12129124, 5:52 AN 11.8: sie Emotions and Brain Cicutry~ Brain and Behavior Home Read Sign EIPRESSBOOKS in Search in book... BRAIN AND BEHAVIOR CONTENTS Chapter 11: Emotion and Affective Neuroscience 11.3: BASIC EMOTIONS AND BRAIN CIRCUITRY Facial Expressions Although best known for his theory on evolution, naturalist Charles Darwin published about many other topics in biology, including emotion. Darwin suggested that emotional) responding is similar across different cultures, and to some extent, even in nonhumans. In his view, the main purpose|of emotional expressions are to communicate survival cues: a re- laxed expression conveys safety, while a fearful expression promotes alertness, since dan- ger may be nearby. Darwin also suggested also gain survival information from non- human hahavinre far avamnla 3 hiccina enaleAr 3 cnarlina lian ic an immadiata thrast that /ntps:ifpressbooks.cuny.edufpsy20/chapterfoasic-emotons! 1612720724, 6:52AM 11.3: Basic Emotions and Bran Cruity~ Brain and Behavior More recently, the American psychologist Paul Ekman expanded omDarwin's theory, and suggested that there are seven basic universal emotions: Anger, contempt, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise. Like Darwin, Ekman theorized that all humans, regardless of culture, use similar facial expressions. To test this hypothesis, Ekman visited a remote vil- lage in Papua New Guinea, where he studied a population that was isolated from any other cultures. As predicted, these people made the same facial responses in reaction to various emotional circumstances as they do in other parts of the world. In 1972, Ekman published his theory of universal facial expressions. RRS also ier eeremnemenientenmenete cd (Anger, contempt, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise). This Ekman (EK-6OF) test has been widely used to assess whether people recognize facial emotions. We have learned that people with major depressive disorder or borderline personality dis- order are less able to detect happiness in others, and people with dementia or Parkinson's disease identify emotions as being less intense than typical participants. Ekman ne oe TTS uses facial anatomy to differentiate the characteristics of different expressions. For example, features of a happy face include the flexing of the zygomaticus major and orbicularis oculi muscles, which pro- duce an upward turn of the corners of the mouth and a rising of the cheeks. Other facial features, such as head movement, eye movement, and larger physical movements are also scored, and are also used to help identify emotions. The FACS can be used to formally de- scribe why some smiles appear as genuine (a Duchenne smile, where the smile reaches the muscles of the upper part of the face) while others look fake or forced (a non-Duchenne smile, characterized by the turn of the corners of the mouth without much change to the ‘top of the face). Figure 11.6. Paul Ekman's research in Papua New Guinea suggests that across cul similar facial muscle activity patterns to convey a universal set of emotions. Ekma anatomical definitions for describing specific emotions. Cradit-httne-licammans wilimedia arahuikilEile Facial Actin Cadina Suctom - es, humans use also developed ntps:fpressbooks.cury edulpsy320/chapterbasic-emotons! 26124, 58240 113: Basi Emotons and Bran Cutty ran and Behavior Cognitive neuroscientists who study emotion often struggle to find appropriate stimuli to elicit emotions in an ethical way in their human participants. However, emotional faces are frequently used in affective neuroscience studies because they have been shown to elicit somewhat similar emotions in the observer, i., seeing pictures of happy faces tends to make you feel more happy. Many emotional faces activate the amygdala, and disgusted faces activate the insula cortex, the part of the brain that processes information about taste. Fear: The neural system of freezing and fleeing Figure 117. Because fear is so important for our survival (Le, fear informs us when something threatens us), our brains are able to “recognize” frightening stimuli before we are even consciously aware of them. Credit: Snake © Noba Nearly everyone has experienced the prototypical fear response: Imagine reading a book when you see a spider skittering along the wall. Suddenly, you feel your heart racing, your hraathina incraace vauir mauith ic dev and and vaur nalme eweahy Yau nrahably wan't no- hitpspressbooks.cuny.edu/psy820Vchapterfbasic-emotons! 