.

DURING PERFORMANCE:
An athlete’s fuel and fluid needs while competing will be affected by: duration and
intensity of activity, environmental conditions, athletes starting glycogen and
hydrogen status, athletes body size and metabolism

 Refuelling: consuming carbs during exercise enhances performance – spares

glycogen stores and prevents low blood sugar levels
o Athletes aim to consume 30-60 grams of carbs/hour during
performance, but this depends on their tolerance levels, needs and
opportunities within their sport (bananas, sports bars and carb gels).
o Use sports drinks with 6-8% carb and 10-25 millimoles/litre of sodium
can be effective during exercise.

 Rehydration: to effectively rehydrate during a sporting event or exercise, an

athlete should be aware of how much fluid they lose under various conditions.
o This can be monitored by calculating difference between pre and post
event body weights. This can be expressed as a percentage of body
weight
o Dehydration effects: increased heart rate and core temperature,
decreased blood volume (therefore dehydrated athletes will feel more
fatigues and are likely to slow down during competition.

A runner who would usually complete a 10km run in 35 minutes when in a hydrates
state would slow to almost 38 minutes when dehydrated by 4% body weight – 8%
decrease in performance
EFFECTS OF DEHYDRATION ON PHYSIOLOGICAL AND PERFORMANCE
VARIABLES:

Metabolic:
Aerobic capacity – MaxV02 (cardio): decrease
Intensity at which lactate threshold occurs: decrease

Performance:
Muscular endurance: decrease
Run time to exhaustion: decrease
Total work performed: decrease

During competition hydration:

 Athletes should drink – 200ml every 15-20 minutes
 Depending on length of game water and/or a sports drink would be beneficial.
POST-PERFORMANCE:
 Post performance nutrition is a major component of any athletes recovery routine
 The training or competition situation will influence the amount of refuelling,
rehydration and muscle tissue repair needed to boost adaptions and get their body
ready for the next event.

MAJOR AIMS:
- Refuel carbs within 30 minutes (High GI foods – 1 gram/kg of body weight) and
10-20 grams of protein within 30 mins of glycogen-depleting exercise (protein
shake, cereal, sandwich)
- Rehydrate fluids and electrolytes within 2-4 hours – consume 1.5 litres of
fluid for every 1 kg of body weight lost
- Repair: 10-20 grams protein to aid tissue repair
- Revitalise: boost immune system through proper nutrition.

SUPPLEMENTATION:

Definition: food supplements are products designed to give you nutrients that might
be missing from your diet, enhancing performance.
Ergogenic aid: enhances performance, boosts health and benefits sports
performance.

Why do people supplement?

- Medical reasons (lower cholesterol)
- Improve performance
- Improve energy production
- Age or gender-specific needs (puberty)
- Vegetarian/vegan diets.

Methods of supplementation:
 Permanent dietary changes by sports nutritionists
 Pills and powders

Negative consequences:
 Develop an over-reliance
 Possible side-effects
 Risk of overdosing on nutrients
 Waste of resources, time and unproven results
 Risk of inadvertent doping
Nutritional Doping:
 Supplementation is a possible source of doping
 Positive tests linked to supplements
 Unawareness is not a valid defence

VITAMINS: inorganic compounds essential to maintaining bodily functions such as

energy release, metabolic regulation and tissue building.
 Regular exercise can increase the need for vitamins and minerals
 Supplements typically unnecessary if diet is adequate.
 Vitamins assist the body to use energy nutrients, but do not contain or
provide energy themselves.

CASE FOR CASE AGAINST

Is only required when an athlete is:  Intake of excessive quantities is not
 Undergoing long-term weight loss necessary and potentially dangerous
 Travelling to countries with different food  Excessive amounts of Vitamin A and D
choices contribute to joint pain, headaches,
 Have pre-existing vitamin or mineral nausea, fatigue, and reduced appetite
deficiencies (not enough fuel for competition).
 Have heavy competition schedule that  SUPER-SUPPLEMENTATION does not
interferes with normal eating improve performance – taking loads day
before competition  must happen
gradually to work.

MINERALS: nutrients found in food as a compound rather than as a free element.

Important in regulating many body functions – calcium, iron, haemoglobin due to
common deficiencies.
 Crucial to cellular function such as muscle contraction, fluid balance and energy
requirements.
 Females more likely to be calcium or iron deficient.

