Introduction to international relations

1. What is IR and why to care?

What is IR?
International Relations (IR) is the academic discipline that studies the interactions
between countries and other global actors such as intergovernmental
organizations (IGOs), non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and
multinational corporations (MNCs).
At its core, IR examines how these entities interact, negotiate, conflict, cooperate,
and influence global outcomes.
> political science: who gets what, when and why
Types of actors
States: Sovereign political entities with authority over a defined territory and
population.
IGOs: Organizations like the United Nations (UN), European Union (EU), or World
Trade Organization (WTO), created by states to work on common issues.
NGOs: Non-profit organizations that operate independently of governments, such as
Amnesty International or Doctors Without Borders.
MNCs: Corporations that operate in multiple countries, such as Apple, ExxonMobil,
or Nestlé, with considerable influence over global markets and politics.

Why should we study IR?

The study of IR helps us understand the dynamics of world politics, the underlying
forces that shape international relations, and how global challenges are
addressed.
It often connects theory to practice and provides insights into the functioning of the
global system – historical and current

Core questions
There are several critical questions that IR seeks to answer, often framed around the
concepts of war & peace, cooperation, and conflict, > not exhaustive list!
Some of the most fundamental and enduring questions include:
● Why do wars happen? (think about Ukraine)
● What drives international cooperation? (think about climate)
● How does global governance work? (think about questions on Trump and
multilateral liberal order)
Why do we care about these questions?

#1. Relevance to Daily Life:

International relations affect daily lives, from trade policies that influence prices, to
international conflicts that affect security, to climate change policies that will shape
our future.
For example, global supply chains ensure that the things we buy, from electronics to
food, are produced across different parts of the world.
#2. Global Challenges:
Issues like climate change, human rights violations, pandemics, and
international terrorism transcend national borders and require international
cooperation. Collective action and multilateral negotiations are necessary to address
these problems.
#3. Ethics and Justice:
IR isn't just about power and economics—it's also about questions of justice,
fairness, and the ethical implications of state actions.
For example, why do some countries intervene in the affairs of others (e.g., military
interventions or humanitarian assistance), and on what basis do they do so?

Concepts and terminology

Key concepts
There are some fundamental concepts that IR scholars use to analyze the behavior
of states and other actors in the international system.
These concepts are of help for understanding how global issues and events are
analyzed in the field of IR. Some examples:
● Sovereignty
● Power
● Legitimacy
● Interdependence and Globalization
Sovereignty
Sovereignty refers to the authority of a state to govern itself without outside
interference. It is a foundational concept in the study of International Relations
because it sets the basic framework for understanding how states operate within the
international system. Sovereign states have the right to control their territory, make
laws, and conduct diplomacy independently
Key Challenges to Sovereignty:
Globalization: Global trade, migration, and the spread of information can challenge
the autonomy of states.
International Law and Norms: International treaties, human rights law, and
organizations like the UN sometimes require states to limit their sovereignty in the
name of broader global goals.
Interventions: Whether humanitarian, military, or economic interventions by one
state or international organizations can threaten a state’s sovereignty.

Power
Power is the ability of an actor (a state, an organization, or even an individual)
to influence the behavior of others or shape outcomes.
Power is a core concept in IR because it determines how states and other actors can
achieve their goals in the international arena.
Types of Power:
● Military Power:
The capability of a state to use force to defend itself, deter adversaries, or intervene
in other states. Military power is often viewed as a symbol of state strength,
especially in traditional theories like realism.
● Economic Power:
Economic power refers to a state's ability to influence global markets, finance, and
trade. Economic sanctions, trade agreements, and the use of financial institutions
(such as the IMF or World Bank) are tools of economic power. States like the U.S.
and China, for example, have significant economic power due to their large markets
and control over global finance.
● Soft Power:
Coined by Joseph Nye, soft power refers to the ability to shape preferences through
attraction rather than coercion or payment. It includes the power of culture, values,
diplomacy, and political ideals. For example, the global appeal of American culture,
music, and media gives the U.S. significant soft power in influencing other nations'
policies and cultures.

Legitimacy
Legitimacy refers to the acceptance and recognition of an actor’s authority,
actions, or policies as appropriate, justified, and lawful by other states, international
organizations, and sometimes even by domestic populations.
It’s an essential concept because legitimacy influences a state's ability to effectively
wield power and gain support in the ‘anarchic’ international system.
Unlike power, which is about the ability to make things happen, legitimacy is about
whether actions are perceived as rightful and deserving of respect.
Sources of legitimacy
a. Legal Legitimacy:
This comes from adherence to established international laws, treaties, or norms.
States and actors that act within these rules are generally seen as legitimate. For
example, interventions authorized by the United Nations Security Council (UNSC)
are often seen as more legitimate than unilateral actions because they have the
backing of international law.
b. Moral or Normative Legitimacy:
Actions or policies that align with widely held moral principles, such as human rights,
justice, or humanitarianism, tend to be viewed as legitimate. When states or
organizations pursue actions in line with these principles (such as providing
humanitarian aid or working to combat climate change), they are often seen as
acting legitimately, even if not strictly within legal bounds.
c. Functional Legitimacy:
This form of legitimacy is based on effectiveness. When international institutions,
states, or leaders demonstrate competence and the ability to achieve positive
outcomes (such as economic stability or peacekeeping), they gain legitimacy. The
World Health Organization’s (WHO) role in responding to pandemics or the
International Monetary Fund’s (IMF) role in managing financial crises often gain
legitimacy based on their effectiveness.
d. Democratic Legitimacy:
States and organizations that reflect the will of the people or involve democratic
processes in their decision-making tend to be seen as more legitimate. For example,
the European Union (EU) has enhanced its legitimacy over the years by including
democratic principles, such as direct elections for the European Parliament.

Interdependence and globalization

Interdependence refers to the mutual reliance between states or actors in the
international system. It suggests that the more states rely on each other for
resources, security, or trade, the more they are likely to cooperate.
From Interdependence to ‘Weaponised’ Interdependence

Globalization refers to the increasing interconnectedness of the world,

characterized by the flow of goods, services, people, and ideas across borders.
While globalization is not new, its speed and scope have accelerated in recent
decades due to advancements in technology, communication, and transportation.
Historical origins
The early roots
The foundations of what would become International Relations can be traced back to
early thinkers who grappled with war, peace, and human interactions. For example:
● Thucydides (5th century BC): In his work History of the Peloponnesian War,
Thucydides analyzed the dynamics of war, power (a longer process of
growing Athenian power), and human nature. His famous assertion that "the
strong do what they can and the weak suffer what they must" remains a
central tenet in realist theories of IR.
● Niccolò Machiavelli (16th century): In works like The Prince, Machiavelli
explored statecraft, power, and the pragmatic realities of politics and warfare.
● Hugo Grotius (17th century): Often considered one of the fathers of
international law, Grotius’ De Jure Belli ac Pacis (On the Law of War and
Peace) laid the groundwork for the formalization of rules governing states'
interactions during conflict, focusing on legal principles like the justifications
for war and the protection of diplomats.

The Emergence of the Modern State System (Treaty of Westphalia - 1648)

The Treaty of Westphalia (1648) is often considered the founding moment of the
modern international system. It ended the Thirty Years' War in Europe and
established the principle of sovereignty, which remains central to IR.
The Treaty confirmed the notion that each state is supreme within its own borders
and has the right to determine its domestic affairs without external
interference. This was a major departure from earlier systems where church and
monarchy had broader influence over states' actions.
The creation of a system of nation-states with recognized borders and sovereignty
set the stage for the international relations that scholars began to study and
formalize centuries later.

The Rise of Modern Diplomacy and the Study of International Politics

● In the 18th and 19th century, with the establishment of modern states and
the expansion of colonial empires, diplomacy became a more formalized
profession.
● The period saw increasing interest in how states interact with each other,
especially with the backdrop of imperialism, military conflict, and the
balance of power in Europe.
● At about the same time, …
Political Economy: The development of economic theory and trade also influenced
early IR thinking. Economists like Adam Smith and David Ricardo theorized about
international trade, and their work on the comparative advantage of nations
helped shape the liberal perspective in IR.

