ROCK MECHANICS

Dr. A. Salama
asalama@udsm.ac.tz
Contents

 Introduction

 Rock properties

 Rock mass structure

 Rock mass classification

 Stress and strain

 Stresses in rocks

 Behaviour of rocks under different loads and rock strength and failure

 Rock mechanics considerations in design of rock structures

 Introduction to Rock Support and Reinforcement

 Topic 6
Stresses in Rocks
6.1 Introduction
Introduction

 Stresses in rock masses are a fundamental concern in the

designing of underground excavations in mining and civil
engineering projects.

 Only an assessment of stresses in the rock will allow the

application of rock strength determination and failure theories
to a rational design of excavations in the rocks.

 Stress found in the rock can be grouped according to the origin

into Natural stresses (Insitu) –those are stresses found in the
rock before excavation and Induced stresses which are the
results of stress change due to manmade excavations.
Natural/Insitu stresses

 These stresses comprise

i. Gravitational stresses
ii. Tectonic stresses

iii. Residual stresses

iv. Thermal stresses

Gravitational stresses

 Gravity stresses results from the weight of the column of rock per unit area
above a point in the earth’s crust.
 They are occur in two components, vertical and horizontal components.
Vertical stress, σv
 Consider an element of rock at a depth of 1,000 m below the surface. The
stress of the vertical column of rock resting on this element is the product of the
depth and the unit weight of the overlying rock mass (typically about 2.7
tonnes/m3 or 0.027 MN/m3 or 0.027MPa/m). Hence the vertical stress on the
element is 2,700 tonnes/m2 or 27 MPa.
 This stress is estimated from the simple relationship:
σv = γ z
where σv is the vertical stress
γ is the unit weight of the overlying rock and
z is the depth below surface.
Gravitational stresses

 Measurements of vertical stress at various mining and civil engineering

sites around the world confirm that this relationship is valid as
illustrated in Figure below;
Gravitational stresses

Horizontal stress, σh
 The horizontal stresses acting on an element of rock at a depth z below the surface
are much more difficult to estimate. Normally, the ratio of the average horizontal
stress to the vertical stress is denoted by the letter k such that:
σh = kσv = k γ z
 Terzaghi and Richarts (1952) suggested that, for a gravitationally loaded rock
mass in which no lateral strain was permitted during formation of the overlying
strata, the value of k is independent of depth and is given by k = ν /(1 − ν) , where
ν is the Poisson's ratio of the rock mass.
 Poisson’s ratio varies between 0.15 to 0.35 for most of the rocks with the common
value of 0.25. this defines the horizontal components as 1/3 of the vertical
component.
 Measurements of horizontal stresses at civil and mining sites around the world show
that the ratio k tends to be high at shallow depth and that it decreases at depth
(Brown and Hoek, 1980, Herget, 1988)
Horizontal stresses

100 1500
 0.3  k   0.5
Z Z
Note that the shaded vertical
column gives the range of
k-ratios from 0.33 to 1.00 that was
predicted from simple elasticity
theory
With increasing depth, the k-ratios
given by the envelope formulae
above tend towards 0.3 < k < 0.5.
Thus, for significant depths, one
could argue that the elasticity
model provides some indication of
the k-value
Tectonic stresses

 Tectonic stresses are the results of tectonic forces which cause movement of
tectonic plates.
 The theory states that Earth's outermost layer, the lithosphere, is broken into
7 large, rigid pieces called plates: the African, North American, South
American, Eurasian, Australian, Antarctic, and Pacific plates. Several minor
plates also exist, including the Arabian, Nazca, and Philippines plates.
 The plates are all moving in different directions and at different speeds
(from 2 cm to 10 cm per year--about the speed at which your fingernails
grow) in relationship to each other. The plates are moving around like cars
in a demolition derby, which means they sometimes crash together, pull
apart, or sideswipe each other. The place where the two plates meet is
called a plate boundary. Boundaries have different names depending on
how the two plates are moving in relationship to each other.
Tectonic stresses

 The driving force for the plates movements come from the mantle of
the earth which is due to the heat differences between the core of
the earth and the cooler crust.
 Tectonic stresses are very difficult to predict in regard to magnitude
and direction unless there are recent tectonic movement and seismic
activity. Horizontal stresses are often higher than the vertical stresses.
 Tectonic stresses can be active or remanent tectonic stresses
although it is difficult to distinguish between them in many areas.
 Remanent tectonic stresses are left-over stresses which were not fully
relieved by rock deformation.
Residual stresses

 Residual stresses are self-equlibrating stresses. Stresses are locked in

by the rock fabric and the outside of the rock sample are free of
stress.
 These stresses can be identified by strain recovery measurement on
samples of different sizes or by x-ray analysis.
Thermal stresses
 Thermal stresses are due to heating or cooling of rock. They occur
close to earth’s surface due to exposure to sun or as a results of the
heating of the interior of the earth by radioactivity or other
geological processes.
Induced stresses
 Are the results of excavation activity therefore are of great concern
in underground excavation design.
 Stress distribution in the back and walls of excavations are different
from those existing in the unmined rock because material have been
removed.
Rock stresses
Types of Stresses acting in the rock

 Tension: Stress acts _|_ to and away from a plane

 pulls the rock apart

 forms special fractures called joint

 may lead to increase in volume

Vertical cracks in the roof Broken and fractured ground

Tensile due to tensile stresses due to tensile stresses
Failure
Types of Stress in rocks

 Compression: stress acts _|_ to and toward a plane

 squeezes rocks

 may decrease volume

Compressive
Failure
Pillar spalling & slabbing Horizontal fractures in the
under high stress roof due to high stresses
Types of Stress in rocks

 Shear: acts parallel to a surface

 leads to change in shape

Shearing along pillar wall contacts Pillar outline

Shear due to high stresses after shearing
Failure Mined
Hangingwall out
Footwall

Original pillar
outline Pillar
6.2 Methods of in situ stress determination
Insitu Stress measurements

 The in situ state of stress in the earth's crust has been widely recognized as
a basic parameter necessary in the engineering design of underground
openings.
 Quantitative evaluation of horizontal in situ stresses in rock at a specific site
cannot be made since gravitational forces are practically the only one
clearly understood. Therefore, these horizontal stresses require direct
measurements in the field.
Why determine in situ stress?