Calcium: key mineral in healthy bones and teeth

 Quality of bone tissue is built up in our younger years and starts to gradually
deteriorate from our mid-20s
 A more rapid deterioration occurs later in life, which may result in osteoporosis.
 Key sources: dairy products, fish, green vegetables

CASE FOR (CALCIUM) CASE AGAINST

 Inadequate consumption can weaken  Supplementation is generally deemed
bones: risk of stress factures and inhibit unnecessary because diet can provide
proper muscle functioning for high impact adequate levels required.
sports.
 Under-consumption can lead to
osteoporosis.
 Calcium absorption diminishes with age.

Haemoglobin (iron): protein in our red blood cells that collects and transports
oxygen to where the body is in need.
 Low levels dramatically affect performance – muscles deprived of oxygen
 Can result in symptoms of fatigue and lack of energy.
 Iron is found in haemoglobin – important in maintaining peak performance.
 Sources: lean meat, green vegetables, grain
 Females and vegetarians at higher risk of anaemia.

CASE FOR (IRON) CASE AGAINST

 Help deliver oxygen to working muscles  Supplementation is generally deemed
and enhances adaption to endurance unnecessary because diet can provide
training adequate levels required.
 Lack of iron impairs aerobic capacity.
PROTEIN: essential for muscle building, repair and immune function
 Strength and endurance athletes need more than sedentary individuals.
 Supplements usually unnecessary if diet is adequate.
 Consume protein 30 mins prior and after exercise – protein shake used at gym

CASE FOR CASE AGAINST

 Endurance athletes in training require  Amino acid supplements to not increase
extra protein to cover a small proportion recovery, growth hormone release or fat
of energy costs of their training and to loss.
assist in the repair and recovery process.  Increases calcium excretion in urine and
 increases risk of osteoporosis
 Excessive protein can cause health issues
(osteoporosis, kidney problems)

CAFFEINE: substance occurring naturally in the leaves, nuts and seeds of plants. Main
sources are tea, coffee, chocolate, cola and energy drinks.
 Enhances endurance and provides small but worthwhile enhancement of
performance
 Enhances endurance by altering fatigue perception, cardiac muscle efforts and
adrenaline release
 Large doses can cause negative effects (over-arousal – inhibits good sleep patterns
and jeopardises recovery – increased heart rate)

CASE FOR CASE AGAINST

 Improves endurance by promoting far  Diuretic effect and can cause an athlete
utilisation as an exercise duel and to become dehydrated
“spares” use of limited muscle stores of  Impairment or alteration of fine motor
glycogen. control and technique, over-arousal
(interfere with recovery and sleep
patterns)
 Nausea, vomiting, restlessness, anxiety,
depression, tremors, difficulty sleeping.

CREATINE: natural nutrient found in our bodies and about 95% of it is in skeletal
muscles. Derived from amino acids
 Benefits in regenerating ATP, short sprints, weightlifting, resistance training.

CASE FOR CASE AGAINST

 Accelerates gains in muscle size and  May be more susceptible to cramps,
strength muscle spasms and pulled muscles
 5-8% uptake in anaerobic capacity, (disputed by some studies)
especially when performing repeated sets
of high-intensity exercise for 6-60
seconds.
 Enhances glycogen storage

MARATHON RUNNER
PRE  Maximise glycogen stores prior to endurance competition
 1-4 days of taper while following CHO diet

PRE-MEAL:
- 3-4 hours before – meal
- 1-2 – light snack
- 20-30 mins – eat/drink something easily digestible
DURING
POST

RECOVERY STRATEGIES

Define Aim Benefits Example

Physiologic Specifically targeting Cool down (Active- - Decrease blood Hydration: replace
al muscles that were recovery: involves low lactate fluid lost during
using during intensity recovery such - Decreased session – 500ml sports
strenuous exercise as jogging, walking, likelihood of drink and 2-3L of
 and quickening their stretching DOMS water over the next 24
recovery time - Improves heat hours
dissipation after - Dehydration can
exercise slow down/stop
recovery process
Neural Targets nerves and Help the CNS and CWT: increased CWT: alternate
improves blood flow peripheral nerves blood flow, lactate between 60 seconds in
on affected muscles recovery clearance, reducing cold water (10-15
to aid recovery post-  Hydrotherapy: swelling and pain degrees) and 60
comp. uses water to assist seconds in hot water
muscle recovery HWI: increased (38 degrees) for 307
blood flow, reduced cycles.
Contrast Water stiffness and muscle
Therapy: spasms HWI: soak in 38
Alternating 60 second degree water for up to
periods in cold and hot 15 minutes.
water for 307 cycles.
- Not recommended if
athlete has an
illness, open wound
or acute injury.