20th Century: The Birth of International Relations as a Formal Academic

Discipline
World War I and the Interwar Period: The unprecedented destruction of World War
I (1914-1918) led to the recognition that a more structured and systematic study of
international relations was necessary. Scholars wanted to understand how
conflicts could be prevented and how international institutions could be used
to promote peace.
For instance, the League of Nations (1919), established after World War I, was the
first major attempt to create an international body designed to prevent wars and
facilitate cooperation. While the League ultimately failed, it highlighted the need for
scholars to understand the dynamics of diplomacy, conflict, and international
governance.
In the interwar period, intellectuals such as E.H. Carr and Karl Marx critiqued the
prevailing assumptions about international order and the motivations behind war and
diplomacy.
● Carr’s The Twenty Years' Crisis 1919-1939: An Introduction to the Study of
International Relations (1939) critiqued the idealist view of international
relations and argued for a more realistic, power-based understanding of world
politics.

Post-World War II: Institutionalization and the Development of Core Theories

After World War II, IR saw its institutionalization as a formal academic discipline. The
aftermath of the war prompted scholars to study the causes of conflict more
systematically and the means to prevent future wars. Realism dominated early
post-war IR theory.
Scholars like Hans Morgenthau, Kenneth Waltz, and others emphasized state
power, military might, and security dilemmas as the central issues in international
relations.

The Cold War

The Cold War (1947-1991) further deepened the academic focus on global power
structures.
In particular, the Cold War intensified the study of power, conflict, and state interests,
leading to realism’s dominance in IR. Realism, which emphasizes the pursuit of
power and the importance of state sovereignty in an anarchic international system,
aligned with the rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union, where
each side aimed to maximize security and contain the other’s influence.
Also Nuclear Deterrence and Mutually Assured Destruction

The 1970s and the expansion of the IR agenda

The 1970s: a tumultuous decade. Why?
From security to economics
Liberalism emerged as an alternative, emphasizing the role of international
institutions and cooperation, with scholars like Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye
advancing the theory of complex interdependence in the 1970s.

Recent developments
In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, the field of IR continued to evolve. The end
of the Cold War, the rise of global institutions like the World Trade Organization
(WTO) and European Union (EU), and the increasing prominence of non-state
actors such as NGOs, multinational corporations, and international financial
organizations changed the dynamics of global relations.
Critical and Post-Colonial Perspectives: New schools of thought like postcolonial
theory, feminist theory, and Marxist analysis have also become important in
recent decades, challenging traditional power-centered approaches.
Globalization has become a central theme, as the interconnectedness of global
markets, communication, and environmental issues increasingly shape the study of
international relations.
The increasing importance of non-state actors and issues like human rights,
environmental concerns, and globalization began to diversify the study of IR.
The historical origins of International Relations as a discipline stem from a long
tradition of reflecting on war, diplomacy, power, and the global order.
From early thinkers in ancient Greece and Rome to the institutionalization of the field
in the 20th century, IR has evolved in response to changing global conditions, wars,
and the need for cooperation.
The discipline now provides crucial insights into the workings of the international
system and is more relevant than ever in a globally interconnected world.

Relationship with other disciplines

Independent but connected
While it has evolved into its own field, IR remains closely connected to several
cognate disciplines, each of which influences how IR scholars understand global
dynamics. For instance:
● Political Science
● Economics
● History
● Law
● Sociology
In no order of importance! Overall message: a very permeable and open discipline
IR and Political Science
IR originated as a subfield of political science, sharing its focus on power,
governance, institutions, and the state. Political science provided IR with analytical
tools for studying political behavior, decision-making, and institutional structures,
which remain core to understanding international interactions.
Sovereignty and the State: Political science’s emphasis on sovereignty, authority,
and the nature of the state is foundational to IR. Concepts like state sovereignty
and political legitimacy help IR scholars analyze why states act in certain ways and
how they interact on the international stage.
Comparative Politics: Comparative politics, a key area within political science,
enriches IR by analyzing how domestic factors—such as regime type, political
culture, or economic policy—shape a state’s foreign policy. The study of
democracies versus authoritarian regimes, for example, has led to theories on
whether democracies are less likely to engage in war with one another (the
“democratic peace theory”).
IR and Economics
Economics contributes to IR by exploring how trade, finance, and economic
interdependence influence state behavior. Concepts such as comparative
advantage, trade liberalization, and globalization are central to understanding
international economic relations.
International Political Economy (IPE): This subfield of IR examines how politics
and economics intersect globally. It looks at how economic policies, institutions like
the IMF and World Bank, and multinational corporations (MNCs) influence global
politics, often drawing on both economic theory and political analysis.
Development Economics: Development theories help IR scholars understand
disparities between the Global North and Global South and the effects of aid,
investment, and trade on developing nations. This has led to the study of
dependency theory and post-colonial critiques in IR.
IR and History
History provides essential context for IR, particularly in understanding the long-term
effects of wars, treaties, and alliances. Historical events like the Treaty of Westphalia
(1648) and World War I are foundational to IR’s understanding of state sovereignty
and the international system.
Case Studies and Historical Methodology: Historians often use case studies and
primary sources to understand past international interactions, influencing IR
methodologies. Historical case studies of diplomacy, colonialism, and conflict are
crucial for testing IR theories, as they provide concrete examples of how states
behave under specific circumstances.
IR and Law
The field of international law is intertwined with IR, providing a framework for
understanding treaties, human rights, and war conduct. IR scholars study
international law to analyze how norms and legal agreements influence state
behavior.
Human Rights and Humanitarian Law: Concepts from international law shape IR’s
approach to human rights, humanitarian intervention, and Responsibility to Protect
(R2P). IR theories examine why and how states uphold or violate these laws and
what consequences follow
Sociology and IR
Sociology has influenced IR through constructivist theories, which examine how
identities, norms, and cultures shape international relations. Sociologists study how
social structures and beliefs impact behavior, a perspective that has influenced how
IR scholars view the formation of state interests and identities.
Transnational Actors: Sociology’s focus on groups and networks has informed IR’s
understanding of transnational actors (such as NGOs, advocacy networks, and
social movements) and how they influence global policy and diplomacy. The concept
of global civil society is rooted in sociological ideas about the power of social
movements.

To wrap-up
● IR as a discipline: objectives and questions
● Key concepts
● Historical evolution
● Relationship with other discipline

2. How to study IR?

Agenda

Theories: why and how to classify?

Major theories in IR (assumptions and implications):
 ● Realism
● Liberal Internationalism
● Marxism
● Social Constructivism
● Poststructuralism
● Postcolonialism/Decolonialism
● Feminism
A preliminary note: International relations or world politics?

Theories and theoretical approaches in IR

What are theories? glasses / lenses
Why do you need theories?
- Organization: “The only way you can decide which of the millions of possible
facts matter is by adhering to some simplifying device. Theory is such a
device” (OBS, 8)
- Interpretation
- Transparency about one's' assumptions

Theories in IR (from the textbook)

- Realism, Liberal Internationalism, Marxism, Social Constructivism (very
mainstream)
- Poststructuralism, Postcolonialism/Decolonialism, Feminism
Many lenses! > pluralism

Before getting into the details of each theory …

There are several ways in which we could introduce and classify theories- especially
in the presence of pluralism as it is today. For instance
1. Chronological criterion
2. Objective of theory: explaining versus understanding (in OBS is constitutive)
3. Main actors studied
These are just criteria examples – not right or wrong!

What criteria?
● 5 criteria (Cohen 2023)
1. Ontology
2. Agenda
3. Purpose
4. Boundaries
5. Epistemology
(1) Ontology, from the Greek for ‘things that exist’. Ontology is about investigating
reality: the nature, essential properties, and relations of being. What are the basic
units of analysis in our research, and what are their key relationships?
(2) Agenda. What are the most salient issues to be addressed? For instance, power
or economics?
(3) Purpose. What is the goal of research? Is our aim ‘positivist’, intended
primarily to enhance our objective understanding of how the world works? Or, rather,
is it more ‘normative’, hoping to make the world a better place to live in?
(4) Boundaries. Where do we draw a line around our multidisciplinary field of study?
How receptive are we to ideas or insights from other specialties beyond GPE’s roots
in economics and political science? How important are contributions from related
disciplines like sociology, history, geography, or psychology?
(5) Epistemology, from the Greek word for ‘knowledge’. Epistemology has to do
with the methods and grounds of knowing. (how do you acquire knowledge?)