1. To have a basic knowledge of the state of stress for

engineering design e.g.
 In what direction and with what magnitude is the major
principal stress acting?
 What stress effects are we defending ourselves and our
structures against?
 In what direction is the rock most likely to break? Even for
such basic and direct engineering questions, a knowledge
of the stress state is essential

2. To have a specific and 'formal' knowledge of the boundary

conditions for stress analyses conducted in the design phase
of rock engineering projects.
Methods of in situ stress determination

 The three direct methods recommended by the ISRM are

 Overcoring

 Flatjack test;

 Hydraulic fracturing test

 These stress determination methods are based on the elastic

behavior of the rock material and the majority of approaches for
analysis are based on isotropic deformation behavior.
6.3 Analysis of induced stresses
Induced stresses

 Pre-existing stresses + additional stresses transferred from the rock =

induced stresses
 Induced stresses are determined around openings
How to determine induced stresses

 Induced stresses are determined around the openings and can be

determined by the following methods;
1. Measurements- e.g. flatjack test, some rock support e.g. hydrabolts
Physical modeling
2. Modelling Analytical
Mathematical modeling
Numerical
 Physical modeling is a type of modeling in which the study of an object or
phenomenon is replaced by the experimental study of its model, which is of
the same physical nature. In rock mechanics physical modeling is expensive
and time consuming.
What is Numerical Modeling?

 A class of methods of solving mathematical problems by using simple

arithmetic operation such as +,-,x, and simple logic e.g. true or false.
 Example: x2 x4 x6
cos x  1     ...
2! 4! 6!
Advantages of numerical methods
a) Complex problems may be solved efficient
b) Suitable methods for computers
c) Minimal time consuming
Disadvantages of numerical methods
a) Results are approximate
b) Large no. of computations and hence a suitable computer required
Examples of numerical methods in rock mechanics

1. Finite Difference method (FDM)- FLAC, FLAC 3D(Fast Lagrangian Analysis

of continuum)

2. Finite Element Method (FEM)- Phase 2D, ABAQUS,ALGOR

3. Boundary Element Method (BEM)- MAP 3D, Examine 2D&3D

4. Discrete Element Method/Distinct Element Method- UDEC, 3DEC

 A boundary element program called EXAMINE2D is available as a free

download from www.rocscience.com.
Analytical solution/closed form solution

 Is one of the method used to determine stresses and displacements around

underground openings.
 They are of limited practical value. Suited for simplified geometry and material
properties e.g. circular openings and linearly elastic material.
 For circular excavations the complete solutions for stress and displacement
distributions around the opening were given by KIRSCH 1898 and they are
known as KIRSCH’S EQUATIONS.
 The Kirsch equations gives the radial stresses, tangential stresses and shear
stresses at any point in an infinite plate using polar coordinates. The
relationship between polar and rectangular coordinates are

x  r cos 
y  r sin 
Analytical solution/closed form solution

 Three principal stresses (axial, radial, tangential/hoop) and the shear stress

 The axial stress is caused by the pressure acting on the ends and additional
forces in the axial direction.
 The radial stress is caused by the internal and external pressures acting through
the wall.
 The tangential /hoop stress can be imagined as a band surrounding a barrel
As the barrel expands, the band stretches and undergoes stress.
The Kirsch equations

 Loading an infinite plate with circular hole of radius a with stress σ,

the resulting stress field is
 rr 
P
2
    
I  K  1  a r 2  I  K  1  4 a r 2  3 a r 4 COS 2
2 2 4

    
    I  K  1  a 2  I  K  1  3 a 4 COS 2
P
2
2

r
4

r

P
2
  2

r
4

r

 r  I  K  1  2 a 2  3 a 4 Sin 2 
Ur  
Pa 2
4G
  
I  K   I  K  21  2   a r 2 COS 2
2

U  
Pa 2
4G
  
I  K  2 I  2   a r 2 Sin 2
2


ur &u are Displacement induced by excavation

rr,  & r are the Total stress after generation of opening
The Kirsch equations

 If r = a, the stresses on the boundary are 𝜎𝜃𝜃 = 𝑃 1 + 𝐾 + 2 ∗

This means excavation boundary is

traction free

• If K < 1 the maximum and minimum

compression boundary stresses occur in
sidewall i.e.  = 0 and crown i.e.  = /2 of
the excavation respectively which are ;

 =0 = A= P (3-K)-at the walls

 = /2 = B= P (3K-1) at the roof &
floor
The Kirsch equations

 For the case where K=0

A = 3P
This means walls (Compression )and backs (Tension)
B = -P
 These values represent upper and lower limits for stress concentrations at
the boundary that is for any value K>0 the side wall stress is less than 3P
and the crown stresses is greater than -P.
 For the case where K=1(hydrostatic environment)

A = 2P the boundary stresses takes the valve 2P independent of

B = 2P the coordinate angle .
 The KIRSCH’S equations are simplified for a hydrostatic stress field;

rr = P( 1- a2/r2)
 = P (1+ a2/r2)
r = 0
Zone of influence of an Excavation

 The concept of the zone of influence defines a domain of significant

disturbance of the pre-mining stress field by an excavation.
 If the stress distribution around a circular excavation is a hydrostatic stress
field of magnitude P as given as
rr = P( 1- a2/r2)
equation indicates that the stress distribution is
 = P( 1+ a2/r2)
axisymmetric
r = 0
For r=5a, the state stress is not significantly
different within 5% from the field stress.
 Zone of influence of an Excavation

 If a second excavation was generated outside the surface described by

r=5a from the first excavation, the pre-mining stress field would not be
significantly different from the induced stress field.
 Similarly, If excavation I is outside the zone of influence of II, the boundary
stress around I are effectively those of an isolated opening.
 For circular excavations of the same radius ‘a’ in a hydrostatic stress field the
mechanical interaction between their centers is greater than six times the
radius (>6a).
 The zone of influence is related to its shape and the pre-mining stress. Other
issues to consider include state of stress of the medium containing a number
of excavations and interaction between different zone excavations.
 Topic 7
7.1Behaviour of rocks under different
loads and rock Strength and Failure
Introduction

 One of the major problems in designing underground openings is that of

estimating the strength and deformation properties of the in situ rock mass.
 Rock strength varies widely with sample size. The strength of an intact rock
(homogenous, isotropic, solid, continuous with no obvious structural defects) which
really exists only at the hand-specimen scale is much different with the strength of
the rockmass.
 Intact rock has both tensile and compressive strength, but the compressive to
tensile strength ratio is quite high.
 The strength of the rock mass is only a fraction of the strength of the intact
strength. The reason is that failure in the rock mass is a combination of both
intact rock strength and separation or sliding along discontinuities.
 Studies of rock strength and deformation behaviour under different rock loads
had lead to the formation of many rock failure criterions.
Types of experiments

 Uniaxial Compressive Test

 Point Load Test
 Shear Test
 Triaxial Test
 Tensile Test
Standard Test Procedures and Interpretation-UCS

 Suggested techniques for determining the uniaxial compressive strength and

deformability of rock material are given by the International Society for Rock
Mechanics Commission on Standardization of Laboratory and Field Tests (ISRM
Commission, 1979). The essential features of the recommended procedure are:
a) The test specimens should be right circular cylinders having a height to
diameter ratio of 2.5–3.0 and a diameter preferably of not less than NX
core size, approximately 54 mm. The specimen diameter should be at
least 10 times the size of the largest grain in the rock.
b) The ends of the specimen should be flat to within 0.02 mm and should not
depart from perpendicularity to the axis of the specimen by more than
0.001 rad or 0.05 mm in 50 mm.
c) The use of capping materials or end surface treatments other than
machining is not permitted.
d) Specimens should be stored, for no longer than 30 days, in such a way as to
preserve the natural water content, as far as possible, and tested in that
condition.
e) Load should be applied to the specimen at a constant stress rate of 0.5–1.0
MPa s−1.
f) Axial load and axial and radial or circumferential strains or deformations
should be recorded throughout each test.
g) There should be at least five replications of each test.
Uniaxial Compression Test