3612720724, 6:52AM 11.3: Basic Emotions and Bran Cruity~ Brain and Behavior system activation. But on closer inspection, you might realize there was no spider at all - just an small piece of brown fuzz picked up by a draft. Within minutes, your body's physiol- ogy returns back to normal. This anecdote points out a few important features about the fear response. FifSt, the onset , and so is the dissipation of the fear. Second, it is triggered by exposure to a perceived threat, regardless of whether the not (the overwhel jority of spiders are clinically harmless to ee tpn ty nid y nmi nd re ~an spider expert would recognize that the spider is a harmless house spider and would, instead of fear, display cu- riosity, interest, boredom, or other emotions. On the other hand, someone who has been bitten by a dangerous spider and sent to the hospital when younger would have a much stronger physiological response. Fearis likely the most’evolutionary ancient emiotion, and is highly/protective. When en- countering a hungry mountain lion, faces displaying the traits of fear (enlarged eyes, flared nostrils, and a slightly open mouth accompanying a gasp) would signal to others nearby that a threat is nearby, which Helpsinitiateshreightened/alariness and the appropriate fight- The amygdala is strongly implicated in Both positive and negative emotional memory for mation. However, the role of the amygdala in fear responses has been particularly exten- sively studied. Roughly the shape and size of an almond, the fAlOb8. Generally, the amygdala is ‘cluding the amygdala, central nucleus, and cortical nucleus. A useful nonhuman model for studying emotional learning is the In this t88t, a Occasionally, a , Shortly after, an unpleasant foot-shock |. Over time, the healthy animal learns that the tone and light precede the shock to the foot, and upon future presentation of these stimuli, they will (cere Iethieamiv@dalalisleSioned, however, tHEysAPEEZBIESS, meaning they dolfiot acquire /e also know that monkeys become feats when their amygdalae are remover lesions have been used as a last re- cart treatment far natiante with tamnaral Inhe anilaney ar with nevchiatric evmntame of /ntps:ifpressbooks.cuny.edufpsy20/chapterfoasic-emotons! ans124, 58240 18: Basie =matons and Bain Graity ~ anand Behavior tality rate. These treatments are rarely used today (Lim, 2021). Deep brain stimulation may offer a less intrusive and therefore less risky therapeutic approach (Lim, 2021). Patient SM is a notable case study of a person who does not experience the fear response. Born with an extremely rare genetic condition called Urbach-Wiethe disease, Patient SM progressively developed calcification in her amygdala bilaterally, causing cell death and amygdala degeneration. Like other people with Urbach-Wiethe disease, she had no severe significant cognitive deficits, except for the inability to experience fear. In one test, she was shown a variety of emotionally charged videos, then asked to rate the intensity of each clip with respect to different emotions. SM found clips from America’s Funniest Home Videos to be just as funny as the control patients, and she found the clips of disgusting toilets to be just as repulsive. But, when presented with clips depicting ghost hauntings or suspenseful serial killers on the loose, SM rated these stimuli as being non-fearful. Other studies chal- lenged Patient SM with more concrete threats. Researchers brought SM to a pet store, where she asked to handle the snakes. She was stopped by an employee before she put her hand into a tarantula cage out of curiosity. The researchers also took her to the Waverly Hills Sanatorium haunted house, where she bravely led a group of strangers through the house populated by actors dressed as monsters and ghosts. Although she did not display any fearful behaviors, such as hesitation to walk through the darkened corridors, patient SM reported the sensation of exhilaration and enthusiasm, akin to riding a roller coaster. She also was asked to recall some of