* Variants: Realism, Liberalism and Constructivism (Cohen 2023)

Another distinction to keep in mind: American versus British school (OBS, 10) or
American versus rest of the world

1. Realism
Realism is one of the oldest and most influential theories in International Relations.
The key assumptions are:
● Power as the Primary Driver: Realists believe that power is the fundamental
currency in global politics. States act in their own interest, driven by the need
to maximize power and security in an often hostile world (often a pessimistic
view, she said “dark lenses”)
● States as Central Actors: Realists focus on states as the main players in
international politics. While other entities like international organizations or
 multinational corporations may influence world affairs, they do so within
frameworks set by states, especially the most powerful ones.
● Anarchy and Competition: Realists argue that the international system is
anarchic, meaning there’s no central authority above states to enforce rules or
protect them. This lack of overarching governance creates a self-help system
where each state must rely on its own capabilities to ensure survival and
advance its interests.
View on state behavior and motivations
Security and Survival: Realists argue that states prioritize survival above all else.
Their behavior is driven by a need to secure power to protect themselves against
threats.
Relative Gains: Realists are concerned with relative gains, meaning they care not
only about what they gain from cooperation but also about what others gain in
comparison. This focus on relative gains can hinder cooperation because states
worry about falling behind others in power.
Power Balancing: Realists believe in balancing power, either through alliances or
military buildup, to prevent any one state from dominating the system.

Realism versus Neo-realism

Realism or Classical Realism
● Power as an End in Itself: Classical realists often see power as both a
means to security and an end in itself. Because they attribute the desire for
power to human nature, classical realists argue that states inherently seek to
maximize power to achieve dominance or influence.
● Importance of Leadership and Statecraft: Classical realists emphasize the
role of state leaders, diplomacy, and decision-making in international
relations. They believe that effective leadership and the wise use of power
can help states navigate the competitive international environment.
Neorealism or Structural Realism
● Developed in the late 20th century, Neorealism (or Structural Realism) was
most prominently advanced by Kenneth Waltz in his 1979 work, Theory of
International Politics. Waltz sought to make Realism more scientific and
systematic, moving away from human nature as an explanation for state
behavior.
● Focus on Structure of the International System: Neorealism argues that
the structure of the international system—rather than human nature—shapes
state behavior. The system’s anarchic structure (the lack of a central
authority) creates a self-help environment where states must look out for their
security independently.
Sources of power and state behavior
Classical Realism:
● Power as an End in Itself: Classical realists often see power as both a
means to security and an end in itself. Because they attribute the desire for
power to human nature, classical realists argue that states inherently seek to
maximize power to achieve dominance or influence.
● Importance of Leadership and Statecraft: Classical realists emphasize the
role of state leaders, diplomacy, and decision-making in international
relations. They believe that effective leadership and the wise use of power
can help states navigate the competitive international environment.
● Moral and Ethical Considerations: Classical realists sometimes consider
the ethical dilemmas and responsibilities of power, exploring the tension
between moral principles and political necessity (a concept often associated
with Machiavelli).
Neorealism:
● Power as a Means to Security: Neorealism, on the other hand, views power
as a means to an end, with security as the ultimate goal. Neorealists argue
that states seek power not out of a lust for dominance but as a rational
response to the pressures of the international system.
● Structure over Agency: Neorealism places less emphasis on individual
leaders or human agency and instead looks at how the international system’s
structure constraints and directs state behavior. For neorealists, the
structure—particularly whether the system is unipolar, bipolar, or
multipolar—largely determines the level of competition and the likelihood of
conflict.
- Minimal Role of Ethics: Neorealism does not typically concern itself with
ethical questions or moral considerations; it is more focused on objective
patterns and structures that can predict behavior across different states.
2. Liberal Internationalism
Liberal Internationalism emphasizes the potential for cooperation among states and
other actors in the international system. Rooted in Enlightenment ideas, Liberal
Internationalism is optimistic about the possibility of progress and peace in world
politics.
The key assumptions :
● Cooperation Over Conflict: Unlike realists who see the international system
as a zero-sum competition, liberals believe that states and societies can
achieve mutual benefits through cooperation, even in a competitive
environment. Liberals argue that, through cooperation, states can address
common challenges and reduce the likelihood of conflict.
● Promotion of Democracy: Liberal Internationalists assert that democracies
are more peaceful in their relations with each other, a principle known as the
“Democratic Peace Theory.” This theory suggests promoting democracy
worldwide can help establish a more stable and cooperative international
order.
● Economic Interdependence: Economic ties between states are seen as a
way to create mutual dependencies that make conflict less likely. By
connecting economies through trade, investment, and financial systems,
liberal internationalists believe that states have strong incentives to avoid war
and maintain stable relations.
From liberal internationalism to Neoliberalism
Neoliberalism or Neoliberal Institutionalism:
● Neoliberalism, also called Neoliberal Institutionalism, emerged in the 1970s
and 1980s as a response to Realism, particularly its claims about the
impossibility of cooperation under anarchy. Key figures like Robert Keohane
and Joseph Nye argued that even in an anarchic system, states could achieve
cooperation through institutions.
● Focus on Rationality and Institutions: Unlike Liberal Internationalism’s
idealism, Neoliberalism is grounded in rational choice theory and emphasizes
the ways institutions can mitigate anarchy and facilitate cooperation. It is less
idealistic and more empirical, focused on understanding the practical
mechanisms that enable cooperation.
Neoliberalism core assumptions
States as Rational, Self-Interested Actors: Neoliberals accept Realist
assumptions about state rationality and self-interest. However, they argue that states
can recognize the benefits of cooperation when it aligns with their self-interest.
Institutions and Cooperation under Anarchy: Unlike Liberal Internationalists,
Neoliberals focus on how institutions help states overcome the challenges of
anarchy by providing frameworks, rules, and norms that make cooperation possible.
Emphasis on Absolute Gains: Neoliberals focus on “absolute gains” rather than
“relative gains.” They argue that states are more likely to cooperate if the benefits of
cooperation (absolute gains) outweigh the competitive concerns of how much others
benefit in comparison (relative gains).

3. Marxism
Marxism in International Relations approaches world politics through the lens of
economic power and class conflict, focusing on the ways that global capitalism
shapes international structures and dynamics.

Key assumptions
Global Capitalism as the Primary System of Power: Marxists argue that global
capitalism is the defining feature of the international system. They see the structure
of world politics as shaped primarily by capitalist forces, rather than by states acting
independently to maximize power or security.
Class Conflict Drives International Relations: Unlike Realism, which focuses on
states as central actors, Marxism centers its analysis on social classes, specifically
the capitalist class (those who own and control capital) and the working class.
Marxists argue that class struggle, rather than inter-state conflict, is the fundamental
source of tension in world politics.
Economic Determinism: Marxists believe that economic forces determine the
behavior of states and other international actors. States, especially those with strong
capitalist economies, act largely in ways that serve the interests of the capitalist
class. Therefore, much of state policy and behavior in international relations is seen
as a response to the demands of global capitalism.
Dominance of Capitalist Class Interests: According to Marxism, the global
economy is structured to benefit the capitalist class—primarily the wealthy,
industrialized countries and multinational corporations. These actors hold a
disproportionate amount of power, enabling them to shape global policies, influence
international institutions, and control resources in ways that serve their own interests.
World-Systems Theory and Dependency: In Marxist thought, world politics is
divided into a “core” of wealthy, developed capitalist countries and a “periphery” of
poorer, developing countries. The core exploits the periphery by extracting raw
materials and cheap labor, while the periphery remains dependent on the core for
manufactured goods and financial capital. This economic dependency limits the
periphery’s development and perpetuates global inequality.

> For Marxists, inequality is not an unintended consequence of capitalism but a core
feature.
4. Social constructivism
Social Constructivism is distinct from theories like Realism and Liberalism because it
emphasizes the importance of ideas, norms, culture and identities in shaping
state behavior and international outcomes.
Social Constructivists argue that the international system and the "reality" of
international relations are not fixed or solely determined by material factors like
military power or economic wealth. Instead, they are socially constructed

Key assumptions
Ideas and Norms Shape Behavior: For Constructivists, states act based not only
on their material capabilities or interests but also on ideas and norms, such as
sovereignty, human rights, or environmental protection. These norms evolve over
time and influence how states perceive themselves and their roles in the world.
Identities Matter: Constructivists emphasize that state behavior is shaped by the
identities that states adopt. For example, a state that sees itself as a "peaceful
democracy" may behave differently from one that views itself as a "regional power"
or a "revolutionary state." Identity is dynamic, shaped by history, culture, and social
interactions.
Reality is Socially Constructed: Constructivists argue that "reality" in international
relations is not given or fixed; instead, it is constructed by social interactions. For
example, the concept of "security" can mean different things in different contexts.
Constructivists believe that social processes—such as diplomacy, discourse, and
international institutions—construct the norms and rules that define how states
interact.