 Specimens from drill cores are prepared by considering ISRM Commission on

Standardization of Laboratory and Field Tests specifications.
 The specimen is placed between the plates of a hydraulic press. The axial
loading applied is increased at a constant speed until the failure or any other
prescribed level whereby the specimen is deformed and the axial and the
radial deformation is recorded.
Uniaxial Compression Test
The stress-strain or load-deformation responses of rock material in
uniaxial compression
Specimen inserted in the testing machine between
Tangent Young Modulus, Et generally 50%, of the peak strength The loading platens with deformation measurement
Average Young’s modulus Eav, more-or-less straight line portion equipment attached on the specimen.
Secant Young’s Modulus Es a straight line joining the origin
of the axial stress–strain curve to a point on the curve at some fixed
percentage of the peak strength
Behaviour of Isotropic Rock Material in uniaxial compression
 The observed behaviour or response of the rock during the test depend on
 Nature and composition of the rock
 Condition of the test specimen
 For similar mineralogy c will decrease with increasing:-
 porosity
 Degree of weathering
 Degree of micro fracturing
 Water content
 As a result, the compressive strength of samples of rock having the same
geological name would vary widely e.g. UCS of sandstone can vary with
 Grain size
 Density
 Nature and extent of cementing between grains
 Pressure and temperature the rock has been subjected to throughout
history.
Point-Load Index Test

• It is a quick and simple test to conduct based on the

application of axial load on rock specimens having a
cylindrical or irregular shape.
• Point load test may be used to provide an indirect
estimate of UCS.
• In this test, a piece of core 50-55mm (NX) diameter is
loaded between two hardness steel points.
• Is(50) = f. P/ De2, and f=(De/50)0.45
, where De is the equivalent diameter of the core, P is
the load at failure and f is the correction factor.
• For 50mm diameter sample , UCS  24Is
• Also Bieniawski 1975, suggested the following
approximate relation between UCS, Is and the
core diameter (D) thus UCS = (14+0.175D) Is. D is the
core diameter.
 Example-TUTORIAL QN 13

A core of 63mm diameter used in point load, and the gauge reading at
failure is 26KN (26,000N). Determine the Uniaxial Compressive strength.

Solution
Size Correction factor, f = (De/50)0.45 =(63/50)0.45 =1.1
Size correction factor, f = 1.1
Is50= 1.1x26000/(632)
Is50=7.27
UCS= 24x7.27
UCS= 174MPa
Triaxial Test

 In a conventional Triaxial compression test, a cylindrical core sample is

loaded axially to failure, at constant confining pressure.
 Conceptually, the peak value of the axial stress is taken as the confined
compressive strength of the sample.
 In addition to axial stress, axial and radial strains may be monitored during
this test, to determine basic elastic constants (Young’s Modulus, E, and
Poisson’s ratio, ν)
 This type of test is performed in laboratory to study behaviour of the rock
under different confining pressures. It shows the behaviour of the rock in
compression in the 3 directions.
 The specimen should be cored normal to significant discontinuities be
prepared by considering ISRM Commission on Standardization of
Laboratory and Field Tests specifications as for UCS.
 To carry out this type of test, a triaxial cell is used;
Triaxial Test

 The sample is installed between loading platens.

 A membrane (Rubber sealing sleeve) is mounted on the envelope surface of
the specimen in order to seal the specimen from the surrounding pressure
media.
 Deformation measurement equipment are mounded on the specimen and
the specimen is inserted into the pressure cell whereupon the cell is closed
and filled with oil.
 A hydrostatic pressure is applied in the first step.
 The specimen is then further loaded by increasing the axial load under
constant or increasing cell pressure up to failure or any other pre-defined
load level.
 Usually the confining pressure is provided by a simple hand operated
pump.
 The triaxial test results can be processed using a program called
ROCKDATA1developed by Shah (1992).
Triaxial Test

Triaxial Compression Test

Simple triaxial cell used for testing rock cores in

field laboratories
Triaxial Test

If the variation of the failure strength RR according to the confining pressure applied
Q is established, a linear relationship is found in the form:
RR = Rc + Kp.Q
Where RC is the uniaxial compression strength and KP is the confining coefficient
Shear Test

 All rock masses contain discontinuities such as bedding planes, joints,

shear zones and faults. At shallow depth, where stresses are low, failure
of the intact rock material is minimal and the behaviour of the rock mass
is controlled by sliding on the discontinuities.
 Shear test is a laboratory testing methods used to determine the shear
strength parameters of the rock which are cohesion C and the angle of
friction, of the rock.
 The rock sample is placed in a cubic shear box composed of a upper
and lower box. The limit between the two parts of the box is
approximately at the mid height of the sample.
 During the test, the sample is subjected to a constant normal stress and
the upper part of the sample is pulled laterally at a controlled strain
rate or until the sample fails.
 The applied lateral load (shearing force) and the induced strain are
recorded at given internals.
 These measurements are then used to plot the stress-strain curve of the
sample during the loading for the given normal stress.
 Then results of different tests for the same rock are presented in
a chart with peak stress on vertical axis and normal stress on the
horizontal axis. A linear curve fitting is often made on the test
result points. The intercept of this line with the vertical axis gives
the cohesion and its slope gives the peak friction angle.

Direct shear test

 Shearing for rough surface

Shearing for planar (smooth) surface

 Plotting the peak and residual shear strengths for different normal stresses
results in the two lines illustrated below.
 For planar discontinuity surfaces the experimental points will generally fall
along straight lines. The peak strength line has a slope of  and an intercept of
c on the shear strength axis. The residual strength line has a slope of r
 The relationship between the peak shear strength τp and the normal stress σn can
be represented by the Mohr-Coulomb equation:

 In the case of the residual strength, the cohesion c has dropped to zero and the
relationship between τr and σn can be represented by:
Tensile test

 The preparation of and performing tests for a direct evaluation of the tensile
strength of the rock is difficult and not widely used. Instead many index tests
such as the Brazilian test, three or four point bending tests, etc. are used.
 Brazilian Test (Splitting test) is a test for indirect measurement of tensile strength
of rocks. If a circular cylindrical specimen is compressed along its diameter,
failure occurs by an extension fracture in the loaded diametral plane.
 Sample should be circular disk with a thickness to diameter (t/D) ratio between
0.2 and 0.75, preferably approximately 0.5.
 End faces flat to within 0.25 mm, perpendicularity within 0.5°.
 The specimen is installed in testing machine such that specimen is well centered
and a constant steady loading rate is applied until failure.
 If the failure is a true splitting failure, i.e. a tension crack running between
the loading points, the splitting tensile strength is calculated from:

Brazilian or Indirect Tensile strength test

Rock Strength and Failure-Important Terminologies

 Fracture is the formation of planes of separation in the rock material. It

involves the breaking of bonds to form new surfaces.
 Strength, or peak strength, is the maximum stress, usually averaged
over a plane, that the rock can sustain under a given set of conditions.
 Brittle fracture is the process by which sudden loss of strength occurs
across a plane following little or no permanent (plastic) deformation.
 Ductile deformation occurs when the rock can sustain further permanent
deformation without losing load-carrying capacity.
 Yield occurs when there is a departure from elastic behaviour, i.e. when
some of the deformation becomes irrecoverable.
 Failure is often said to occur at the peak strength or be initiated at the
peak strength (Jaeger and Cook, 1979).
 Effective stress is defined, in general terms, as the stress which governs
the gross mechanical response of a porous material.
Stress-Strain relationship
Failure criterion

 Shear fracture is the dominant mode of failure for rocks .

 The compressive strength of rock is a function of the confining pressure. As the
confining pressure increases so does the strength.
 In order for rock deformation to take place the principal stress in one direction
(σ1) must exceed the other two principal stresses (σ2, and σ3) which are at right
angles to σ1. This difference between σ1 and, say, σ3 is called the differential
stress to which the sample is subjected.
 In the analysis of rock deformation σ3 is equivalent to the confining pressure.
 The variation of peak stress 1, peak (at which failure occurs) with the confining
pressure (for which 2 = 3 ) is referred to as the rock CRITERION OF FAILURE
1,p
 The simplest and the best known failure
criterion of failure is the Rock

MOHR-COULOMB (M-C) failure criterion 2= 3

cyl i nder

 It is the linear approximation of the

variation of peak stress 1, peak
with the confining pressure.
MOHR-COULOMB Criterion

 The M-C linear strength criterion was derived from the Triaxial laboratory tests, to
determine under what stress conditions will the rock mass failure occur.
 The tri-axial test results are plotted in the form of a Mohr diagram . The Mohr circle
is a very convenient way of plotting the principal stresses and the maximum shear
stress. The plot is therefore one of shear stress against normal stress.

Figure: Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion

MOHR-COULOMB Criterion

 It has been established that rock fails in compression by shearing along a

‘failure’ plane oriented at an angle  with respect to 1 that is specific for a
particular rock.
 The criterion is commonly written as:
where Ilcr is the shear strength,
 cr  Co   tan  σ is the normal stress.

 CO (cohesion) is the intercept

with the  axis of the linear
envelope, and  ('angle of friction')
 is the slope angle of the linear
envelope of failure.
A D
 
2    or   45 o 
2 2
CO  2
90o C
0  B 1p 
M-C Criterion in terms of principal stresses

 The Mohr-Coulomb criterion can also be given in terms of the principal

stresses. To do this we recall the following relationships:

1   3 1   3 1   3
  sin 2   cos 2
2 2 2
 Plug these relationships into the Mohr-Coulomb criterion:
 cr
 CO   tan 
and you get:

1   3  1   3 1   3 
sin 2  Co    cos 2  tan 
2  2 2 
M-C Criterion

 By separating all the terms containing 1 from the rest of the expression, and
recalling the above relationship between  and  (and also performing some
trigonometric manipulations), we finally obtain the Mohr-Coulomb criterion in
terms of the principal stresses only:

  2 
 1  2Co tan 45     3 tan  45  
 2  2

or:  
 1  C0   3 tan  45  
2

 2
 The orientation of the predicted shear failure plane is the angle 45+/2 is
equal to , where  is the angle between the direction of 1 and the
normal to the plane of failure
M-C Criterion

Question: What if the normal stress on the plane of failure is tensile?

This implies that there is no contact between the two created surfaces and
hence there is no frictional resistance. Thus, the Mohr-Coulomb (M-C) criterion
loses its validity.
Note, however, that 3 can be tensile as long as the normal stress  remains
compressive: Mohr-Coulomb criterion will still be valid. Remember that 2=3
can never be less than the tensile strength of the rock T, since T implies tensile
failure.
Note: Most materials have a greater strength in compression than in tension
 Topic 8
Rock mechanics considerations in design of rock
structures:
8.1Open Stope Design-Stability Graph Method
Stability Graph Method- Introduction

 Is an empirical method originally proposed by Golder Associates, Mathews,

Hoek, Wyllie and Stewart in 1980 for cablebolt design.

 It was calibrated for a small number of case histories in mines.

 Yves Potvin, 1988 recalibrated the method based on the analysis of more than
350 case histories collected from Canadian underground mines, accounts for the
key factors influencing open stope design.

 Information about the rock mass strength and structure, the stresses around the
opening and the size, shape and orientation of the opening is used to
determine whether the stope will be stable without support, stable with support,
or unstable even if supported.

 Widely used around the world.

Stability Graph Method
 The design procedure is based upon the calculation of two factors, N',
the modified stability number which represents the ability of the rock
mass to stand up under a given stress condition, and S, the shape factor
or hydraulic radius which accounts for the stope size and shape.
1. The stability number, N'

where Q' is the modified Q Tunneling Quality Index

A is the rock stress factor
B is the joint orientation adjustment factor
C is the gravity adjustment factor
2. The modified Tunnelling Quality Index, Q'
 Is calculated from the results of structural mapping of the rock mass in
exactly the same way as the standard NGI rock mass classification,
except that the stress reduction factor SRF is set to 1.00
 Also the system is not been applied in conditions with significant
groundwater, so the joint water reduction factor Jw is commonly 1.0.
Stability Graph Method

3. Rock stress factor, A

 It reflects the stresses acting on the free surfaces of open stopes at depth.
 This factor is determined from the unconfined compressive strength of the intact
rock and the stress acting parallel to the exposed face of the stope(max.
tangential stress) under consideration.
 The intact rock strength can be determined from laboratory testing of the rock
and the induced compressive stress is found from numerical modelling.
 The rock stress factor, A, is then determined from σc/σ1, the ratio of the intact
rock strength to the induced compressive stress on the opening boundary:
Stability Graph Method

Rock stress factor A for different values of σc/σ1

4. The joint orientation adjustment factor, B
 It accounts for the influence of joints on the stability of the stope faces.
 Most cases of structurally controlled failure occur along critical joints which form
a shallow angle with the free surface. The shallower the angle between the
discontinuity and the surface, the easier it is for the bridge of intact rock.
 When the angle  approaches zero, a slight strength increase occurs since the
jointed rock blocks act as a beam.
 The true angle between the two planes (stope face or wall plane and joint
plane) is not immediately given by the relatively dips and strikes of the planes
because measurements of dips and strike are made relative to global system
coordinates. It has to be calculated.
5. The gravity adjustment factor, C
 Is an adjustment for the effects of gravity. Failure can occur from the roof by
gravity induced falls or, from the stope walls, by slabbing or sliding.
 Potvin (1988) suggested that both gravity induced failure and slabbing failure
depend on the inclination of the stope surface, α
 The factor C for these cases can be calculated from the relationship,

