CT 221: DIGITAL ELECTRONICS 1

Unit 1: Design of combinational logic circuits

Introduction
 Design of logic circuit is evaluated based on cost,
reliability, speed, power consumption and availability of
constituent components.
 It is very difficult to arrive at a design procedure which
optimizes all these factors.
 Components reduction is considered a higher priority
factor than the rest.
Introduction
 Minimization of combinational logic functions is a major
part in the design of digital systems.
 When minimizing combinational we have to consider
minimum number of gates, inputs and gate packages.
 Minimization can be performed using Boolean algebra,
Karnaugh map and Quine-McCluskey procedure which
provide systematic methods for simplifying switching
functions.
Terminologies

Terminologies

Terminologies
Implicants and prime implicants
 If an implicant of the function does not subsumes any
other implicants with fewer literals than itself is called a
prime implicant.
 A prime implicant is a product term which cannot be
further simplified by combination with other terms.
Terminologies
 Examine the following table 

0 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 1
2 0 1 0 0
3 0 1 1 0
4 1 0 0 1
5 1 0 1 1
6 1 1 0 1
7 1 1 1 1
Karnaugh Maps
 Also known as K-map, provides a systematic
method for simplification and manipulation of a
Boolean expression
 The map is a diagram consisting of squares.
 Karnaugh maps contain exactly the same
information as truth tables
Karnaugh Maps

Karnaugh Maps
Two Variable K-Maps
 A two variable map has 4 squares
b
0 1
Cell no a b
0 0 0 0
a
1 0 1
1
2 1 0
3 1 1
Karnaugh Maps


b
Cell a b 0 1
no. 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 1
a
1 0 1 1 1 0
2 1 0 1 1 2 3
3 1 1 0
Karnaugh Maps
Three variable K-Maps
 A three variable map relates to a function of three
variables.
 The map consists of eight cells or squares.
 The variable are arranged according to the sequence
similar to the Gray code
◦ i.e. between two consecutive rows or columns, only one single
variable changes its logic value from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 0.
Karnaugh Maps
Three variable K-Maps
bc
00 01 11 10
Cell a b c 0
no a
0 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 1
2 0 1 0
3 0 1 1
4 1 0 0
5 1 0 1
6 1 1 0
7 1 1 1
Karnaugh Maps
Four variable K-Maps
 A four variable map relates to a function of four
variables.
 Since, there are sixteen rows for four variables, the map
consists of are sixteen cells or squares.
 The numbers are entered in gray code, to force adjacent
cells to be different by only one variable.
 Karnaugh Maps
Four variable K-Maps
Karnaugh Maps
 Four variable K-Maps
bc
00 01 11 10
00

01
ab
11

10
 SOP Minimization
Mapping a standard SOP expression
Steps for mapping standard SOP expression
 Step1: determine the binary value of each
value of product term.
 Step 2: place 1 on K-map in a cell having same
value as the product term.
SOP Minimization


bc
00 01 11 10
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 3 2
a 1 1 1 0
1 4 5 7 6
SOP Minimization

SOP Minimization
Solution
000 100 110
001 101
010
011

bc
00 01 11 10
0 1 1 1 1

a
1 1 0 1
1
SOP Minimization

SOP Minimization
K- Map simplification of SOP expressions
 After grouping the following rules are applied to find
minimum SOP expression.
1. Each group of cell, creates one product term composed of all
variables that occurs in only one form. Variables occurs in
two forms are eliminated.
2. Determine the minimum product term for each group.
3. All minimum product terms are summed to form the
minimum SOP expression.
SOP Minimization


bc
00 01 11 10
Group 1
0 1 1 0
0 0 1 3 2
a
1 1 1 1
1 4 5 7 6
Group 2
SOP Minimization