Alexander Wendt’s Social Theory of International Politics (1999)

Wendt’s main contributions focus on how the international system is socially
constructed and how identities and norms shape state behavior.
Two major contributions
Wendt challenges Realist and Neorealist views that the international system is
inherently anarchic and that states must act in self-interested, power-maximizing
ways. Instead, he argues that anarchy is what states make of it: the nature of the
international system depends on the identities, interests, and relationships that
states construct through social interactions.
Wendt posits that states are not inherently self-interested or aggressive. Instead,
states develop their identities and interests through interactions with other states.
These interactions create norms, shared understandings, and expectations that
influence state behavior. For example, states that see each other as friends rather
than enemies are less likely to view each other's actions as threatening, even under
anarchy.
5. Post-structuralism
Poststructuralism in International Relations is an approach that challenges traditional
ideas about "objective" truths and fixed narratives that often dominate the field.
Drawing from thinkers like Michel Foucault and Jacques Derrida, Poststructuralism
argues that knowledge is not neutral; instead, it is deeply tied to power relations.

Key assumptions
Skepticism of Objective Truths and Universals: Poststructuralists question the
idea that there is a single, objective reality or "truth" in international relations.
Instead, they believe that what we often consider as “truth” is shaped by language,
culture, and social norms, making it subjective and open to interpretation.
Focus on Language and Discourse: Poststructuralists argue that language does
not merely describe reality but actively shapes it. Words, concepts, and
categories—like "security," "terrorism," or "sovereignty"—are social constructs that
reflect specific power relations and interests. The way we talk about issues in IR
often reinforces certain perspectives and excludes others.
Power as Productive and Ubiquitous: Poststructuralism sees power not just as a
tool of coercion or influence but as something that produces knowledge and shapes
perceptions. Power is present in all relationships and contexts, influencing the norms
and beliefs that shape our understanding of the world.

6. Postcolonial and Decolonial

Postcolonial and Decolonial approaches in International Relations challenge
traditional perspectives by emphasizing the ongoing impact of colonial histories on
current global structures.
These approaches argue that understanding global politics today requires a deep
recognition of colonial legacies and the enduring inequalities they have created.

Key assumptions
Colonialism’s Lasting Impact: Postcolonial and Decolonial theorists assert that
colonialism has left a lasting imprint on the world, shaping economic, social, and
political hierarchies that persist today. The relationships formed through colonial
exploitation and control continue to shape global power dynamics, with former
colonial powers often maintaining a privileged position.
Global Inequality as a Colonial Legacy: According to these perspectives, much of
the economic and political inequality in the world can be traced back to colonial
systems. Formerly colonized regions continue to experience disadvantages in terms
of development, wealth distribution, and global influence, while former colonial
powers retain significant control over global resources and institutions.
Need to Decenter Western Narratives: Postcolonial and Decolonial scholars argue
that mainstream International Relations (IR) theories, often rooted in Western
thought, do not fully account for the experiences and perspectives of non-Western
countries. They advocate for "decentering" IR to include diverse voices, particularly
those from the Global South, to create a more inclusive understanding of global
politics.

7. Feminist approaches
Feminist approaches bring a unique lens by examining how gender is a fundamental
organizing structure in global politics.
Feminist IR scholars argue that traditional theories overlook or underrepresent the
impact of gender on global politics, thus missing critical dimensions of power and
inequality.

Key assumptions
Gender as a Core Structure in Politics: Feminist IR scholars argue that gender
roles and expectations profoundly influence global politics. They contend that IR
cannot be fully understood without considering how masculinity and femininity shape
both the behavior of states and the experiences of individuals within the international
system.
Gendered Power Relations Shape Outcomes: Feminist perspectives maintain that
global politics is not gender-neutral; rather, it reflects and reinforces existing gender
hierarchies. These hierarchies prioritize male-dominated values (such as militarism
and competition) while undervaluing issues often associated with women, such as
peacebuilding, human rights, and economic justice.

Core ideas in feminist IR

Gendered Nature of Power and Security: Feminist IR scholars argue that
concepts like power and security are gendered, often shaped by masculine ideals
that prioritize strength, aggression, and dominance. Feminist scholars critique how
this focus can marginalize or exclude approaches that emphasize cooperation,
vulnerability, and care, which may lead to more holistic and sustainable solutions.
Intersectionality: Many feminist IR scholars emphasize an intersectional approach,
which examines how gender intersects with other forms of identity, such as race,
class, sexuality, and nationality. Intersectional feminism argues that women’s
experiences in international politics are not homogenous and that these other
identities also play crucial roles in shaping political and social outcomes. For
example, the experiences of women in the Global South under economic
globalization may differ significantly from those of women in the Global North.
Focus on Human Security: Feminist IR scholars advocate for a shift from
traditional "state security" to "human security," focusing on the security of individuals
and communities. This perspective includes economic stability, access to health
care, freedom from violence, and other factors that influence people’s well-being.

In short: Several lenses to look at the world > theoretical pluralism

Is pluralism good or bad?
 3. Globalization and global politics

Agenda
1. What is globalization (and how to measure it)
2. Historical evolution
3. Drivers of globalization (political and non-political factors) and theoretical
interpretations
4. The challenges to globalization > deglobalization risks
5. Multicentric globalization

1. What is globalization?
Globalization is the process by which people, businesses, and governments
worldwide become more interconnected and interdependent. It encompasses
economic, social, cultural, and political dimensions, leading to a more integrated
world.
Textbook: “shrinking world” or “global village”

How to measure globalization: an example

The KOF Globalization Index is a comprehensive measure of globalization
developed by the KOF Swiss Economic Institute.
It tracks 3 dimensions:
● economic
● social
● political

The economic dimension

If you have to capture the ECONOMIC dimension of globalization, what
data/indicators would you look at?
KOF economic Globalization:
● Trade globalization: Measured by the flow of goods and services between
countries as a share of GDP. (export and import of goods)
● Financial globalization: Assessed by foreign direct investment (FDI),
portfolio investment, and international income payments, such as interests
and dividends.
If you have to capture the SOCIAL dimension of globalization, what data/indicators
would you look at?
KOF Social Globalization:
● Interpersonal globalization: Measured by international telephone calls,
tourism, and migration.
● Information flows: Tracks the spread of ideas and information via the
internet, television, and newspapers.
 ● Cultural globalization: Assessed by the spread of cultural practices,
international trademarks, and the use of foreign languages.
If you have to capture the POLITICAL dimension of globalization, what
data/indicators would you look at?
KOF Political Globalization:
International political engagement: Measured by the participation of countries in
international organizations, treaties, UN peace missions, and foreign embassies

To calculate the Index, researchers collect data on these variables from reliable
international sources and then assign a score to each country based on their levels
of globalization in each considered dimension. The overall globalization score for a
country is then obtained by combining the scores across different dimensions,
usually through appropriate data normalization
Higher scores indicating higher levels of globalization.
This index provides a quantitative measure of a country's degree of globalization,
allowing comparisons between countries and analyses of global trends over time.
It helps explain the dynamics of global interconnectedness and the varying levels of
globalization across different regions of the world.
Just an example – to start thinking critically about concepts and their measurement!

2. Historical roots of globalization

● Silk Road: Ancient trade routes like the Silk Road were early forms of global
exchange, connecting Asia, Africa, and Europe for the trade of goods, ideas,
and culture.
● European Age of Exploration: In the 15th-19th centuries, European empires
expanded globally, creating interconnected markets, albeit often through
colonization.
● In short, since ancient times, human beings have sought distant places to
settle, produce, and trade goods. All of this has been made possible by
improvements in technology and transportation.
Globalization took off in the 19th century:
→ The first "wave" of globalization driven by technologies like steamships,
railways, the telegraph, and also by the increasing economic cooperation between
countries (the era of the gold standard)
+ United Kingdom hegemony.
→ The second “wave” of globalization: after 1990, there was a push for
free-market capitalism, which spread global trade networks, financial flows, and
international institutions like the World Trade Organization (WTO)
+ US hegemony.
What was in-between the two waves? 2 world wars
This first wave crashes on the ruins of World War I, followed by post-war
protectionism, the Great Depression, and World War II.
After World War II, in the mid-1940s, the United States led efforts to revive
international trade and investment according to negotiated rules (the Bretton Woods
system) → second wave of globalization, which is still ongoing (?)
Financial globalization
Not only high-income countries

● Cross-Border Capital Flows: Peaked at nearly 20% of global GDP before

the 2008 financial crisis, but dropped significantly in the following years.
● Foreign Direct Investment: Global FDI reached over $2 trillion in 2007 but
fell sharply during the crisis and the COVID-19 pandemic.