 This factor has a maximum value of 8 for vertical walls and a minimum value of
2 for horizontal stope backs.
 Sliding failure will depend on the inclination β of the critical joint.
6. The shape factor, S
 The hydraulic radius, or shape factor, for the stope surface under consideration,
is calculated as follows:
 Using the values of N', the stability number, and S, the hydraulic radius,
the stability of the stope can be estimated from the figure below;

Stability graph showing zones of stable ground, caving ground and ground requiring support. After
Potvin (1988), modified by Nickson (1992).
Example: TUTORIAL QN 10

The planning engineer wants a 20m high, 30m long in an 9 metre wide orebody.
The orebody dips at 65 degrees. There are three joint sets in the area:
a. an orebody parallel bedding, the bedding is smooth and planar, but has no
infilling.
b. a subvertical joint set, strike East West with a 90 degree dip, the joint set is
smooth and undulating, but has no infilling.
c. a flat dipping joint set, striking East West, but dipping 15 degrees to the
south. The joint set is rough and planar, but has a very strong chloritic coating.
In the ore all three joint sets are present, and the RQD has been measured at
90%. In the hanging wall, the sub vertical joint is only measured randomly, and the
measured RQD is 75%. The strength of the ore and the HW material is 138 MPa.
Numerical modelling says the stress in the HW is 10 MPa, 70 MPa in the stope
back, and 50 MPa at the stope ends. Will the stope be stable? Can we triple lift
the stope, ie 60 metres high?
Important first consideration. Each surface of the excavation must be
analysed separately. Some of the data is relevent only to the hanging
wall, stope back, and stope ends.
Stope Hanging Wall
The joint likely to cause failure in the stope is
the subvertcal joint, so use the bedding
parameters for the stability analysis.
RQD = 75 Jn = 9 Jr = 1.0 Ja = 1.0
UCS / stress = 138 / 10 = 13.8
so Factor A = 1.0

The angle between stope and bedding is 0, so Factor B = 0.3

The inclination of the stope is 65 degrees, so Factor C = 5.5
Stability Number = N = (75/9) x (1.0/1.0) x 1.0 x 0.3 x 5.5 =20.6
Hydraulic Radius = Area / Perimeter = (30*22)/(2*(30+22)) =6.3

For the triple lift stope:

Hydraulic Radius = Area/Perimeter = (30*66)/(2*(30+66)) =10.3
Stability of a Stope

The HW plots
in the stable
zone. There
should be no
serious stability
problems with
the Hanging
Wall of the
stope.
Stope Back
The joint likely to cause failure
in the stope back is the flat joint set,
so use those joint parameters
for the stability analysis.
RQD = 90 Jn = 9 Jr = 1.5 Ja = 4.0
UCS / stress = 138 / 70 = 2.0 so Factor A = 0.1
The angle between stope and bedding is 15, so Factor
B = 0.2
The inclination of the stope is 0 degrees, so Factor C =
2.0
Stability Number = N = (90/9) x (1.5/4.0) x 0.1 x 0.2
x 2.0 = 0.15
Hydraulic Radius = Area / Perimeter =
(30*9)/(2*(30+9)) = 3.2
Stability of a Bench

The stability of the

bench back is
below the
transition zone.
It would likely not
be stable without
major stope
support, ie. the
9 metre wide back
will have to be
pattern cablebolted
Stope Ends
The joint likely to cause failure
in the stope ends is the subvertical
joint set, so use those joint
parameters for the stability analysis.
RQD = 90 Jn = 9 Jr = 2.0 Ja = 1.0
UCS / stress = 138 / 50 = 2.8
so Factor A = 0.18
The angle between stope and bedding is 0, so Factor B = 0.3
The inclination of the stope is 90 degrees, so Factor C = 8.0
Stability Number = N = (90/9) x (2.0/1.0) x 0.18 x 0.3 x 8.0 = 8.6

For a single lift,

Hydraulic Radius = Area / Perimeter = (20*9)/(2*(20+9)) = 3.1

For a triple lift,

Hydraulic Radius = Area / Perimeter = (60*9)/(2*(60+9)) = 3.9
Stability of a Bench

The stability of the

stope ends is
very good.
There will be
no problems
from the stope
ends.
Stability of a Stope

Stability of the Triple Lift Stope

Stope HW
Stability Number = 20.6 Hydraulic Radius = 10.3
Stope Back
Stability Number = 0.15 Hydraulic Radius = 3.2
This is no different than for a single lift, so the assessment is exactly the
same, the back will be unstable and will require cable bolting.
Stope Ends
Stability Number = 8.6 Hydraulic Radius = 3.9
The HW plots in near the bottom of the transition zone. Some
instability should be expected from data plotting here. There
is a good chance of getting dilution from a triple lift HW.
Good blasting practices and cable bolting will be critical for a low dilution
triple lift.
The triple lift stope ends plot well into the stable zone. There will be no
stability problems from triple lift stope ends.
 8.2 Slope Stability
Introduction

 Stability of slopes is an important engineering topic because of economic impact on

mining and civil enterprises. Failures may be costly in the extreme and have tragic
personal consequences.
 Steep slopes are favorable to the economics of surface mines, while low slope
angles favor stability.
 A slope is a vertical or inclined boundary surface between air and rock, or the body
of an earthwork such as a dam, cut, or fill.
 The term “slope failure” refers to any slope instability that affects its performance,
and man’s operation in a natural, geologic environment
 Slopes either occur naturally or are engineered by humans.
 Slopes may be classified in a number of ways, for example, as rock slopes or soil
slopes. While description of the two share fundamental features such as physical
laws, methods of analysis are generally different.
 Slopes may also be classified according to an expected mode of failure, say, by
translation or rotation.
Introduction