her past real-life, fear-provoking experiences, such as when she was attacked in a domestic violence incident or was held up by a stranger at knife point in a public park. In none of these cases did she ever report feeling fear, although she was upset and angered at the situation. The destruction of her amygdala seemed to make her resilient against PTSD: the day after being threatened with a knife to her throat, she walked past the very same park bench. Slight-stimulation of the fear-related areas in the brain whereas intense stimulation causes them to flee. The féar circuit exten toithe periaqueductal gray inthe midbrain. These structures are sensitive to glutamate, cor- ticotrophin-releasing factor, adreno-cortico-trophic hormone, and several different neu- ropeptides. Benzodiazepines and other tranquilizers inhibit activation in these areas (Panksepp & Biven, 2012). ntps:fpressbooks.cury edulpsy320/chapterbasic-emotons! 516tzu, saa 119%0ic Emoto and Sain Cut San nd Boban information travels from the eye to the thalamus and then to the visual cortex. The visual” cortex sends the information on to the amygdala, lowever, the thalamus also quickly i ‘0 that the organism can react before consciously perceiving the snake (LeDoux et al,, 1990). The pathway from the thalamus to the amygdala is fast but less accurate than the slower pathway from the visual cortex. Damage'to the’amygdala’oi eas humans and nonhuman animals (LeDoux, 1996). More recent re- search shows that the amygdala of the nonhuman primate can be divided into 13 nuclei and cortical areas (Freese & Amaral, 2009). These regions of the amygdala perform different functions. The central nucleus sends outputs involving brain stem areas that result in innate emotional expressions and associated physiological responses The basal leusis con- that are involved with actions such as running toward safety. Rage: The circuits of anger and attack Fear and anger are two very closely related emotions. Anger or rage is an arousing, Un- Jarmon-jones et al., 2013). The aniger'spectrum runs from low (irritati (rage), and from quii¢k (lashing out) tolpersistent (vengeful). Strong anger can provoke anti-social behavior such as violence (Un, 207) Anger abe voted rouge ison ph or pica =) stfaint. In territorial animals, anger is provoked by a stranger entering the organism's home territory (Blanchard & Blanchard, 2003). The neuralinetworks’for anger and fearlarélnear (iene \anotherbUt Separate (Panksepp & Biven, 2012). They extend from the medial amyg- dala, through specific parts of the hypothalamus, and into the periaqueductal gray of the midbrain. The anger circuits are linked to the appetitive circuits, such that lackof an antici- pated reward can provoke rage. n addition, they supporting the idea that anger is an approach-related emotion (Harmon-Jones et al., 2013). The neurotransmitters involved in rage are not yet well understood, but the neurotransmitter and neuromodulator Substance P (also involved in pain and stress) nksepp & Biven, 2012). Other neurochemi- als that may be involved in angeriinclude Peterson & Harmon-jones, 2012) ‘Heinrichs et al., ). Several le rage system, including opioids and high doses of antipsychotics, such as chlorpromazine (Panksepp & Riven. 2012) /ntps:ifpressbooks.cuny.edufpsy20/chapterfoasic-emotons! ene12720724, 6:52AM ‘1.3: Basie Emotions and Brain Circuitry ~ Brain and Behavior sible for how a person responds to a particular anger-provoking stimulus. Ifternalhomeo- just as how low blood sugar increases aggression and drives negative or hateful feelings in the face of a challenge (the portman- teau "hangry” was added to the Oxford Dictionary in 2018). NeUrobiological factorsialso contribute to the anger response. In addition to amygdala circuits, regions in the frontal cor- texdecrease activity during acts of aggression, suggesting that hibit the limbic system, which drive our more “primitive” responses. Altered frontal cortical action may therefore account for one reason why two different people would react to the same anger-provoking stimulus in different ways (Lim, 2021), _Disgust | The insula contributes to interoception, detecting the internal state of the body and con- veying that information for processing. In functional imaging