 POS Minimization
Mapping a standard POS expression
Steps for mapping standard POS expression
 Step1: determine the binary value of each sum term which
evaluate to 0.
 Step 2: place 0 on K-map in a cell having same value as the
sum term.
POS Minimization


bc
00 01 11 10
00 0 0

01
ab
11 0 0

10 0
POS Minimization

POS Minimization
Solution
5-Variable K-map
 Boolean functions with five variables can be simplified by
using 32 cell K- map.
 A k-map for five variables (ABCDE) can be constructed by
using 4-variables maps.
 One map is for A=0 and the other is for A=1.
 Adjacent cells between the two 16 cells can visualized by
imagining A=0 map placed on top of A=1 map.
 Each cell in A=0 map is adjacent to the cell directly below it
in the A=1 map.
5-Variable K-map

Grouping of 1s in adjacent cells of a 5 variable map

5-Variable K-map

Don’t-care Combinations
 In certain digital systems, some input combinations never
occur during the process of a normal operation because
those input conditions are guaranteed never to occur.
 Such input combinations are called Don’t-Care
Combinations.
 The function output may be either 1 or 0 and these
functions are called incompletely specified functions.
 These input combinations can be plotted on the K- map for
further simplification of the function.
Don’t-care Combinations

 Don’t-care Combinations

 Things to note
 The grouping must be in the shape of a rectangle. There are
no diagonal adjacencies allowed.
 All cells in a rectangle must contain ones. No zeroes are
allowed.
 The number of cells in the grouping must equal a power of
two, i.e. only groups of 1, 2, 4, 8, or 16 are allowed.
 Outside edges of Karnaugh maps are considered adjacent, so
rectangles may wrap from left to right or from top to bottom.
 Cells may be contained in more than one rectangle, but every
rectangle must have at least one cell unique to it.
 Every rectangle must be as large as possible.
Tabular Method
 Introduction
 The Karnaugh map method is a very useful and convenient
tool for simplification of Boolean functions as long as the
number of variables are less than or equal to 6.
 But if the number of variables increases, the visualization and
selection of patterns of adjacent cells in the Karnaugh map
becomes complicated and difficult.
 The tabular method, also known as the Quine-McCluskey
method, overcomes this difficulty.
Quine- McCluskey method
Procedure for obtaining prime implicants
1. Represent each mean term in its 1 or 0 notation
2. Write down the mean term in increasing order of their index in one
column.
3. Draw a line after each set of minterms with the same index value.
4. Set i=0
5. Pick each term in index i and i+1 to see if they differ in exactly one
position. If yes write the single term which results from the
combination in 1,0 notation in a new column and place a  beside
the two terms that combined. If no proceed with other pairs until all
pairs with indices i and i+1 have been compared.
Quine- McCluskey method
Procedure for obtaining prime implicants
6. Set i=i+1; repeat step 5 until all the terms have been
covered.
7. Repeat step 4,5 and 6 on the new list to form another list.
8. Terminate the process when no new lists are formed
9. The prime implicants of the function are all those terms
without a  besides them. This algorithm is illustrated
with the following examples.
Quine- McCluskey method
.
No. minterm 1/0 Index
 notation
0 0000 0
2 0010 1
3 0011 2
4 0100 1
8 1000 1
10 1010 2
12 1100 2
13 1101 3
14 1110 3
Quine- McCluskey method
 Step 2: Write down the mean term in increasing order of
their index
 Step 3: Draw a line after each set of minterms with the
same index value.
a b c d
0 0 0 0 0 Index 0
2 0 0 1 0
4 0 1 0 0 Index 1
8 1 0 0 0
3 0 0 1 1
10 1 0 1 0 Index 2
12 1 1 0 0
13 1 1 0 1
14 1 1 1 0 Index 3
Quine-McCluskey method