3. Drivers / causes of globalization

Technics, economics and politics

Technics:
● Technological advancements in transport, communications, and digital
networks are critical for creating a connected world.
● Examples: Jet planes, container ships, and the internet have drastically
reduced travel and communication time, enabling faster and cheaper global
interaction.
Economics:
● Global capitalism drives companies to seek new markets and resources
worldwide, fueling economic integration.
● Examples: Multinational corporations like Amazon and Alibaba are motivated
to expand their reach, capitalizing on economies of scale and diversifying
operations internationally.
Politics:
● Political agreements, institutions, and ideologies support and regulate global
interactions.
● Examples: Trade agreements like NAFTA create rules for cross-border
economic exchanges, IMF and World Bank and the so-called Washington
consensus, US and Western countries’ influence

Theoretical interpretations of the origins of globalization

Different theoretical perspectives – that vary according to the weight attributed to the
main factor behind globalization
1. A liberal perspective: structural forces
2. A (neo)institutionalist perspective: institutional forces
3. A realist perspective: role of states
4. A constructivist perspective: the role of ideas

A liberal perspective
Argument
Globalization is driven by market forces and the liberalization of economies. Liberals
argue that globalization is a natural outcome of the removal of barriers to trade,
investment, and capital flows.
Origins
The removal of capital controls in the 1970s (after the collapse of Bretton Woods)
allowed for the free movement of capital, which liberals see as key to the rise of
financial globalization.
Financial innovation and technology further accelerated globalization by reducing
transaction costs and increasing the mobility of capital.
→ almost an automatic phenomenon

A (neo)institutionalist perspective
Key Argument: Globalization is facilitated by international institutions that promote
cooperation among states and ensure the stability of global financial systems.
This theory emphasizes the importance of rules, norms, and institutions in
maintaining open and integrated financial markets.
Origins of Globalization: Global institutions such as the IMF, World Bank, and WTO
play a crucial role in coordinating economic policies, reducing barriers to financial
flows, and managing crises.
Example: The IMF and the World Bank
A realist perspective
● Key Argument: From this perspective, states remain the primary actors in the
international system, and globalization is shaped by the interests and relative
power of states, rather than by market forces alone.
● Two variants:
A. Hegemonic stability theory: a dominant and benevolent hegemonic power
(historically the UK and later the US) that provides global public goods such
as stable currencies, open markets, and security for trade.
B. Globalization is seen as a tool used by powerful states to maintain or
enhance their dominance.
The United States, for example, is viewed as a key driver of the international
financial system due to its control over global institutions and the dollar's role
as the global reserve currency.
The opening of capital markets, liberalization of trade, and promotion of global
financial institutions are framed as strategies used by powerful countries to
enhance their interests and power.

A constructivist perspective
Key Argument:
● Constructivists argue that globalization is not simply the result of material
forces (markets, technology) but is also shaped by ideas, norms, and shared
beliefs. The creation of global networks and institutions depends on shared
understandings of economic governance and the role of markets.
Origins of Financial Globalization:
● Globalization is driven by the spread of neoliberal economic ideas, such as
those promoted by the Washington Consensus. Policymakers and elites adopt
these ideas, which influence the way financial institutions are structured and
markets are opened.
● Constructivists also emphasize how norms around international cooperation,
risk management, and the importance of stable global markets contribute to
globalization.

4. The crisis of globalization

Globalization Under Stress:
● Globalization is not a smooth, linear process; it faces periodic setbacks and
crises that challenge its continuation.
● Deglobalization: Deglobalization refers to a retreat from the global
interconnectedness that defines globalization. It’s marked by slower economic
integration, reinforced borders, and a preference for national interests over
international cooperation.
 ● Slowbalization: Slowbalization is a term describing the recent slowdown in
the pace of globalization, where global integration continues, but at a much
slower rate.
Not a decline, but a slowdown
Key Crises Challenging Globalization

1. The 2008 global financial crisis (GFC)

The 2008 GFC was a severe worldwide economic crisis originating from the collapse
of major financial institutions in the U.S. due to risky mortgage-backed securities and
poor regulatory oversight. The crisis spread globally due to the interconnected
financial system.
Impact on Globalization: The GFC exposed vulnerabilities in global financial
networks and triggered distrust in the global capitalist model. Countries re-evaluated
their dependence on global markets and, in some cases, strengthened national
regulatory frameworks to avoid future crises. This crisis marked the beginning of a
slow decline in global trade and financial flows, often referred to as the start of
“slowbalization.”
2. The COVID pandemic
The pandemic, beginning in 2020, halted international travel, disrupted global supply
chains, and led to widespread health and economic crises.
Impact on Globalization: The pandemic exposed the fragility of global supply
chains, particularly in essential sectors like medical equipment and food. Many
countries shifted focus to securing local production of critical goods and reassessed
their dependency on imports.
Additionally, national borders were reinforced, and international cooperation faced
strains, as countries prioritized their own populations for vaccines and resources.
This increased awareness of national vulnerabilities contributed to deglobalization
trends.
3. Geopolitical conflicts:
Russia’s invasion of Ukraine in 2022 brought geopolitical tensions to the forefront,
especially between Russia and Western countries. The resulting economic sanctions
imposed by the U.S., EU, and allies severely restricted Russia’s access to global
markets.
Impact on Globalization: This conflict has accelerated deglobalization in several
ways. The West imposed financial sanctions that limited Russia’s economic reach,
and many companies withdrew from Russian markets.
Energy supplies became politicized, leading Europe to seek alternatives to Russian
gas and reduce dependence on a single supplier.
The war highlighted the risks of economic dependency on politically unstable
regions, driving some nations to embrace “strategic autonomy” by diversifying their
resources and reducing reliance on adversaries.
4. Great power rivalry
As countries like China, Russia, and India gain global influence, there is a shift from
a U.S.-centered unipolar world to a multipolar one with several competing powers.
This rivalry often results in countries forming competing economic, technological,
and military alliances.
U.S.- China Competition: The rivalry between the U.S. and China includes trade
wars, restrictions on technology exports, and competition over 5G networks and
artificial intelligence. The U.S. has sought to limit Chinese influence, as seen in its
campaign to restrict Huawei from participating in 5G infrastructure.
Impact on globalization: This competition often leads countries to limit economic
and technological exchanges with rivals, opting instead to develop independent,
secure systems. For example, the U.S. and its allies have restricted Chinese access
to critical technologies, creating a “tech decoupling” that splits the global technology
sector.
5. Populism
Populism and nationalism have been growing globally, with movements pushing for
greater national sovereignty and reduced international cooperation.
These movements view globalization as a threat to national identity, jobs, and social
cohesion.
Example:
Impact on globalization: Populism promotes policies that emphasize self-reliance,
protect domestic industries, and restrict immigration. Such policies often reduce
trade, weaken global institutions, and strain international partnerships

5. Multicentric Globalization and Emerging Powers

In contrast to deglobalization, “multicentric globalization” suggests that globalization
is not necessarily ending but is being reshaped by emerging powers, each with their
own approach to global integration.
New centers of influence are developing, primarily outside the traditional Western
powers, driving a “clash of globalizations” where different countries promote their
own models of global engagement.

China’s belt and road initiative (BRI)

● The BRI is China’s global infrastructure and economic development initiative,
connecting Asia, Africa, and Latina America. It involves extensive
investments in transportation, digital networks, and energy infrastructure.
Launched by China in 2013 under President Xi Jinping

Key components of the BRI

The Silk Road Economic Belt ("Belt"):
Refers to land-based routes connecting China to Europe via Central Asia.
Focuses on building railways, highways, pipelines, and economic corridors that link
regions across Eurasia.
The Maritime Silk Road ("Road"):
Focuses on sea-based routes linking China's coastal regions to Southeast Asia,
South Asia, Africa, and Europe.
Involves the construction of ports, shipping lanes, and other maritime infrastructure.
Digital Silk Road:
A newer addition emphasizing digital infrastructure, including fiber-optic cables, 5G
networks, e-commerce platforms, and data centers.
Health Silk Road:
Aimed at enhancing global health cooperation, including support for medical
infrastructure, vaccine development, and emergency responses (prominent during
the COVID-19 pandemic).

Goals
International
Economic Connectivity:
Boost trade and investment by creating seamless transportation and communication
networks.
Lower costs and increase efficiency for cross-border commerce.
Global Development:
Improve infrastructure in developing countries, fostering economic growth and
poverty reduction.
Strengthen economic ties between China and participating nations.
Domestic
Strategic Influence:
● Expand China's geopolitical influence by fostering interdependence with
partner countries.
● Create alternative trade routes to counterbalance U.S.-led global trade
systems.
Domestic Development:
● Stimulate economic growth in China's less-developed inland regions by
connecting them to global markets.
● Create demand for Chinese industries, especially in construction, engineering,
and manufacturing.
● Global Impact: Through the BRI, China is creating a new form of
globalization with “Chinese characteristics.” The initiative reflects China’s aim
to position itself as a central player in the global economy, offering an
alternative to Western-led economic models.
● Debates: While the BRI promotes connectivity, it has raised concerns about
debt dependency and geopolitical influence, with some countries wary of
becoming overly reliant on Chinese financing and infrastructure.