studies, the insula is involved in the recall or many different emotional stimuli, especially those emotions that have a sen- sory component. Notably, the insulaiis strongly implicated in the emotion disgust. For ex- ample, a patient is placed in an fMRI scanner while breathing through a mask, which allows the experimenters to change the smells that are perceived. Patients are then given pear, or mint), a neutral smell, or unpleasant smells (like ethyl- mercaptan or isovaleric acid, which smells like skunk or body odor, respectively). There is in= creased acy of eS aesponse hu but not the pleasant smells. The insula also responds to social cues related to disgust as well. When a patient in an fMRI sees a video of a person smelling something unpleasant and reacting with a “disgusted” face (the closing of the nostrils and curling of the upper lip), their ante- rior insula likewise increases in activity just as if they had smelled it themselves (Lim, 2021). In addition to sensory stimuli, feelings of social repugnance (unwarranted violence, murder) or moral disgust (incest) Atypical insula activity is implicated in behavioral disorders. For example, insensitivity to dis- gust can lead to squalor-dwelling conditions (sometimes seen in excessive hoarding or late cognitive decline), which puts those people at heightened health risks due to regular expo- sure to unsanitary conditions. Substance use disorders, PTSD, and suicide attempts have all been associated with atypical insula activity (Lim, 2021). ntps:fpressbooks.cury edulpsy320/chapterbasic-emotons! m612720724, 6:52AM 11.3: Basic Emotions and Bran Cruity~ Brain and Behavior One of the most important affective neuronal systems relates to feelings of desire or the appetite for rewards. Researchers refer to these appetitive processes using terms such as “wanting” (Berridge & Kringelbach, 2008), “seeking” (Panksepp & Biven, 2012), or “behav- ioral activation sensitivity” (Gray, 1987). When the appetitive system is aroused, the organ- ism shows enthusiasm, interest, and curiosity. These neural circuits motivate the animal to move through its environment in search of rewards such as appetizing foods, attractive sex partners, and other pleasurable stimuli. When the appetitive system is underaroused, the organism appears depressed and helpless. Much evidence for the structures inv in this system comes from animal research using direct brain stimulation. sor in cortical or mesencephalic regions to which the hypothalamus is connected, animals will press a lever to deliver electrical stimulation, suggesting that they find the stimulation /plea- surable, Other regions in the desire/systemvalso include the amygdalaynucleus'accumbens, and frontal:cortex (Panksepp & Biven, 2012). The neurotransmitter dopamine, producedin activates these regions. It creates'ay Sensejofiexcitementymeaningfulness, andjanticipation, These sitar sarssnSIi ¢ to drugs such as @Ogaing|and araphetamines, chemicals that have similar effects to dopamine (Panksepp & Biven, 2012). /ntps:ifpressbooks.cuny.edufpsy20/chapterfoasic-emotons!12129124, 5:52 AN ‘1.8: Basic Emotions and Brain Circuitry — Brain and Behavior Figure 118. Just looking at an image of appealing food should increase the activity in your left frontal cortex. Yum! Credit: Ice cream © Noba Research in both humans and nonhuman animals shows that the left frontal cortex (com= ) is more active during appetitive emotions such as desire Early researchers noted that persons who suffered damage to the left frontal cortex de whereas those with damage to the rightiffonitalleortex devel- oped rifafila (Goldstein, 1939). The relationship between left frontal activation and ap- proach-related emotions has been confirmed in healthy individuals using EEG and fMRI (Berkman & Lieberman, 2010). For example, increase in2-to- hen sucrose is placed on their tongues (Fox & Davidson, 1986), and in ey view pictures of desirable desserts (Gable & Harmon-Jones, 2008). In addition, greater left frontal activity in appetitive situations has been found to relate to dopamine (Wacker et al.,, 2013) “Liking” TI he neural circuits of pleasure and ntps:fpressbooks.cury edulpsy320/chapterbasic-emotons!124, 58240 18: Basie =matons and Bain Graity ~ anand Behavior