Step 4: Set i=0 a b c d a b c d

Step 5: Pick each term 0 0 0 0 0  (0,2) 0 0 _ 0

2 0 0 1 0 
in index 0 and1 to see 4 0 1 0 0  (0,4) 0 _ 0 0
if they differ in one 8 1 0 0 0 
(0,8) _ 0 0 0
3 0 0 1 1
bit. If yes place a  10 1 0 1 0

beside the two terms 12

13
1 1
1 1
0
0
0
1
and place the new 14 1 1 1 0

single term in a new

NOTE: The – sign indicate the missing
list. variable.
Quine-McCluskey method
 Step 6: Set i=1; pick up each term with index 1 and 2 and repeat step 5

a b c d a b c d
0 0 0 0 0  (0,2) 0 0 _ 0
2 0 0 1 0 
(0,4) 0 _ 0 0
4 0 1 0 0 
8 1 0 0 0  (0,8) _ 0 0 0
3 0 0 1 1 
(2,3) 0 0 1 _
10 1 0 1 0 
(2,10) _ 0 1 0
12 1 1 0 0 
13 1 1 0 1 (4,12) _ 1 0 0
14 1 1 1 0
(8,10) 1 0 _ 0

(8,12) 1 _ 0 0
Quine-McCluskey method
 Set i=2; pick up each term with index 2
and 3 and repeat step 5
a b c d
a b c d (0,2) 0 0 _ 0 Index
0 0 0 0 0  (0,4) 0 _ 0 0 =0

2 0 0 1 0  (0,8) _ 0 0 0
4 0 1 0 0  (2,3) 0 0 1 _
8 1 0 0 0  (2,10) _ 0 1 0 Index
3 0 0 1 1  (4,12) _ 1 0 0 =1
10 1 0 1 0  (8,10) 1 0 _ 0
12 1 1 0 0  (8,12) 1 _ 0 0
13 1 1 0 1  (10,14) 1 _ 1 0 Index
14 1 1 1 0  (12,13) 1 1 0 _ =2

(12,14) 1 1 _ 0
Quine-McCluskey method

 Repeat step 4,5 and 6 on the new list to form another list.
a b c d a b c d a b c d
0 0 0 0 0  (0,2) 0 0 _ 0  (0,2) (8,10) _ 0 _ 0
2 0 0 1 0  (0,4) 0 _ 0 0 
(0,4) (8,12) _ _ 0 0
4 0 1 0 0  (0,8) _ 0 0 0 
8 1 0 0 0  (2,3) 0 0 1 _
3 0 0 1 1  (2,10) _ 0 1 0 
10 1 0 1 0  (4,12) _ 1 0 0 
12 1 1 0 0  (8,10) 1 0 _ 0 
13 1 1 0 1  (8,12) 1 _ 0 0 
14 1 1 1 0  (10,14) 1 _ 1 0
(12,13) 1 1 0 _
(12,14) 1 1 _ 0
Quine-McCluskey method
 Set i=1; pick up each term with index 1 and 2 in the
second list and repeat step 5
a b c d a b c d a b c d
0 0 0 0 0  (0,2) 0 0 _ 0  (0,2) (8,10) _ 0 _ 0
2 0 0 1 0  (0,4) 0 _ 0 0  i=0
(0,4) (8,12) _ _ 0 0
4 0 1 0 0  (0,8) _ 0 0 0 
8 1 0 0 0  (2,3) 0 0 1 _ (8,10) 1 _ _ 0
i=1
(12,14)
3 0 0 1 1  (2,10) _ 0 1 0 
10 1 0 1 0  (4,12) _ 1 0 0 
12 1 1 0 0  (8,10) 1 0 _ 0 
13 1 1 0 1  (8,12) 1 _ 0 0 
14 1 1 1 0  (10,14) 1 _ 1 0 
(12,13) 1 1 0 _
(12,14) 1 1 _ 0 
Quine-McCluskey method

Petrick’s method of determining irredundant
expression
 Not all prime implicants are always required to
form minimal expressions based on some cost
to be minimized.
 Petrick’s method is a generalized procedure to
find irredundant expressions from the prime
implicant table.
Petrick’s method of determining irredundant
expression

Petrick’s method of determining irredundant
expression

Petrick’s method of determining irredundant
expression

Petrick’s method of determining irredundant
expression

Tutorials
 All review questions chapter four of Digital Principles
and Logic Design by A. Saha and N. Manna