Chap 1: Signals & Systems

Part 1: Basic Concepts

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 Signal?

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 Signal Processing for AI

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 Signal Processing for SoC

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 Signal and System

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 What is a Signal?
• A signal is a pattern of variation of some form
• Signals are variables that carry information

Examples of signal include:

Electrical signals
– Voltages and currents in a circuit
Acoustic signals
– Acoustic pressure (sound) over time
Mechanical signals
– Velocity of a car over time
Video signals
– Intensity level of a pixel (camera, video) over time

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 How is a Signal Represented?
Mathematically, signals are represented as a function of
one or more independent variables
For instance, a black & white video signal intensity is
dependent on x, y coordinates and time t f(x,y,t)
On this course, we shall be exclusively concerned with
signals that are a function of a single variable: time

f(t)

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 Example: Signals in an Electrical Circuit
R vs (t ) − vc (t )
i (t ) =
R
dv (t )
+ i i (t ) = C c
vs - C vc dt
dvc (t ) 1 1
+ vc (t ) = vs (t )
dt RC RC
The signals vc and vs are patterns of variation over time

• Step (signal) vs at t=1

vs, vc

• RC = 1
• First order (exponential)
response for vc

t
Note, we could also have considered the voltage across the resistor or
the current as signals
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 Continuous & Discrete-Time Signals
Continuous-Time Signals
Most signals in the real world are
continuous time, as the scale is x(t)
infinitesimally fine.
E.g., voltage, velocity,
Denote by x(t), where the time interval
may be bounded (finite) or infinite t
Discrete-Time Signals
Some real world and many digital
signals are discrete time, as they
are sampled
E.g., pixels, daily stock price (anything x[n]
that a digital computer processes)
Denote by x[n], where n is an integer
value that varies discretely
Sampled continuous signal n
x[n] =x(nk) – k is sample time

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 Signal Properties
On this course, we shall be particularly interested in signals with
certain properties:
Periodic signals: a signal is periodic if it repeats itself after a fixed
period T, i.e. x(t) = x(t+T) for all t. A sin(t) signal is periodic.
Even and odd signals: a signal is even if x(-t) = x(t) (i.e. it can be
reflected in the axis at zero). A signal is odd if x(-t) = -x(t).
Examples are cos(t) and sin(t) signals, respectively.
Exponential and sinusoidal signals: a signal is (real) exponential if it
can be represented as x(t) = Ceat. A signal is (complex) exponential
if it can be represented in the same form but C and a are complex
numbers.
Step and pulse signals: A pulse signal is one which is nearly
completely zero, apart from a short spike, (t). A step signal is zero
up to a certain time, and then a constant value after that time, u(t).

These properties define a large class of tractable, useful signals and

will be further considered in the coming lectures

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 What is a System?
• Systems process input signals to produce output
signals

Examples:
– A circuit involving a capacitor can be viewed as a
system that transforms the source voltage (signal) to
the voltage (signal) across the capacitor
– A mp3 player takes the signal on the player and
transforms it into a signal sent to the loud speaker
– A communication system is generally composed of
three sub-systems, the transmitter, the channel and the
receiver. The channel typically attenuates and adds
noise to the transmitted signal which must be
processed by the receiver
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 How is a System Represented?
A system takes a signal as an input and transforms it
into another signal

Input signal Output signal

System
x(t) y(t)

In a very broad sense, a system can be represented as

the ratio of the output signal over the input signal

That way, when we “multiply” the system by the input

signal, we get the output signal
This concept will be firmed up in the coming weeks

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 System’s Properties
On this course, we shall be particularly interested in
signals with certain properties:
• Causal: a system is causal if the output at a time, only
depends on input values up to that time.
• Linear: a system is linear if the output of the scaled
sum of two input signals is the equivalent scaled sum of
outputs
• Time-invariance: a system is time invariant if the
system’s output is the same, given the same input
signal, regardless of time.

These properties define a large class of tractable, useful

systems and will be further considered in the coming
lectures
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 How are Signal & Systems Related (1)?
How to design a system to process a signal in particular
ways?