Hot water immersion:

Immersion in hot water
(spas)
Tissue Cryotherapy (cold Decrease pain and - Reduces core, Cold Water
Damage therapy), general use inflammation, muscle and skin Immersion: baths or
of low temperatures promote temperatures ice baths to submerge
to remove heat from vasoconstriction and - Reduced the athlete at least to
a body part prevent the build-up soreness and the waist. Applying
of waste products. welling cold water and ice are
- Increased commons strategies
perception of for acute soft tissue
recovery injuries.

Compression
garments: reduce
swelling and soreness,
increase venous return
and blood flow,
improve endurance
power and
temperature
regulation.
Psychologi Aids in emotional Relaxation - Decrease heart Debriefing, rest
cal recovery by reducing techniques: focus on rate days, sleep.
anxiety and calming the mind and - Decrease
increasing body respiration rate
motivation/concentra - Directing focus
tion away from
competition
- Rejuvenation of
whole body,
including mental
function

How does skill acquisition affect performance?

Stages of skill acquisition:
 Cognitive: what to do Associative: how to do it Autonomous: automatic
Early identification and Focuses on the idea of Autonomous stage revolves
understanding of the skill to practice – ‘Practice makes around executing a skill
be learned. perfect’. automatically without having
 Most activities during this  Practice improves skill to stop or think about what
stage will be in the mind: performance with clear, to do next and how.
watching, thinking, positive feedback  Skill execution becomes
analysing, reasoning,  Constructive criticism automatic and reflexive
judging and visualising. enhances performance  Perform sub-routines with
 Learning involves live and identifies areas for ease and minimal
demonstration, photos, improvement conscious effort
videos and  Errors decrease as  Capable of handling
written/spoken confidence and abilities outside influences
information grow (defenders, obstacles)
 Errors are huge and  Most learners will stray in  Minor technique
frequent this stage for a long adjustments occur.
period; some may not
progress further.

Characteristics of the learner:

Personality: Personality influences willingness to try new sports, persistence in
learning, suitability for individual or team sports, ability to handle pressure, and
openness to constructive criticism.

Hereditary: genetic characteristics inherited from parents that we cannot change. By

using the knowledge we have of our genetic make-up, we can better decide on the
sports or skills to pursue.
 For example: Body Types and shapes (Somatotype):
o Ectomorph: Tall, thin, lightly muscled (e.g., basketball, volleyball).
o Mesomorph: Hard, muscular (e.g., gymnastics, weightlifting).
o Endomorph: Soft, pear-shaped, underdeveloped muscles, excess body fat.
 Muscle Fibres:
o Slow twitch: Endurance sports (e.g., running, swimming, cycling).
o Fast twitch: High-intensity, short-duration sports (e.g., soccer, sprinting).

 Gender: Testosterone levels give males an advantage in strength and power.

 Visualisation: Genetic ability to visualise skills aids in effective learning.

Confidence:
 For any individual learning a new skill, having confidence in their own ability is
extremely important
 Some level of confidence will be internally generated, based on how a learner or
athlete sees themselves
 A significant amount of confidence will be built up or destroyed based on their level
of success in acquiring the new skill
 Mistakes are a part of leaning and that we all progress at different rates.

Prior experience:
 Transfer of learning – a skill learned I one situation has helped to learn a different
(but related) skill
o E.g. learning how to hit a ball with a cricket bat will be easier for someone
who has the skill of hitting a ball with a baseball bat.
 Influences sport through:
o Motor Patterns: Similar actions provide advantages.
o Tactics and Strategies: Familiarity aids performance.
o Skills: Transfer improves learning rate.
o Fitness Components: Existing fitness aids new skill acquisition.

Ability: natural talent or inherent traits make learning easier

 Natural talent or inherent traits make learning easier.
 Coordination and perception are examples of abilities that help in quickly
mastering new skills and moving through stages of skill acquisition effortlessly.

Learning Environment

Nature of the Skill: can be classified using 4 broad categories

Environment Precision of Distinctiveness of Control

stability movement beginning and end
points
Open and closed Gross and fine motor Discrete, serial and Self and externally
skills skills continuous skills paced skills

Open and closed skills:

Open: skills used in unpredictable environments where conditions are changing and
timing is external
- A football pass

Closed: skills that occur in a stable environment where athletes can move at their
own pace
- A basketball free throw

Gross and fine motor skills:

Gross: use the larger muscles as the primary basis of movement – walking, jumping,
running
Fine motor: require significant control over the small muscle groups – archery, gold
putting, darts.

