CHAPTER 2

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 I. SUBJECT & PREDICATE
Analyze the sentence as consisting of two parts:
[1] Ducks paddle.

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 I. SUBJECT & PREDICATE
Can you analyze this sentence?
[3] The ducks are paddling away.
N.B.
[3] is divisible into two constituents in exactly the same way, that the two
constituents are of the same general kind (or category) as the corresponding
constituents of [1]. Furthermore, they have exactly the same syntactic
functions as those in [1] – in other words, the relation between them is the
same.

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 I. SUBJECT & PREDICATE
Can you analyze this sentence?
[3] The ducks are paddling away.

 Ans:
[4] [ The ducks] + [are paddling away].

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 I. SUBJECT & PREDICATE
How about these two sentences?
[5] Those gigantic ducks were paddling away furiously.
[6] The mouth-watering duck on the table won’t be paddling away again.

 Ans:
[5] [ Those gigantic ducks] + [were paddling away furiously].
[6] [ The mouth-watering duck on the table] + [won’t be paddling away again].

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 I. SUBJECT & PREDICATE
General structure
[1-6] Same
Relation
Function

Different Lower level

(more detailed)

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 I. SUBJECT & PREDICATE
Sentences = two constituents = SUBJECT + PREDICATE

• to think of the subject as being used to

Subject mention something (e.g. the ducks)

• to say something about the subject (e.g.

Predicate that they were paddling away)

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 I. SUBJECT & PREDICATE
QUESTION TEST FOR SUBJECT:
Turn the sentence into a question that can be answered by ‘yes’ or ‘no’ (a yes/no
question). The phrase functioning as subject is the one that changes its position
when the sentence is so changed.
[3] The ducks are paddling away.
Question:

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 I. SUBJECT & PREDICATE
QUESTION TEST FOR SUBJECT:
Do the same for these two sentences:
[5] Those gigantic ducks were paddling away furiously.
[6] The mouth-watering duck on the table won’t be paddling away again.
Questions:
[8] Were [those gigantic ducks] paddling away furiously?
[9] Won’t [the mouth-watering duck on the table] be paddling away again?

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 I. SUBJECT & PREDICATE
QUESTION TEST FOR SUBJECT:
The question test is essential in cases like the following:
[10a] It is snowing again. [10b] There is nothing to eat.

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 I. SUBJECT & PREDICATE
Using this test, identify the subjects of the following sentences:
[12] Some nasty accident could have occurred.
[13] The clown in the make-up room doesn’t want to perform.
[14] Elizabeth and Leicester are rowing on the river.
[15] None of her attempts to give up chocolate were really serious.
[16] As a matter of fact, the man you paid to do it has been arrested.

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 I. SUBJECT & PREDICATE
Ans:
[12] [Some nasty accident] [could have occurred].
(Could some nasty accident have occurred?)
[13] [ The clown in the make-up room] [doesn’t want to perform].
(Doesn’t the clown in the make-up room want to perform?)
[14] [Elizabeth and Leicester] [are rowing on the river].
(Are Elizabeth and Leicester rowing on the river?)
[15] [None of her attempts to give up chocolate] [were really serious].
(Were none of her attempts to give up chocolate really serious?)
[16] As a matter of fact, [the man you paid to do it] [has been arrested].
(As a matter of fact, has the man you paid to do it been arrested?) 2/9/2023 63
 I. SUBJECT & PREDICATE
Using this test, identify the subjects of the following sentences:
[17] The clown refuses to perform.
[18] Elizabeth excels at Real Tennis.
[19] None of her attempts were really serious.
[20] My new duck lays lightly boiled eggs.
[21] Elizabeth and Leicester excel at Real Tennis.
[22] The chiropodist fell in love with most of his patients.

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 I. SUBJECT & PREDICATE
Ans:
[17] Does [the clown] refuse to perform?
[18] Does [Elizabeth] excel at Real Tennis?
[19] Were [none of her attempts] really serious?
[20] Does [my new duck] lay lightly boiled eggs?
[21] Do [Elizabeth and Leicester] excel at Real Tennis?
[22] Did [the chiropodist] fall in love with most of his patients?

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 II. NOUN PHRASE & VERB PHRASE
❖ What kinds – or categories – of phrases function as subjects and as
predicates?
e.g. [3] The ducks are paddling away.
 ‘The ducks’: Noun Phrase
 any phrase that can function as a subject is a Noun Phrase.
❖ NOT all Noun Phrases function as subject.
e.g. [32] The pianist has rejected the chiropodist.
 Is ‘the chiropodist’ subject of the sentence?

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 II. NOUN PHRASE & VERB PHRASE
Identify the phrases – as Noun Phrase, Verb Phrase, or ‘other’ – by combining them ( just
two at a time) and seeing which combinations make well-formed sentences of subject
(NP) + predicate (VP). Which ones are NPs? VPs?
(a) remind me of you
(b) as quickly as he could
(c) soggy chips
(d) pamphlets advertising new syntactic theories
(e) by the end of this week
(f ) suddenly rained from the sky
(g) are in demand.
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 II. NOUN PHRASE & VERB PHRASE
Ans:
1. (c) + (a) Soggy chips remind me of you.
2. (c) + (f ) Soggy chips suddenly rained from the sky.
3. (c) + (g) Soggy chips are in demand.
4. (d) + (a) Pamphlets advertising new syntactic theories remind me of you.
5. (d) + (f ) Pamphlets advertising new syntactic theories rained from the sky.
6. (d) + (g) Pamphlets advertising new syntactic theories are in demand.

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 II. NOUN PHRASE & VERB PHRASE
Phrase marker: [33] Those gigantic ducks were paddling away furiously.