Design a system to restore or enhance a particular signal

– Remove high frequency background communication noise
– Enhance noisy images from spacecraft

Assume a signal is represented as

x(t) = d(t) + n(t)
Design a system to remove the unknown “noise” component
n(t), so that y(t)  d(t)

x(t) = d(t) + n(t) System y(t)  d(t)

?
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 How are Signal & Systems Related (2)?
How to design a system to extract specific pieces of
information from signals
– Estimate the heart rate from an electrocardiogram
– Estimate economic indicators (bear, bull) from stock
market values

Assume a signal is represented as

x(t) = g(d(t))
Design a system to “invert” the transformation g(), so that
y(t) = d(t)

x(t) = g(d(t)) System y(t) = d(t) = g-1(x(t))

?

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 How are Signal & Systems Related (3)?
How to design a (dynamic) system to modify or control the
output of another (dynamic) system
– Control an aircraft’s altitude, velocity, heading by adjusting
throttle, rudder, ailerons
– Control the temperature of a building by adjusting the
heating/cooling energy flow.

Assume a signal is represented as

x(t) = g(d(t))
Design a system to “invert” the transformation g(), so that
y(t) = d(t)
x(t) dynamic y(t) = d(t)
system ?
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 Part 2: Signal’s Properties

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 “Electrical” Signal Energy & Power
It is often useful to characterise signals by measures such
as energy and power
For example, the instantaneous power of a resistor is:
1 2
p(t ) = v(t )i (t ) = v (t )
R
and the total energy expanded over the interval [t1, t2] is:
t2 t2 1
t1 = t1 R (t )dt
2
p (t ) dt v

and the average energy is:

1 t2 1 t2 1 2
t2 − t1 t1  p(t )dt = 
t2 − t1 t1 R
v (t )dt

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 Generic Signal Energy and Power
Total energy of a continuous signal x(t) over [t1, t2] is:
t2
E =  x(t ) dt
2
t1

where |.| denote the magnitude of the (complex) number.

Similarly for a discrete time signal x[n] over [n1, n2]:
E = n=n x[n]
n2 2

By dividing the quantities by (t2-t1) and (n2-n1+1), respectively,

gives the average power, P

Note that these are similar to the electrical analogies

(voltage), but they are different, both value and dimension.

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 Energy and Power over Infinite Time
For many signals, we’re interested in examining the power and energy
over an infinite time interval (-∞, ∞). These quantities are therefore
defined by: T 
E = limT →  x(t ) dt =  x(t ) dt
2 2
−T −

E = lim N → n =− N x[n] = n =− x[n]

N 2  2

If the sums or integrals do not converge, the energy of such a signal is

infinite 1 T
2T −T
2
P = limT → x(t ) dt
1

N 2
P = lim N → x[ n ]
2 N + 1 n=− N
Two important (sub)classes of signals
1. Finite total energy (and therefore zero average power)
2. Finite average power (and therefore infinite total energy)
Signal analysis over infinite time, all depends on the “tails” (limiting
behaviour)

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 Time Shift & Transformations
A central concept in signal analysis is the transformation of one
signal into another signal. Of particular interest are simple
transformations that involve a transformation of the time axis only.
A linear time shift signal transformation is given by:
y (t ) = x(at + b)
where b represents a signal offset from 0, and the parameter
represents a signal compression if |a|>1, stretching if 0<|a|<1 and
a reflection if a<0.

2t

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 Periodic Signals
An important class of signals is the class of periodic
signals. A periodic signal is a continuous time signal
x(t), that has the property 2
x(t ) = x(t + T )
where T>0, for all t.

Examples:
cos(t+2) = cos(t)
sin(t+2) = sin(t)
Are both periodic with period 2

NB for a signal to be periodic, the relationship must hold

for all t.

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 Odd and Even Signals
An even signal is identical to its time reversed signal, i.e. it
can be reflected in the origin and is equal to the original:
x(−t ) = x(t )
Examples:
x(t) = cos(t)
x(t) = c
An odd signal is identical to its negated, time reversed
signal, i.e. it is equal to the negative reflected signal
x(−t ) = − x(t )
Examples:
x(t) = sin(t)
x(t) = t
This is important because any signal can be expressed as
the sum of an odd signal and an even signal.
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 Exponential and Sinusoidal Signals
Exponential and sinusoidal signals are characteristic of real-world
signals and also from a basis (a building block) for other signals.
A generic complex exponential signal is of the form:
x(t ) = Ce at
where C and a are, in general, complex numbers. Let’s
investigate some special cases of this signal
Real exponential signals