Is Globalization good or bad?

The good of globalization
1. Economic Growth and Prosperity
● Explanation: Globalization expands trade and investment opportunities,
stimulating economic growth worldwide. Developing nations gain access to
markets, technology, and foreign direct investment.
● Example: Countries like Vietnam and Bangladesh have experienced
significant economic growth by integrating into global supply chains,
especially in textiles and manufacturing.
2. Cultural Exchange and Diversity
● Explanation: Globalization facilitates the exchange of ideas, values, and
cultural practices, enriching societies. Exposure to diverse cultures can foster
understanding and reduce prejudices.
● Example: Global platforms like Netflix and Spotify spread cultural products
like Korean pop music (K-pop) and Indian cinema to audiences worldwide.
3. Innovation and Technological Advancement
● Explanation: Globalization accelerates the diffusion of technology and
knowledge, allowing nations to adopt innovations that improve industries,
healthcare, and education.
● Example: Access to global tech leaders like Apple or Tesla has transformed
industries, and international cooperation has advanced scientific research
(e.g., mRNA vaccines for COVID-19)
4. Addressing Global Challenges
● Explanation: Globalization fosters international collaboration on shared
problems, such as climate change, pandemics, and poverty.
● Example: Agreements like the Paris Climate Accord or the World Health
Organization’s (WHO) initiatives show how globalization enables coordinated
action for global issues.

The bad of globalization

1. Economic Inequality
● Explanation: While globalization increases overall wealth, its benefits are
unevenly distributed, leading to widening gaps between and within countries.
Workers in developed nations may lose jobs due to outsourcing, while poorer
nations may become overly dependent on exploitative industries.
● Example: Factory closures in industrial regions like the U.S. Rust Belt have
been attributed to offshoring production to countries with cheaper labor.
2. Loss of Cultural Identity
● Explanation: The spread of dominant global cultures, often Western, can
homogenize societies and erode local traditions and languages.
 ● Example: Critics argue that the ubiquity of American fast-food chains, movies,
and consumer goods overshadows indigenous cuisines, arts, and crafts.
3. Environmental Degradation
● Explanation: Increased industrial production, transportation, and resource
extraction to meet global demand strain the planet’s ecosystems, contributing
to deforestation, pollution, and climate change.
● Example: The Amazon rainforest has suffered deforestation, partly driven by
global demand for beef and soy products.
4. Sovereignty and Dependence
● Explanation: Globalization can reduce national sovereignty as countries align
policies with global markets or organizations. Additionally, dependency on
global supply chains can leave nations vulnerable to external disruptions.
● Example: The COVID-19 pandemic revealed how reliant countries were on
imported medical supplies, leading to shortages and delays during a global
health crisis.
To wrap-up
Globalization:
● what is and measures
● historical record
● drivers
● the challenges to globalization
● the alternatives

4. Global (dis)orders

Agenda
1. Order and disorders
2. Types of orders (unipolarity, bipolarity and multipolarity)
3. The shift among orders in practice: from the end of Cold War till today
4. The challengers: international and domestic

1. Order and disorder

- In the discipline of International Relations, "order" refers to the structured
arrangements of power, norms, institutions, and practices that shape
interactions among states and other actors in the international system.
- It encompasses the rules, principles, and expectations that guide behavior,
reduce uncertainty, and enable cooperation or competition in global politics.

Why a focus on order?

Order is a central concept in IR because:
 ● It Provides stability: Order mitigates the anarchic nature of the international
system, where no overarching authority governs state behavior. By
establishing shared norms and rules, it reduces the likelihood of constant
conflict.
● It facilitates cooperation: An established order enables states to pursue
collective goals, such as economic stability, security, or environmental
protection, by creating predictable interactions.
● It reflects power and legitimacy: Order is shaped by the dominant powers,
which embed their interests and values within its structures. However, for an
order to endure, it must also be perceived as legitimate by other actors,
balancing coercion with consent.

Uses of order in IR
Order is used to describe and analyze historical patterns of power and governance in
the international system. Scholars examine different orders to understand how power
and norms have structured interactions over time, such as:
● Westphalian Order (1648): Based on state sovereignty and non-intervention,
emerging from the Peace of Westphalia.
● Post-World War II liberal order: Led by the United States, characterized by
multilateral institutions (e.g., UN, WTO), free trade, and the promotion of
democracy.
● Emerging multipolar order: With the rise of powers like China and India, the
liberal order is increasingly challenged, suggesting a shift toward a more
fragmented or multipolar order (experts believe this is the system we currently
live in)

Explanations of stability and change

The concept of order is essential in explaining both stability and transformation in the
international system:
● Stability: Orders endure when the dominant power maintains its leadership,
and when rules align with the interests and values of key states.
● Change: Orders collapse or evolve when dominant powers decline (e.g.,
British-led imperial order) or when challengers force reconfigurations (e.g., the
Cold War’s ideological division).

2. Types of international political order (depending on how power is distributed)

● Unipolar
● Bipolar
● Multipolar
The structure of the international system—unipolar, bipolar, or multipolar—affects the
behavior of states, their alliance strategies, and the nature of global stability and
conflict.
1. Unipolar system
A unipolar system is dominated by a single superpower that holds a disproportionate
amount of military, economic, and ideological influence, enabling it to shape the
international order largely in its favor.
Asymmetric power distribution: Other states are significantly weaker, reducing
their ability to directly challenge the hegemon.
Global leadership: The unipolar power often establishes and enforces the rules of
the international system, such as trade norms, security arrangements, and
governance structures.

Not all superpowers are alike:

As John Ruggie (1992, 585) observes in his analysis of the emergence of the
post-World War II international order,
"had Nazi Germany or the Soviet Union ended up as the world's leading power after
World War II, there is no indication whatsoever that the intentions of either country
included creating anything remotely like the international institutional order that came
to prevail”

State behaviour
Dominant power's role: The unipolar state tends to act as a global leader, providing
public goods such as security (e.g., US military alliances) and economic stability
(e.g., maintaining open markets). However, it may also act unilaterally, bypassing
international institutions when its interests are threatened (e.g., US interventions in
Iraq).
Bandwagoning vs. Balancing: Lesser powers are more likely to
bandwagon—aligning with the hegemon to benefit from its protection or economic
opportunities—since balancing against a unipolar power is difficult. Balancing, if
attempted, usually involves indirect methods, such as economic competition or soft
power strategies.

Alliance dynamics
Alliance dependence: Alliances in a unipolar system are heavily dependent on the
hegemon, which has the capacity to reward or punish its allies. Examples include
NATO under US leadership and alliances in East Asia like the US-Japan security
agreement.
Limited balancing coalitions: While balancing against the unipolar power is rare,
regional powers may form localized coalitions to counter specific policies (e.g.,
China's alignment with Russia against certain US policies).

Consequences
Stability debate: Proponents argue that unipolarity fosters stability because the
dominant power deters potential challengers. Critics contend it can lead to overreach
by the hegemon and resentment among weaker states, potentially causing instability
(e.g., opposition to US dominance in the post-Cold War era).
Unilateralism vs. Multilateralism: The hegemon may prioritize unilateral action,
undermining multilateralism and alienating allies. This creates tensions in global
governance and weakens international institutions.