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 II. NOUN PHRASE & VERB PHRASE
This definition of subject in terms of the phrase marker will confirm that
the chiropodist is not the subject of [32].

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 III. DEPENDENCY & FUNCTION
SOME TERMINOLOGY
o When two constituent nodes are immediately dominated by the same single node,
as is the case with B and C in [35], they are said to be sisters.
o Since B and C are sisters in [35], they are the daughters of A, the node that
immediately dominates them. And A is the mother of B and C.

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 1. HEAD
o HEAD OF A PHRASE = ELEMENT THE PHRASE IS CENTRED ON.
o HEAD: OBLIGATORY  CATEGORY of the HEAD of a phrase DETERMINES the
CATEGORY of the PHRASE.
e.g.
Solar system Noun Phrase
Verb Phrase

Sun Noun
Verb

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 2. THE MODIfiER~HEAD RELATION
Make a list of all the sister relationships in that phrase.

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 2. THE MODIFIER~HEAD RELATION
There are three sister relationships in [36]:
(1) between their and PHRASE-b (rather dubious jokes)
(2) between PHRASE-c (rather dubious) and jokes
(3) between rather and dubious

 The relation that holds between these sister constituents is of the

same general kind, that of modification.

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 2. THE MODIFIER~HEAD RELATION
o Rather is dependent on dubious, in the sense that it is
only present because dubious is.
o Dubious is in no way dependent on rather. We can omit
rather and still be left with a perfectly good phrase (their
dubious jokes)

 This is a one-way function/dependency.

 2. THE MODIFIER~HEAD RELATION
o In the structure of a phrase, modifiers are optional; the head is the
obligatory element.
 Modifier-head relation: Rather dubious jokes
❖ rather dubious as a whole is a dependent modifier of jokes (the head of
the phrase) but not vice-versa.
❖ Rather dubious: optional (can be obmitted)
❖ Jokes: obligatory (can’t be obmitted)
 Modifier-head relation: their rather dubious jokes

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 2. THE MODIFIER~HEAD RELATION

As [37] shows, not just words but also phrases can function as heads
and as modifiers.

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 2. THE MODIFIER~HEAD RELATION
 Look at [38] and [39]. Are they correct? Why (not?)

 In a phrase, there can only be one head.

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 3. THE HEAD~COMPLEMENT RELATION
 Sentence: Old Sam sunbathed beside a stream. Draw the phrase
marker. How many sister relations are there in the phrase?

 There are two sister relations:

(1) between a and stream
(2) between beside and PHRASE-b (a stream).
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 3. THE HEAD~COMPLEMENT RELATION
 What kind of relationship holds between beside and PHRASE-b (a
stream)? Try to determine whether the relationship is a two-way
dependency (both elements obligatory) or whether it is an example of
the one-way dependency of (optional) modifier and (obligatory) head.

 Both [44] (with beside omitted) and [45] (with a stream omitted) are
ungrammatical:
[44] *Old Sam sunbathed a stream
[45] *Old Sam sunbathed beside

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 3. THE HEAD~COMPLEMENT RELATION
Beside a stream (in: Old Sam sunbathed beside a stream)  could be
omitted.
Beside a stream  neither of the constituents: can be omitted individually.
 beside calls for – requires – the presence of a phrase like a stream and
that a stream depends on the presence of beside.
 It is therefore a two-way dependency; both elements are obligatory in
the structure of the phrase beside a stream.
 ‘Beside’: the head of the phrase (b/c it specifies the location of a stream)

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 3. THE HEAD~COMPLEMENT RELATION
When a head demands a further expression, that further (obligatory)
expression is said to complement the head.

Beside a stream
Head complement

 Not the functional relation of modification, but the functional relation of

complementation.

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 3. THE HEAD~COMPLEMENT RELATION
❖ HEADS + COMPLEMENTS
❖ MODIFIERS + HEADS // HEADS + MODIFIERS
❖ Beside a stream illustrates both these general kinds of dependency.

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 3. THE HEAD~COMPLEMENT RELATION
Now look at [47].
[47] Phil dreads affectionate cats.
 S = Subject~Predicate
 Predicate = Modification + Complementation
First identify the subject and predicate and then try to identify the
modifier~head relation and the head~complement relation within the
predicate.

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 3. THE HEAD~COMPLEMENT RELATION
[47] Phil dreads affectionate cats.

 Modifier-head relation: affectionate cats

 Head-complement relation: dreads affectionate cats

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 3. THE HEAD~COMPLEMENT RELATION
[47] Phil dreads affectionate cats.

affectionate cats
optional obligatory
Modifier Head

 Modifier-head relation: affectionate cats

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 3. THE HEAD~COMPLEMENT RELATION
[47] Phil dreads affectionate cats.

dreads affectionate cats

obligatory obligatory
Head complement

 Head-complement relation: dreads affectionate cats

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 SUMMARY
Constituents have their functions in respect of their sisters. There are
three kinds of functional relation between sisters:
Subject~Predicate. The functional relation between the immediate
constituents of sentences, Noun Phrase (NP) and Verb Phrase (VP).
o It is a mutual (two-way) dependency – S and P are both obligatory. S
precedes P.
Modifier~Head. This is a one-way dependency: modifiers depend on heads.
Modifiers are optional (omissible).
o Some modifiers precede and some follow the heads they modify.

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 SUMMARY
Constituents have their functions in respect of their sisters. There are
three kinds of functional relation between sisters:
Head~Complement. A two-way dependency.
o Complements are obligatory, needed to complete the meaning of the
phrase.
o The head generally precedes its complement.
Heads. The head is the obligatory centre of its phrase.
o Every phrase has a head and no more than one head.
o The category of the head determines the category of the phrase.
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