Exponential growth Exponential decay

a0 a0
C 0 C 0

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 Periodic Complex Exponential &
Sinusoidal Signals
Consider when a is purely imaginary:
x(t ) = Ce j0t
By Euler’s relationship, this can be expressed cos()
as:
e j0t = cos 0t + j sin 0t
This is a periodic signals because:
e j0 (t +T ) = cos 0 (t + T ) + j sin 0 (t + T )
= cos 0t + j sin 0t = e j0t
when T=2/0
A closely related signal is the sinusoidal T0 = 2/0
signal: =
x(t ) = cos (0t +  ) 0 = 2f 0 T0 is the fundamental
We can always use: time period
(
A cos (0t +  ) = A e j (0t + ) ) 0 is the fundamental
frequency
A sin ( t +  ) = A(e
0
j (0t + )
)
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 Exponential & Sinusoidal Signal Properties
Periodic signals, in particular complex periodic
and sinusoidal signals, have infinite total
energy but finite average power.
Consider energy over one period:
T0 j 0 t 2
E period =  e dt
0
T0
=  1dt = T0
0
Therefore:
E = 
Average power:
1
Pperiod =
E period = 1
T0
Useful to consider harmonic signals

Terminology is consistent with its use in music,

where each frequency is an integer multiple of
a fundamental frequency

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 Discrete Unit Impulse and Step Signals
The discrete unit impulse signal is defined:
0 n  0
x[n] =  [n] = 
1 n = 0
Useful as a basis for analyzing other signals

The discrete unit step signal is defined:

0 n  0
x[n] = u[n] = 
1 n  0
Note that the unit impulse is the first
difference (derivative) of the step signal
 [n] = u[n] − u[n − 1]
Similarly, the unit step is the running sum
(integral) of the unit impulse.

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 Continuous Unit Impulse and Step Signals
The continuous unit impulse signal is
defined:
0 t  0
x(t ) =  (t ) = 
 t = 0
Note that it is discontinuous at t=0
The arrow is used to denote area, rather
than actual value
Again, useful for an infinite basis

The continuous unit step signal is defined:

t
x(t ) = u (t ) =   ( )d
−

0 t  0
x(t ) = u (t ) = 
1 t  0

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 Part 3: System’s Properties

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 Linear Systems
A system takes a signal as an input and transforms it into
another signal
Linear systems play a crucial role in most areas of science
– Closed form solutions often exist
– Theoretical analysis is considerably simplified
– Non-linear systems can often be regarded as linear, for
small perturbations, so-called linearization
For the remainder of the lecture/course we’re primarily going
to be considering Linear, Time Invariant systems (LTI) and
consider their properties
continuous
x(t) y(t)
time (CT)

discrete
x[n] y[n]
time (DT)
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 Examples of Simple Systems
To get some idea of typical systems (and their properties), consider
the electrical circuit example:
dvc (t ) 1 1
+ vc (t ) = vs (t )
dt RC RC
which is a first order, CT differential equation.
Examples of first order, DT difference equations:
y[n] = x[n] + 1.01y[n − 1]
where y is the monthly bank balance, and x is monthly net deposit
RC k
v[n] − v[n − 1] = f [ n]
RC + k RC + k
which represents a discretised version of the electrical circuit
Example of second order system includes:
d 2 y (t ) dy(t )
a 2
+b + cy(t ) = x(t )
dt dt
System described by order and parameters (a, b, c)
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 System Linearity
The most important property that a system
possesses is linearity.
It means allows any system response to be y
analysed as the sum of simpler responses
(convolution).
x
Simplistically, it can be imagined as a line.

Specifically, a linear system must satisfy the two properties:

1 Additive: the response to x1(t)+x2(t) is y1(t) + y2(t)
2 Scaling: the response to ax1(t) is ay1(t) where aC
Combined: ax1(t)+bx2(t)  ay1(t) + by2(t)
E.g. Linear y(t) = 3*x(t) why?
Non-linear y(t) = 3*x(t)+2, y(t) = 3*x2(t) why?
(equivalent definition for DT systems)

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 Bias and Zero Initial Conditions
Intuitively, a system such as:
y(t) = 3*x(t)+2
is regarded as being linear. However, it does not satisfy the
scaling condition.