2. Bipolar systems
In a bipolar system, two superpowers dominate global politics, dividing the world into
two opposing blocs with distinct ideologies, economic systems, and military alliances
(e.g., US vs. USSR during the Cold War).
Rigid blocs: Alliances are relatively fixed, with each superpower maintaining
exclusive spheres of influence and clear boundaries between the blocs.
Mutual deterrence: The superpowers often avoid direct conflict due to the high
costs involved, especially in the case of nuclear-armed rivals.
State behaviour
● Superpowers’ Behavior: The two powers focus on maintaining and
expanding their spheres of influence, often through proxy conflicts, arms
races, and ideological competition.
● Alignment Pressures on Smaller States: Lesser states face pressure to
align with one bloc, often with limited neutrality (e.g., the Non-Aligned
Movement). States outside the blocs risk marginalization or intervention.
● Arms Race and Competition: Military and technological competition
between the superpowers is a hallmark of bipolarity (e.g., the US-Soviet arms
race during the Cold War).
Alliance dynamics
● Tight Alliances: Alliances in bipolar systems are cohesive, with little room for
defection due to mutual dependency and high stakes (e.g., NATO and the
Warsaw Pact).
● Proxy Wars: Superpowers often compete indirectly through proxies, with
alliances extending to smaller states involved in these conflicts (e.g., Vietnam
War, Afghan-Soviet War).
Consequences
Relative stability: Bipolarity is often seen as stable because the two dominant
powers check each other’s influence, reducing the likelihood of global wars.
However, regional instability is common due to proxy conflicts.
Ideological divide: The global system is characterized by ideological rivalry,
influencing states’ domestic and foreign policies and polarizing international
institutions.
3. Multipolar systems
A multipolar system features several significant powers, none of which is dominant
enough to unilaterally shape the international system. Examples include Europe
before World War I or the emerging post-Cold War world with powers like the US,
China, the EU, India, and Russia.
Dynamic power balances: Power is more evenly distributed, leading to frequent
shifts in alliances and coalitions based on shared interests rather than fixed blocs.
Complex interdependence: States are connected through trade, diplomacy, and
multilateral institutions, increasing interdependence and cooperation but also the
potential for conflict.
State behavior
Flexible Alignments: States pursue pragmatic and flexible foreign policies, forming
temporary alliances or partnerships to achieve specific goals. For instance, countries
like India maintain strategic autonomy by cooperating with both the US and Russia.
Balancing as a Strategy: Balancing is more common, as states form coalitions to
counter rising powers or threats (e.g., the Quad alliance against China’s
assertiveness in Asia).
Increased Rivalries: Competition for regional dominance and influence among
multiple powers can lead to frequent conflicts, trade wars, and diplomatic disputes.
Alliance dynamics
Shifting Coalitions: Alliances are less rigid and often issue-specific. For example,
the US, EU, and Japan align on trade but differ on environmental policies.
Regional Hegemonies: Regional powers, like China in Asia or Germany in Europe,
may dominate local alliances and shape regional orders within the broader multipolar
system.
Consequences
Increased Instability: Multipolarity is often associated with greater instability, as the
system lacks a clear leader or a stable equilibrium. The risk of miscalculation or
conflict increases with multiple competing powers.
Opportunities for Cooperation: Multipolarity allows for diverse multilateral
frameworks and forums where states can collaborate on global issues (e.g., climate
change through the Paris Agreement or trade through regional blocs).
Challenges to Global Governance: The diffusion of power complicates global
governance, as no single power can enforce rules or manage crisis effectively.
Institutions may struggle to accommodate competing interests.
Comparison among the 3 systems

3. From the cold war to unipolarity

Cold War Dynamics and the Collapse of Bipolarity: During the Cold War
(1947-1991), the international order was defined by the rivalry between the United
States and the Soviet Union, two superpowers with opposing ideologies, geopolitical
goals, and economic systems (capitalism vs. communism). The collapse of the
Soviet Union in 1991 led to the end of this bipolar world, paving the way for the
United States to emerge as the sole global superpower.
Unipolar “Moment” and Liberal Optimism: In the 1990s, this shift toward
unipolarity gave rise to a world order dominated by the US
The unipolar moment (1990s): key features
a. Optimistic Liberal Order: In the post-Cold War 1990s, there was a strong
belief that liberal democracy and free markets would spread globally, bringing
peace and prosperity. The US pursued policies to promote these ideals,
leading to what was perceived as a period of relative stability and order. The
West believed that former socialist or authoritarian states would gradually
integrate into this liberal world order.
Clinton oversaw NATO’s eastward expansion, incorporating former Soviet bloc
countries like Poland, Hungary, and the Czech Republic.
Scholars such as Francis Fukuyama suggested this marked the “end of history” as
liberalism seemed to triumph over other ideological systems
b. Clinton’s Focus on Economic Globalization: President Bill Clinton’s
administration emphasized economic globalization as a pathway to domestic
prosperity and international stability.
With the US leading, the 1990s witnessed a significant expansion of economic
globalization, where international trade, financial markets, and technological
advancements connected economies more closely.
Organizations like the IMF, the World Bank and the WTO were instrumental in
facilitating economic integration and global trade, and many countries embraced
free-market reforms, believing that economic integration would lead to global stability
and prosperity > this is the era of the so-called Washington consensus
What is the Washington consensus? What is its relationship
with the unipolar moment?
The Washington Consensus
Term Coined by John Williamson (1989):
● The term "Washington Consensus" was first coined by economist John
Williamson in 1989 as a way to encapsulate a set of economic policy reforms
that policymakers in Washington, D.C., especially those in the U.S. Treasury,
the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the World Bank, recommended for
Latin American countries dealing with debt crises.
● Williamson's intent was not to describe a global policy but rather to outline the
set of reforms that seemed to have broad agreement among policymakers in
Washington on how developing countries, particularly in Latin America,
could achieve economic stability and growth.
10 policy prescriptions
1. Fiscal Discipline: Control of fiscal deficits to prevent unsustainable debt.
2. Reordering Public Expenditure Priorities: Reducing unproductive spending
and reallocating funds to essential services like education and infrastructure.
3. Tax Reform: Simplifying tax codes and broadening the tax base to enhance
revenue without stifling growth.
4. Liberalizing Interest Rates: Allowing interest rates to be determined by the
market rather than controlled by the state
5. Competitive Exchange Rates: Maintaining an exchange rate that
encourages exports and avoids overvaluation
6. Trade Liberalization: Reducing trade barriers to encourage global
competition and integration.
7. Liberalization of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI): Removing restrictions on
foreign investment to attract more capital
8. Privatization: Selling state-owned enterprises to increase efficiency
9. Deregulation: Reducing regulations that were viewed as inhibiting business
growth and competition
10. Secure Property Rights: Protecting property rights to encourage investment
and economic stability.
Examples: the core components
Fiscal Discipline:
 ● The Washington Consensus emphasized controlling public spending to avoid
budget deficits. This was seen as crucial for macroeconomic stability, as
unchecked spending and large deficits were thought to lead to inflation and
unsustainable debt levels, which could destabilize the economy and erode
investor confidence.
Trade Liberalization:
● Reducing trade barriers to encourage global competition and integration
Privatization:
● Privatizing state-owned enterprises (SOEs) was a core feature of the
Washington Consensus. Privatization was seen as a way to improve
efficiency by moving assets into the hands of private owners who would be
motivated by profit incentives to manage them better than the government.
Deregulation:
● Deregulation focused on reducing the rules and restrictions seen as obstacles
to business and investment. By cutting red tape, it was believed that countries
could foster entrepreneurship, enhance competition, and create a more
dynamic and resilient economy.
Promotion of Market Liberalization:
● The Washington Consensus viewed market liberalization as the universal path
to economic stability and growth.
● By emphasizing a reduced role for the state and an increased reliance on
market forces, it was thought that countries would become more efficient,
competitive, and better integrated into the global economy.

How did the Washington Consensus become global?

Two key aspects:
1. Conditional Lending:
● The IMF and World Bank played a pivotal role in promoting the Washington
Consensus through conditional lending, a process where loans were provided
only if the recipient country agreed to implement specified reforms. These
conditions often aligned directly with the Washington Consensus policies,
making them instruments for policy change in countries facing financial crises.
2. Influence of U.S. Policy:
● Given the U.S.’s dominant role in both the IMF and World Bank, U.S.
policymakers strongly influenced the focus on market-oriented reforms. These
reforms reflected U.S. economic priorities, such as promoting free trade and
liberalizing economies to support global economic integration.
From 2008 crisis to multipolarity
Impact of the 2008 Financial Crisis: The 2008 global financial crisis marked a
turning point, revealing vulnerabilities in the US-led global order. Originating in the
US housing market, the crisis quickly spread, destabilizing economies worldwide and
shaking confidence in the liberal economic model that had dominated post-Cold War
international relations.
This economic downturn catalyzed skepticism toward globalization and liberal
capitalism and weakened Western economies, allowing other powers, especially
China, to gain influence on the global stage.
Multipolarity
Following the financial crisis, the rise of China and Russia became more
pronounced, challenging the unipolar order. China’s economic ascent, political
assertiveness, and initiatives like the Belt and Road Initiative signaled a shift toward
a more multipolar world. Meanwhile, Russia under Vladimir Putin pursued a more
aggressive foreign policy, evidenced by actions like the annexation of Crimea in
2014 and the 2022 aggression of Ukraine.
These shifts point to a world where multiple power centers (US, China, Russia, and
regional actors) compete for influence, challenging the West’s previously
unchallenged dominance.
4. The challengers