 In geotechnics, the topic “stability of slopes” or “slope stability” is dealt with

from the two engineering viewpoints, namely;
1. The design of man-made slopes of cuts and fills in advance of new rock
or earthwork construction, with prescribed safety requirements against
failure and
2. The study of the stability of the existing slopes of rocks and earthworks
slopes which are potentially unstable, slopes which have failed, or slopes
which have to be redesigned.
 Therefore a primary objective of slope stability analysis is estimation of a
factor of safety for the considered slope and slide mass.
A large slope failure on the south wall of Barrick, Goldstrike Mine (the largest gold mine
in the United States, Nevada) occurred On August 29, 2001
Factors Contributing to Slope Failure

a) The type of rock of which or in which the slope is made

b) The structure, stratification, and attitude of the rock formations(angle of dip
of rock strata, for example)
c) Presence of potential failure surface in rock(frequency of geological
discontinuities) and the steepness of its angle of dip towards the excavation;
d) The geometry of the cross-section of the slope (height, slope angle, berms,
for example);
e) Magnitude of externally applied loads on the rock slope structures;
f) Unit weight of the rock slope material (gravity is one of the principal causes
of all rock slides);
g) Position of ground water table
h) Vibrations from blasting and seismic forces
i) The initial stress regime in a rockmass before excavation
j) Distribution of induced stresses in rock upon and after excavation
 Almost all rock-slope failures occurs along pre-existing, predetermined, natural
rock discontinuities or planes of weakness, such as a faults, joints, bedding
planes, fractures or shear zones.
 Slope failure may be classified according to the mode in which the applied
stress excess the strength of the rock. Translational sliding along joints is the
most common form of rock slope failure; slopes in soils tend to fail by rotation,
although in densely jointed rock masses rotational failure is certainly possible.
 Mine waste dumps, tailings dams, earthen embankments, road fills, storage
piles of broken rock, aggregate, and so forth, are soil-like in mechanical
behavior, are usually much weaker than rock slopes, and also tend to fail by
rotation.
 Significant failure modes which can occur in an open pit mine are
i. Plane failure
ii. Circular failure
iii. Wedge failure
iv. Toppling failure
 It is fundamental at the time of the stability study to understand the mechanisms
of these failure modes and the conditions of their occurrence in order to be
able to implement a dimensioning which avoids them.
 Also it is important to remember that the analysis of each failure mode is
different from one another.
Plane Failure

 This rupture occurs by slip along a major discontinuity (fault in particular)

or along a set of joint parallel with the slope and presenting an
unfavourable dips in the direction of the slope.
 It is one of the most dangerous failure modes especially when it occurs
along a principal fault. Significant volumes of rock can be moved in this
case.
General condition for plane failure are;
i. The plane of which sliding occurs must strike parallel or nearly
parallel (within aprox. 20°) to the slope face.
ii. The failure plane must “daylight” in the slope face. This means that
its dip must be smaller than the dip of the face , i.e ψf>ψp
iii. The dip of the failure plane must be greater than the angle of
friction of the plane i.e ψp >.
iv. Release surfaces which provide negligible resistance to sliding must
be present in the rock mass to define the lateral boundaries of the
slide.
Plane Failure
Circular failure

 This failure occurs in a homogeneous ground of low mechanical resistance (low

cohesion).
 The rockmass not presenting preferential directions of sliding, the failure is
done by shearing of the ground along a circular line.
 The grounds favourable for this failure mode are soils, filling materials, non
competent homogenous rocks and resistant rocks but whose level of fracture
confers them weak mechanical characteristics.
 When the stability conditions are not satisfied, very high volumes of rock can
be moved.
Wedge failure

 This failure occurs when the rockmass is cut by main jointing systems with several
orientations combined with the orientation of the slope, the joints form blocks
which are released by the free faces of the slope (benches, berms) and which
under the effect of the active forces fall down.
 This failure mode is less dangerous than the two precedents. It generally occurs
on a smaller scale (1 or 2 benches), but it can cause significant damage.
Toppling failure

 A steeply dipping fracture set strikes nearly parallel to the slope face and
forms “tall” slabs that peel away from the slope. This failure mode is much rare
than the 3 other modes.
 A progressive degradation of the benches could be observed and might lead
to the instability of the slope.
Toppling failure
Factor of safety, FOS

 Factor of Safety (FOS), in relation to a slope is the ratio of total force available to resist
sliding to the total force tending to induce sliding.
FS = Resisting force
Driving force

Resisting and driving forces plane slope failure.

FS = R
D
Slope Stability Analysis-Plane Failure

 Consider a block of weight W resting on a plane surface which is inclined at an

angle ψ to the horizontal. The block is acted upon by gravity only and hence
the weight W acts vertically downwards.

Driving force: Wsinψ

Resisting force: R
The Normal stress  of which
act across the potential sliding
surface is given by
 = WCosψ/A
Where A is Base area of the block.
Slope Stability Analysis

 Remember from the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion, shear strength of the plane
surfaces is defined by
τ  C  σtanφ
τA  CA  Wcostanφ  R

 The block will slide or be at the point of sliding (condition of limiting equilibrium
)when the disturbing forces acting down the plane equals the resisting forces.

Wsin  CA  Wcostanφ
 If the cohesion C = 0, then the condition of limiting equilibrium will be
simplified to ψ = 
 Therefore factor of simple for simple geometry can be given as
𝐶𝐴+𝑊𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜓𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜑
FS =
𝑊𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜓
Influence of water pressure on shear strength

 The influence of water pressure on shear strength can be demonstrated by a beer

can experiment.
 Cohesion C is assumed = 0 (for simplicity)the can and contents will slide down the
plank when ψ= 
 If the base of the can is punctured so that water can enter the gap betweens the
base and the plank, it will giving rise to water pressure ‘u’ or to an uplift force U=
u*A, where A is the base area of the can. The normal force WCosψ is now reduced
by this uplift force U and the resistance to sliding is now:
R= (WCosψ-U)Tan
The normal stress  acting across the failure surface is reduced to effective stress (-u)
by the water pressure, u, where u =γw*hw, then the uplift force will be equal to u*A ,
where A is the base area.
 =C+ (σ-u) Tan

=CA+ (WCosψ - γw*hw *A) Tan

 The relationship between shear strength and normal strength can now be
defined by;
 Therefore C and  for hard rocks are not altered by ‘u’, and for soft rock
example mudstone and shale both c and  can alter with changes in
moisture content.
Factor of safety will be
CA+ (WCosψ− γw∗hw ∗A) Tan
FS =
𝑊𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜓
Effect of water pressure in a tension crack

 Assume a block is resting on an inclined plane and that the block is split by a
tension crack filled with water. The pressure of the water in the tension crack
increases linearly with depth resulting into a total force V acting down the
inclined plane
 Water enters the sliding surface along the base of the tension crack and seeps
along the sliding surface results in an uplift force, U.
 The forces W(the weight of the sliding block), U(uplift force due to water
pressure in the sliding surface) and V( force due to water pressure in the
tension crack) all act through the centroid of the sliding block.
 The condition of limiting equilibrium will then be defined by;

WSinψ + V = CA+ (WCosψ - γw*hw *A) Tan

 This shows that the disturbing force tending to induce sliding down the plane
is increased and the frictional forces resisting sliding are decreased and
hence both U&V result in decrease of the stability.
Reinforcement to prevent sliding

 One of the most effective means of stabilizing blocks likely to slide down an
inclined discontinuity is to install tensioned rock bolts or cables.
 Consider a block resting on an inclined plane and acted upon by the uplift
force ‘U’ and the force ‘V’ due to the water pressure in the tension cracks. A
rock bolt tensioned to a load T is installed at an angle  to the plane
Reinforcement to prevent sliding

 The resolved components of the bolt tension T acting parallel to the plane is
TCos, while that acting across the surface upon which the block rests is TSin
 The condition for limiting equilibrium for this case is defined by;
WSinψ + V - TCos = CA+ (WCosψ- γw*hw *A + TSin) Tan
 The equation shows that the bolt tension reduces the disturbing forces acting
down the plane and increases the normal forces and hence the frictional
resistance between the base of the block and plane.