Discrete, serial and continuous skills:

Discrete motor skills: can be categorised by having a distinct beginning and end
point
- Throwing a ball, handstand, hitting a ball

Serial motor skills: discrete skills put together in a series

- In a triple jump and penalty kick there are several discrete skills.

Continuous: have no distinct beginning and end point. This is where the performer or
some external force determines the beginning and end point of the skill.
- Swimming, cycling, running.

Self-paced and externally paced skills: timing of action

Self-paced: are those in which the performer controls when to take the action and at
what speed
- Hitting a golf ball
Externally-paced: are those in which another athlete, or the environment, has
control over the timing and speed of skill execution
- Rugby.

Performance Elements: refer to the decision making and strategic, tactical

development during a game situation. Focuses on how an athlete should respond in
the circumstances.
Decision Making Tactical/strategic development
Athletes need to determine how to assess Learning environment needs to reflect
factors that can influence the game such as playing environment if players will
strength, weaknesses and reading understand how to apply skills effectively in
opponents a game
 Coaches need to allow for these skills in Tactics: associated with game play and are
training sessions so players practice for similar in many sports
game situations  E.g. soccer, AFL and water polo 
o Stepping a set play by the opposition movement into space, leading towards
in rugby league. the ball, marking a player, moving into a
 Teaching good decision making: position to shoot
o Observation – use coaching boards  Individuals can learn tactics of one game
and demonstrations to show how and apply across a range of different
planned strategies will work. Players sports.
can observe other skilled performers.
o Questioning – highlight options and Strategies: plans of action a team can use
have players work through game-like to gain advantage in a game
situations  Good strategies have options (plan B)
o Variation – by changing defensive  Strategies need planning and practice to
aspects, players are encouraged to change according to opposition.
explore more innovative options
o Creativity – allow players to identity Achieve?
with each problematic situation and - Make athletes understand movement of
solve it as a group skill
- Increase practice for decision making
- Improve motivation and confidence
- Improve team coordination

Practice methods: refer to how an athletes learning of a skill is influence by the way
they practice that skill

TYPE DEFINITION WHEN USED EXAMPLE

Massed Occurs when a skill is Good for athletes Shooting baskets
practice practiced until learnt with with high fitness from free throw line
no breaks level, experience for 3 minutes
- Can result in poor and motivation,
performance due to fresh and rested
fatigue with limited time
Distributed Interspersed with rest Good for athletes BBALL session:
practice breaks with low fitness athletes may shoot
- More beneficial for skill levels, experience 5 consecutive trails,
development and motivation who take a 10 second
- Suited to learning fatigue faster rest, then repeat for
continuous skill 3 minute intervals
Whole practice Whole skill is practiced at Allows athlete to Layup in basketball
the same time, rather than implement skill into
being broken down into game situation –
components – excellent occurs during
form of practice where autonomous stage
athlete will develop
kinaesthetic sense
Whole practice Parts or subroutines of a Suitable for complex BBALL: catching,
skill are practiced skills, where dribbling, stepping,
individually breaking down will driving up, shooting,
- Many technical skills provide better catching.
can be broken down chance of success
into 3 sub-routines
- Prep (approach, activity
and follow through

Feedback:
TYPE DEFINITION WHEN USED EXAMPLE
Internal Comes from within the Self-evaluation of What the bat felt
athlete. Relates to performance degree and like after athlete
kinaesthetic sense and flaws by an athlete. hit the cricket
feelings during and after a ball
performance.
External Feedback received from Errors can easily be Crowd, video,
external sources. Evaluation identifies and fixed upon coach
from coach, mentor, crowd, receiving consistent
video replay. constructive feedback
Concurrent Received DURING Facilitates immediate Surfboard –
performance/action. Can improvement and better consistent
include intrinsic and results adjustment to
extrinsic feedback stay balanced
Delayed Feedback received AFTER Performance analysis can Feedback after
whole set of skills are provide plenty aspects to game loss.
performance – no scope for be improved in the future
immediate improvement as
feedback received after all
actions were implemented

Knowledge Feedback is obtained from Results provide insight Score given by

of result end outcome of event or onto what degree the judges
execution of a skill (success skills were executed and
or not) whether there are
windows for improvement
Knowledge Feedback obtained from the Can be both internal and Viewed by
of skills performed and not the external feedback athlete on video.
performance end result as a whole

Performance elements:

Assessment of skill and performance – characteristics of a skilled performer, objective

and subjective performance measures, validity and reliability of tests, personal
VERSUS prescribed judging criteria.