Surprisingly, the amount of desire an individual feels toward a reward need not correspond to how much he or she likes that reward. This is because the neural structures involved in ees of a sweet liquid) can be =e in babies and nonhu- man animals by measuring licking speed, tongue protrusions, and happy facial expressions, whereas “wanting” (desire) is shown by the willingness to work hard to obtain a reward (Berridge & Kringelbach, 2008). Liking has been distinguished from wanting in research on ‘topics such as drug abuse. For example, people who are addicted often desire drugs even when they know that the ones available will not provide pleasure (Stewart et al., 1984) Research on liking has focused on a small area within the nucleus’accumbens and on the fastonanbalinithawentia. pal” These brain regions are sensitive to opioids and endo- cannabinoids, Stimulation of other regions of the reward system increases wanting but does not increase liking and, in some cases, even decreases liking. The research on the dis- tinction between desire and enjoyment contributes to the understanding of human addic- tion, particularly why individuals often continue to frantically pursue rewards such as co- caine, opiates, gambling, or sex, even when they no longer experience pleasure from ob- taining these rewards due to habituation The experience of pleasure also involves the leurons in this region fire when monkeys taste or merely see pictures of desirable foods. In humans, this region is ac- tivated by pleasant stimuli, including money, pleasant smells, and attractive faces (Gottfried et al. 2002; O'Doherty et al., 2001; 2002; 2003). he neural systems of care.and attachment ntps:fpressbooks.cury edulpsy320/chapterbasic-emotons! s0n612129124, 5:52 AN tions and Brain Circuty — Brain and Behavior Figure 11.9. Just as scientists today distinguish between types of love like “romantic” and “parental,” so did the ancient Greeks, who used the terms “eros” and “storge.” Credit: In the mood for love © Flickr For social animals such as humans, attachment to other members of the same species pro- duces the positive emotions of attachment: love, warm feelings, and affection. There are severallUiniqué forms of love, each resulting in different behavioral outcomes. For example, romantic love drives physical attraction, lust, and sexual activity. Parental love, on the other hand, encourages self-sacrifice and hyper-attentiveness towards a newborn. The amygdala plays a role in these behaviors becauselitsends important messages to the hypothalamus, the brain areas that controls the endocrine system. Oxytocin (OT) plays’ Significant role in the development and maintenance of prosodial| behaviors, acts such as trust, compassion, and empathy, all actions that enhancélifiterpersonal relationships. For example, inereased blood levels of OT is seen in new couples compared to unattached singles, and OT release Happéns during orgasm, which may contribute'to romantic attachment. OT signaling in- hitpspressbooks.cuny.edu/psy820Vchapterfbasic-emotons! n612129124, 5:52 AN 11.8: sie Emotions and Brain Cicutry~ Brain and Behavior to be within one’s own social group. Disorders of the OT system are believed to contribute to ind psychopathy, two eens conditions characterized partly me studies have examined the therapeutic Use of RasallOT for a va- chiatric conditions, but the studies haVelBGA Unablélte demonstrate strongiclin - ical effects despite success in nonhuman animal models (Lim, 2021). Dr. Helen Fisher, an anthropologist and a leader in the field of romantic love research, sug= gests that this kind of love can be divided into three closely interconnected components, lust, attraction, and attachment. These three are guided in part by different signaling path- ways, and |eadto'somewhat different behavioral outcomes (Lim, 2021) Exercises Check out this video of a tour of the brain areas involved in romantic love Attps://theanatomyoflove.com/3d-brain-tour/ Lust SHUSE(GFIBIAG) refers to a veryiStrong desire for'sexualigratification. These behaviors are largely driven by the actions of the sexliormones testosterone, estradiol, and progesterone, As hormones, they are synthesized from cholesterol and circulate through the bloodstream to influence the body in