FS= CA+ (WCosψ- γw*hw *A + TSin) Tan

WSinψ + V - TCos
Increasing factor of safety

 In any case, if an estimated safety factor is too low for the problem at hand, then
remedial measures are required. There are always two choices for improving a factor
of safety
(1) increase resistance or
(2) decrease driving forces
This can be done by
1. Reducing both U and V by drainage
2. Increasing T by installing rock bolts tensioned or cables
3. Changing the weight W of the block. Care must be taken since both the
disturbing and resisting forces are decreased by decreasing W
 What constitutes an adequate safety factor is often a matter of engineering
judgment, but may also be required by construction codes.
 An increase in a factor of safety, FS from 1 to 1.3 is adequate for mine slope which
are not required to remain stable for longer periods of time. The critical slope
adjacent to a haul road or important installation requires a high FS of up to 1.5
Example: TUTORIAL QN 14

 Consider a planar block slide without a tension crack and loaded by

gravity only. Slope face angle β is 45◦; slope height H is 180 m. A potential
failure surface is inclined 35◦ (α) from the horizontal. Cohesion c of the
failure surface is estimated to be 2.068MPa, while the friction angle φ is
estimated to be 30◦. Specific weight γ of the block is 24kN/m3. Determine
the slope safety factor FS when the water table is below the slope toe.
 Solution: Sketch and then draw a free body diagram of the slide mass
By definition
FS = R/D, R = forces resisting, D = forces driving,
R = N tan(φ) + C, N = normal force, C = cA, cohesive force,
N = W cos(α), A = Area, H/ sin(α),
W = γ V, V = ½*b*H2[cot(α)-cot(β)] , assume unit
thickness (b=1)
From the sketch
Base area of the block = 313.82
Volume of the sliding block = 6.936X103 m3
W = γ V = 166.5MN
N = 166.5cos(35◦) = 136.4MN
C = 2.068X 313.82= 648.98MN
D = W sin(α)= 166.5sin 35 = 95.5 MN

FS = N tan(φ) + C
D

FS = 136.4 tan(30◦) + 648.98 = 7.6

95.5
 Topic 9
 Introduction to Rock Support and Reinforcement
Terminology

 Support is the application of a reactive force to the surface of an excavation and

includes techniques and devices such as timber, fill, shotcrete, mesh and steel or concrete
sets or liners.
 Reinforcement is a means of conserving or improving the overall rock mass properties
from within the rock mass by techniques such as rock bolts, cable bolts and ground
anchors.
 Temporary support is that support or reinforcement installed to ensure safe working
conditions during mining.
 Permanent support is that support or reinforcement installed if the excavation is
required to remain open for an extended period of time.
 Active supports are those supports or reinforcement which imposes a predetermined
load to the rock surface at the time of installation.
 Passive supports are those supports or reinforcement which do not supply active thrust
against excavation faces at the moment of installation. Rock mass needs to deform
significantly before passive support systems start to carry load
Introduction

 Support for underground openings is a necessary requirement for;

 Ensuring the safety of personnel and equipments, and
 For preserving the original opening shape(s) in conditions as close as
possible to the design shape, to suit the engineering purposes of the
design.
• The main objective of rock /ground support is “to make the rock/ground
support itself”.
 Two general types of supports are
i. Passive Supports
ii. Active Supports
Passive Supports
 Resistance which is given by passive support is mobilized only after the rock
against which it is placed has been able to move sufficiently to compress or
tension the support, thus creating support resistance against the rock movement.
Introduction

 The degree of passive support resistance depends on stiffness (strength) of the support
and the degree of contact between support and the rock. This means that Passive
supports are Not ideal for:
 Weak ground
 Highly fractured ground
 Example of passive support includes
 timber sets,
 straps,
 mesh,
 backfilling systems
 concrete liner systems.
Narrow vein timber support
Active support

 Are those supports which immediately upon installation against a rock face exerting
restraint or loading forces against the rock.
 Example of active support includes
 Rock bolting (different types)

 Cable bolting

 Shotcreting

 Types of rockbolts are

I. Mechanically anchored rockbolts
II. Grouted anchored rockbolts
– Resin anchored rockbolt/rebar
– Cable bolts
III. Friction anchored rockbolts
– Split Set
– Swellex
Mechanically anchored rockbolts

 Mechanically anchored rock bolts use expansion shells on the end of the hole to connect
the bolt to the rock. The holes are drilled in advance, and the bolt with the expansion
shell is placed into the hole. Make the hole about 100 mm longer than the bolt. Once the
bolt is inserted, pull on it sharply so that it will expand and dig into the wall of the rock.
Dig the bolt deeper into the wall rock by turning the nut on the bolt. Also tensioning of
rockbolts is important to ensure that all of the components are in contact and that a
positive force is applied to the rock.
 This kind of bolt is best for moderately hard to hard rocks. They are not very effective in
closely jointed rocks and in soft rocks, because of deformation and failure of the rock in
contact with the wedge grips. In such rocks, the use of grouted anchored rockbolts are
recommended.
 Also grout can be used to prevent rockbolt failure by rusting or corrosion and to lock the
mechanical anchor in place, so that it cannot be disturbed by blasting vibrations and
rock mass displacement.
Mechanically anchored rockbolts
Grouted-Resin anchored rebar

 Resin anchored rockbolts, are sealed using a resin and a catalyst . A cartridge full of
the resin and catalyst in separate compartments is placed at the end of the hole, and the
bolt is stuck in the hole after it. The bolt is then "drilled" through the hole, puncturing the
cartridge and causing the resin and catalyst to mix by this spinning action. The resin is
then released into the hole, and it slowly hardens seal the bolt and keeps the bolt in
place. Settling of the resin occurs within a few minutes (depending upon the specifications
of the resin mix) and a very strong anchor is created.
 For 'permanent' applications such as bolting around shaft stations or crusher chambers,
consideration should be given to the use of fully resin rockbolts.
 This type of anchor will work in most rocks, including the weak shales and mudstones in
which expansion shell anchors are not suitable.
 Resin grouted rebar is considered a permanent ground support with a lifespan of 20–30
years.
Resin anchored rockbolts
Grouted-cable bolts

 Are used to bind large masses of rock in the hanging wall and around large
excavations.
 Cable bolts are much longer than standard rock bolts and rebar, usually between
10–25 metres long. Cable bolts are grouted with a cement grout.
 Cables can be grouted into holes by
– Breather tube method or
– Grout tube method
 For breather tube method the grout, usually having a water/cement ratio ≥ 0.4, is
injected into the bottom of the hole through a large diameter tube, typically 19 mm
diameter.
 The air is trapped through a smaller diameter tube which extends to the end of the
hole and which is taped onto the cablebolt.
 Both tubes and the cablebolt are sealed into the bottom of the hole by means of a
plug of cotton waste.
Grouted-cable bolts