There are several (similar) ways to transform it to an

equivalent linear system.
Perturbations around operating value x*, y*
 x (t ) = x(t ) − x* ,  y (t ) = y (t ) − y *
 y (t ) = 3 *  x (t )
Linear System Derivative
y (t ) = 3x(t )
Locally, these ideas can also be used to linearlize a non-
linear system in a small range.
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 Linearity and Superposition
Suppose an input signal x[n] is made of a linear sum of
other (basis/simpler) signals xk[n]:
x[n] = k ak xk [n] = a1 x1[n] + a2 x2 [n] + a3 x3[n] + 

then the (linear) system response is:

y[n] = k ak yk [n] = a1 y1[n] + a2 y2 [n] + a3 y3 [n] + 
The basic idea is that if we understand how simple signals
get affected by the system, we can work out how complex
signals are affected, by expanding them as a linear sum.
This is known as the superposition property which is true for
linear systems in both CT & DT.
Important for understanding convolution.

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 Definition of Time Invariance
A system is time invariant if its behaviour and characteristics are
fixed over time.
We would expect to get the same results from an input-output
experiment, if the same input signal was fed in at a different time
E.g. The following CT system is time-invariant
y (t ) = sin( x(t ))
because it is invariant to a time shift, i.e. x2(t) = x1(t-t0)
y2 (t ) = sin( x2 (t )) = sin( x1 (t − t0 )) = y1 ( x1 (t − t0 ))
E.g. The following DT system is time-varying
y[n] = nx[n]
Because the system parameter that multiplies the input signal is
time varying, this can be verified by substitution

x1[n] =  [n]  y1[n] = 0

x2 [n] =  [n − 1]  y2 [n] =  [n − 1]
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 System with and without Memory
A system is said to be memoryless if its output for each value of
the independent variable at a given time is dependent on the
output at only that same time (no system dynamics)
y[n] = (2 x[n] − x 2 [n]) 2
e.g. a resistor is a memoryless CT system where x(t) is current
and y(t) is the voltage
A DT system with memory is an accumulator (integrator)
y[n] = k =− x[k ]
n

and a delay
y[n] = x[n − 1]
Roughly speaking, a memory corresponds to a mechanism in the
system that retains information about input values other than
the current time.
y[n] = k = − x[k ] + x[n]
n −1

= y[n − 1] + x[n]
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 System Causality
A system is causal if the output at any time depends on values of
the output at only the present and past times. Referred to as
non-anticipative, as the system output does not anticipate
future values of the input.
If two input signals are the same up to some point t0/n0, then the
outputs from a causal system must be the same up to then.
E.g. The accumulator system is causal:
y[n] = k =− x[k ]
n

because y[n] only depends on x[n], x[n-1], …

E.g. The averaging/filtering system is non-causal
y[n] = 2 M1 +1 k =− M x[n − k ]
M

because y[n] depends on x[n+1], x[n+2], …

Most physical systems are causal.

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 System Stability
Informally, a stable system is one in which small input signals lead
to responses that do not diverge.
If an input signal is bounded, then the output signal must also be
bounded, if the system is stable
x : x  U → y  V
To show a system is stable we have to do it for all input signals.
To show instability, we just have to find one counterexample.
E.g. Consider the DT system of the bank account
y[n] = x[n] + 1.01y[n − 1]
when x[n] = [n], y[0] = 0
This grows without bound, due to 1.01 multiplier. This system is
unstable.
E.g. Consider the CT electrical circuit, is stable if RC>0, because it
dissipates energy. dvc (t ) 1 1
+ vc (t ) = vs (t )
dt RC RC
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 Invertible and Inverse Systems
A system is said to be invertible if distinct inputs lead to distinct
outputs (similar to matrix invertibility).
If a system is invertible, an inverse system exists which, when
cascaded with the original system, yields an output equal to
the input of the first signal.
E.g. the CT system is invertible:
y(t) = 2x(t)
because w(t) = 0.5*y(t) recovers the original signal x(t).
E.g. the CT system is not-invertible.
y(t) = x2(t)
because distinct input signals lead to the same output signal.
Widely used as a design principle:
– Encryption, decryption
– System control, where the reference signal is input
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 System Structures
Systems are generally composed of components (sub-systems).
We can use our understanding of the components and their
interconnection to understand the operation and behaviour of
the overall system
x y
Series/cascade System 1 System 2

System 1
x y
Parallel +
System 2

Feedback x y
+ System 1

System 2
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 HW
Read Chap 2 in advance

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