many ways. Both testosterone and estradiol contributeltorsexeseeking behaviors inimeniand women where increasing testosterone levels drive up sexual desire. of the the part of the brain that exhibits the bi e between males and females: in humans, itis about tWicelas lar@eih Males\withidSUble thenumberlof neurons throughoutichildhood afidi@arlyadulthood. Initherrat, it is upsto'S "times largeninimalés thanfemales, and if this area is lesioned, rats exhibit decreased motivation to engage in sex. The amygdala also In the brain, the sex hormones sti /ntps:ifpressbooks.cuny.edufpsy20/chapterfoasic-emotons! a612129124, 5:52 AN 11.8: sie Emotions and Brain Cicutry~ Brain and Behavior Attraction is characterized by high energy investmi@nt and preoccupation towards a small From an evolutionary perspective, attraction may have developed to dis~ lereproductive partners, allowing the fecusingiof limited re ‘sources towards fewer partners. In Fisher's theory, SEESEUESIREESSPSM Meister he actos SSA SSPE REREIEE. fine. In humans, the rewardicireuitry discussed above isinvolvediin feelings of love. Fisher presented pictures of a patient's romantic partner to them and identified increases in the, blood flow using fMRI to dopaminergicmidbrain areas such as the ventral tegmental area and the striatum, This tii —e! blood flow to insula, premotor, and hypothalamus as well as striatum erotic, Sexual iiMiagery: These studies suggest that romantic love and lust have eet driving neural structures underlying these behaviors. Norepinephrine increases to boost at- tentionjalertnessyandienergy, which accounts for the exhilarated feeling you may feel when spending time with a potential partner (Lim, 201). Attachment is the long-term accompanied by feelings of comfort and emotional stability. Attachment i maximize offspring survivability, such as i The major neuro=| chemical drivers of this form of love are oxytocin and vasopressin (Lim, 2021). Parental love Parental love refers to instinctive affection towards one's offspring. Parental love behaviors include nurturing (collecting and sharing resources), protecting (promoting aggression against “intruders"), and preparing one's young for their adult life. In e 3s through the following generation. Many behaviors related to mammalian motherhood are accompanied by changes in neural /ntps:ifpressbooks.cuny.edufpsy20/chapterfoasic-emotons! 136‘220, 2AM 1.3: Base Emotions and Brain Cully Bran and Behavior creases lactation through the milk letdown reflex. Oxytocin increases accumulation of milk in the mammary glands (bottom right), which encourages increased suckling. sensory in- puts'such as the sounds of a ¢rying baby can also trigger this reflex: Sometimes, just think- ing about the baby can induce letdown. Figure 11.10 Suckling (bottom left) triggers somatosensory inputs, which send afferents into /ntps:ifpressbooks.cuny.edufpsy20/chapterfoasic-emotons! sane124, 58240 18: Basie =matons and Bain Graity ~ anand Behavior The brain changes to facilitate nurturing. For example, after childbirth, the auditory areas of rOd@hts rewire to become more sensitive to high frequency sounds. This adaptation allows the mothers to better detect the ultrasonic vocalizations that are emitted by offspring when they are distressed or hungry. Olfactory areas also change in order tolbecome more!sensi=" tive to the particular odorants given off by their young, allowing them to better identify. their offspring. In humans, these olfactory changes result in decreased aversion towards traditionally aversive stimuli (urine or fecal matter) when they originate from their children. Important regions for maternal nurturing include the dorsal preoptic area (Numan & Insel, 2003) and the anksepp, 1998). These regions overlap oe, doting and mitters, including (endorphins and enkephalins) (Hove & Martinez, 2024). LICENSE SHARE THIS BOOK ©O9O v rai ior Copyright © 2024 by Jill Grose-Fifer is licensed undera reative Commons Attribution- NonGommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. /ntps:ifpressbooks.cuny.edufpsy20/chapterfoasic-emotons! 15612129124, 5:52 AN 11.3: Basle Emotions and Brain Circuitry ~ Brain and Behavior Tutorials | P ks Directory | Contact ntps:fpressbooks.cury edulpsy320/chapterbasic-emotons! 166