 For grout tube method a large diameter grout injection tube extends to the end of
the hole and is taped onto the cablebolt.
 The cablebolt and tube are held in place in the hole by a wooden wedge inserted
into the hole collar. Note that care has to be taken to avoid compressing the grout
tube between the wedge and the cablebolt.
 Grout is injected to the top of the hole and is pumped down the hole until it appears
at the hole collar.
Friction anchored rockbolts-Split sets

 Are much easier to install than mechanical bolts or grouted bolts. Bolt lengths < 3 m
 For split-sets, the bolt is hammered into the drill hole, which has a smaller diameter
than the bolt. Pressure from the bolt on the wall holds the rock together. Split-sets
are particularly susceptible to corrosion and rust from water unless galvanized split-
sets are used.
Friction anchored rockbolts-Swellex

 Swellex is similar to Split-sets, except the bolt diameter is smaller than the hole
diameter. High pressure water is injected into the bolt to expand the bolt diameter
to hold the rock together. Like the split-sets swellex is poorly protected from
corrosion and rust.
 Swellex are expensive and temporary used as compared to split-sets.
Rock Support design

• Three major approaches to rock support design

 Empirical,
 Analytical and
 Numerical techniques

Rockbolting alternatives based on individual judgments

Shotcrete

 Broad term for a mixture of cement, sand, fine aggregate concrete which is
pneumatically sprayed and compacted at high velocity.
 First developed in Civil Engineering in early1900’s
 Widely used as specialist support in underground mining
 Two types of shotcrete are;
i. Dry Mix
ii. Wet Mix
Definitions
 Nozzleman – person operating the spray nozzle of the shotcrete pump
 Additives – chemicals and products added to shotcrete to enhance certain
material properties
 Blended aggregate – specific size fraction of aggregate to maximize strength
 Super-plasticizer – added to allow wetmix shotcrete to be able to sit for a
longer period of time prior to setting.
 Accelerator – added at the nozzle to increase adhesion, allows greater bond
and one pass thickness
Definitions

 Silica fume – fine silica dust added to increase shotcrete strength

 Rebound – shotcrete which does not adhere to the surface sprayed
 Transmixer – wetmix truck that agitates shotcrete to prevent it from setting
 Fibres – steel or synthetic (polypropylene) fibres added to shotcrete to increased tensile
strength
 Slickline – pipe to surface that wetmix shotcrete is brought down
Nozzleman
• Key component in proper application
• Primary factor in poor shotcrete is related to nozzleman
• Highly trained individual Dictates
How much water is added
Proper spray technique
Distance from nozzle to surface
Proper spray angle
Appropriate thickness
Dry Mix

 Dry product brought into the mine in bags

 Bag suspended over shotcrete pump
 Water added at shotcrete
nozzle
 Good for restricted space
applications
 Higher rebound between15-20%
 Less efficient for high quantity
placement
 Very dusty
 Fewer additives
 Can be issues in getting fibres
mixed properly
Wet Mix

 Product is mixed, usually on surface

 Shotcrete brought underground in Transmixer
 Slick lines are commonly used when no ramp access to surface is available
 Lower rebound between 10-15%
 More efficient for high quantity placement
 Less dust than dry mix
 More options for additives
Wet Mix Transmixer
Shotcrete-Mining Applications

 High stress conditions

Shotcrete-Mining Applications

 Corrosion resistance – mesh not applicable

Shotcrete-Mining Applications

 Groundfall rehabilitation
 Permanent infrastructure – areas in which rehabilitation using bolts and
mesh would be difficult or impossible (shaft areas, crushers)
Mine Fill-Materials and Concepts

 Use of Fill in Underground Mining

 Replace ore with fill to minimize deformation of ground
 Prevent failure of large excavations
 Provide a floor to work on
 Provide an engineered material to work under
 Provide long-term stability to the rockmass in a mine, preventing or limiting caving and
subsidence
 Disposal of mine tailings and waste – reduces environmental impact of mining
 Underground Metal Mining
 Most mines use backfill

 Major cost to the mining operation

 Major constraint to production

 One of the key components of the mining cycle

 Difficult to extract more than about 40% -50% of an orebody unless fill is used

**Remember Not all mines or mining methods require backfill**

Underground backfill systems

 These are
1. Rock fill,
2. Hydraulic-slurry fill, and
3. Paste fill
 The choice between these three types is site specific and will depend on the particular
requirements of each mining operation. The different backfill systems have different
capital and operating costs attached to them.
 A paste is a solids/water mixture that give out negligible water when deposited
 Basic material for paste are
 Mill tailings-waste rock remaining from crushing and Grinding , Separated from ore

 Aggregate – crushed waste rock from open pit/ underground operations or from
Quarried rocks
 Water, and

 Binder- cement or pozzolans , binder to hold tailings and aggregate together.

Paste Criteria

 Non-settling mixture of solids and

water
 Exhibits minimal water bleed
when left idle
 Possesses a yield stress
 Slump can be measured and is
meaningful
 Maximum slump of 250mm
 Has no critical flow velocity
 Pipeline transport generally ~1m/s

Slump measurement
Support design

 In relating the value of the index Q to the stability and support

requirements of underground excavations, Barton et al (1974) defined an
additional parameter which they called the Equivalent Dimension, De, of the
excavation
 This dimension is obtained by dividing the span, diameter or wall height of
the excavation by a quantity called the Excavation Support Ratio, ESR

 The value of ESR is related to the intended use of the excavation and to the
degree of security which is demanded of the support system installed to
maintain the stability of the excavation can be obtained using the following
standard tables
Example: tutorial QN 16
 A 15 m span crusher chamber for an underground mine is to
be excavated in a norite (with a unit weight of 27KN/m3) at
a depth of 2,100 m below surface. The rock mass contains
two sets of joints controlling stability. These joints are
undulating, rough and unweathered with very minor surface
staining. RQD values range from 85% to 95% and
laboratory tests on core samples of intact rock give an
average uniaxial compressive strength of 170 MPa. The
principal stress directions are approximately vertical and
horizontal and the magnitude of the horizontal principal
stress is approximately 1.5 times that of the vertical
principal stress. The rock mass is locally damp but there is no
evidence of flowing water. Find the Q system and use it to
describe the rock mass. Suggest the support requirement
Solution
 From solution, Q=4.5
 (Remember 1???? We skipped on how to obtain this value.
Unit weight =0.027MN/m3, height 2100m, vertical stress will be
0.027*2100=56.7MPa,
horizontal stress = 1.5 *vertical stress
=1.5*56.7=85MPa
 Crusher is permanent opening, ESR=1.6
 Then the span/ESR =15/1.6 =9.4
 When reading the value (9,4 by 4.5) we see that the crusher fall in region
4, which requires a pattern of rockbolts (spaced at 2.3 m) and 40 to 50
mm of unreinforced shotcrete
Thank you!