a. New powers
China’s Assertive Role under Xi Jinping: China, under President Xi Jinping,
adopted a more assertive foreign policy. Initiatives like the Belt and Road Initiative
(BRI) extended China’s economic influence across Asia, Africa, and beyond, while
military modernization and territorial claims in the South China Sea challenged US
influence in Asia. Xi’s policies projected China as an alternative to the US-led order,
advocating for a “new era” in global politics where China would play a central role.
Russia’s Resurgence and Actions in Ukraine: Russia, under Putin, sought to
reassert itself as a global power, challenging Western influence in Europe and its
near-abroad. In 2014, Russia annexed Crimea, and in 2022, it launched a full-scale
invasion of Ukraine, aiming to prevent NATO’s expansion and preserve its sphere of
influence. These actions have severely strained Russia-West relations, leading some
analysts to describe the situation as a “new Cold War.”
Challenges to the Liberal Order: By the 2020s, the liberal international order faced
significant challenges from both inside and outside. Internal threats included
nationalist-populist movements, economic inequality, and the questioning of
globalization’s benefits. Externally, the rise of China and the assertiveness of Russia
presented formidable geopolitical challenges, raising questions about the future
viability of a Western-led order.

b. The BRICS
Who Are the BRICS?
The BRICS countries—Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa—represent
large, diverse economies from different continents, collectively accounting for a
significant portion of the world’s population, landmass, and resources. Since the
2000s, the BRICS have been seen as emblematic of the shift in global power
dynamics away from a purely Western-dominated order.

Economically, the BRICS countries are vital players in creating a more multipolar
world. China and India, in particular, have seen rapid economic growth, transforming
them into influential players in the global economy.
China’s economy is the largest among the BRICS and has become the world’s
second-largest, while India’s population and market potential make it a significant
force in both regional and global affairs. Russia, while economically smaller, has
leveraged its energy resources and military capabilities to assert its influence,
particularly in Eastern Europe and parts of Asia
The BRIC’s challenge

The New Development Bank (NDB): Established in 2014 by the BRICS, the NDB
provides financing for infrastructure and sustainable development projects in BRICS
and other emerging economies. It is seen as a counter to the IMF and World Bank,
offering countries an alternative without the traditional Western-imposed conditions.
Contesting Trade and Economic Norms: The BRICS have collectively pushed for
reforms in global economic governance to give greater voice and voting power to
emerging economies. They have advocated for trade policies and international
agreements that recognize the unique economic needs of developing nations and
provide alternatives to Western-led globalization​
Theoretical Arguments on “Rising Powers” and the Challenge to the US-Led
Order
In international relations theory, “rising powers” refer to countries that are growing in
economic, political, and military influence, potentially reshaping the international
order. Scholars debate whether these countries, particularly the BRICS, can
effectively challenge the current order, especially given the dominance of the United
States and its allies in global governance structures.
Two main perspectives (yr Textbook)
● Realist
● Liberal
The realist perspective
Realists argue that rising powers will inevitably seek to challenge the status quo as
they gain more power. In this view, countries like China and Russia are “revisionist
powers” aiming to disrupt the existing US-led order and carve out spheres of
influence.
Realists point to China’s assertive actions in the South China Sea, Russia’s
intervention in Ukraine, and the BRICS’ attempts to create parallel institutions as
examples of efforts to shift power away from the West
The liberal perspective
Liberals argue that rising powers will ultimately seek integration within the existing
order rather than complete replacement of it. While they may seek reforms, these
countries benefit from the current globalized economy, as seen in China’s extensive
trade with the US and Europe.
Liberals believe that as these countries rise, they may be socialized into cooperative
behavior within the existing institutions, albeit with reformed roles and greater
autonomy​

c. US politics and policy

Not only external challengers. US politics has changed too
Obama’s “Pivot to Asia”: Recognizing China’s rising influence, the Obama
administration announced a “pivot to Asia” strategy, aiming to strengthen the US’s
presence in the Asia-Pacific region. This shift highlighted the growing strategic rivalry
between the US and China, especially regarding issues like trade, military power,
and influence in Southeast Asia.
Trump’s Nationalist Foreign Policy: President Donald Trump’s “America First”
approach represented a significant departure from traditional US foreign policy.
Trump was openly critical of globalization, questioned NATO’s relevance, withdrew
from several international agreements (such as the Paris Climate Accord), and took
a confrontational stance toward China, launching a trade war. His policies
emphasized US sovereignty over multilateralism, which weakened the liberal
international order and left allies uncertain about US commitments.
To wrap-up
Order and disorders
Types of orders (unipolarity, bipolarity and multipolarity)
A recent historical overview: from the end of Cold War till today
The challengers: international and domestic

5. Global actors: International Organizations and NGOs

Agenda
From state actors to non-state actors
Types of non-state actors:
● IGOs
● NGOs
● MNCs and financial actors
Public versus private authority in global governance

1. States
● Permanent population
● A defined territory
● A government
● A capacity to enter in relationship with other states
(Montevideo Convention 1933)
> Sovereignty

(all states are equal) But some are more equal than others
● “Organizationally strong and weak states” under conditions of globalization
(Cerny 2010)
● Size matters too – large vs small (Katzenstein 2003): size affects vulnerability
and autonomy but also capacity to exercise leverage on other actors

To recap: strong vs. weak, large vs. small

Hierarchy among states in global governance
● Focus on ‘big’ states, those that are militarily and economically stronger
● Why? These states tend to be associated with ‘policy-makers’ (especially in
international negotiations), whereas ‘middle powers’ and small states are
traditionally seen as ‘policy takers’

Examples
● ‘Rhetorical entrapment’ (Schimmelfennig 2001): strategic use of ideas to
influence supranational negotiations
[Schimmelfennig (2001) used the concept of "rhetorical entrapment" to explain
how pro-enlargement EU member states persuaded more reluctant states to
support the Eastern enlargement of the European Union by appealing to the
EU’s foundational values of democracy, human rights, and commitment to
European unity, making it hard for opponents to justify their resistance without
contradicting these core principles.]
● ‘Havens in a storm’ (Sharman 2006)
[In Havens in a Storm (2006), Jason Sharman examines how small states and
jurisdictions establish themselves as financial havens by offering offshore
banking, low taxes, and minimal regulation, effectively competing in the global
financial system by attracting foreign capital, often despite international
pressure for greater transparency and regulation.]
2. IOs
- examples: United Nations (UN), World Trade Organization (WTO), World
Health Organization (WHO), International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank,
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
What functions do IOs perform?
● Typical of what IR scholars have highlighted: IOs lower transaction costs
● What are transaction costs?
Transaction costs
Transaction costs refer to the costs associated with making, maintaining, and
enforcing agreements between states.
In the context of international cooperation, transaction costs may arise from several
factors, such as information asymmetry, mistrust between actors, enforcement
difficulties, and the complexity of international negotiations.
Types of transaction costs
● Negotiation Costs: Time and resources required to reach agreements,
especially in multilateral settings where many actors are involved.
● Monitoring and Compliance Costs: Ensuring that states adhere to
agreements can be resource-intensive, particularly in environments where
transparency is limited or where incentives to cheat exist.
● Enforcement Costs: Once agreements are reached, ensuring that they are
implemented and enforced often involves additional costs.
● Uncertainty and Information Costs: States may not have full information
about other actors' intentions, capabilities, or compliance, leading to the need
for costly information-gathering mechanisms.
Role of International Organizations (IOs) in lowering transaction costs:
● International Organizations play a critical role in reducing these transaction
costs, making cooperation between states more efficient. Here’s how:
● Providing a Forum for Negotiation: IOs serve as platforms where states
can negotiate agreements more easily. By providing a structured environment
and established procedures, IOs reduce the time and resources needed for
states to communicate and reach consensus.
● Establishing Rules and Norms: IOs create shared rules, standards, and
norms that govern state behavior, reducing the uncertainty and information
costs associated with cooperation. When states operate under common
frameworks, it is easier to predict other states' actions and build trust.
 ● Information Sharing and Transparency: Many IOs have mechanisms for
information sharing and reporting, reducing the information asymmetry that
can raise transaction costs. Organizations like the IMF monitor states’
economic policies.
● Lowering Enforcement Costs: By monitoring compliance and offering
technical assistance, IOs can reduce the costs of enforcement.
In short
● International Organizations help lower transaction costs in IR by providing
structured frameworks for negotiation, reducing uncertainty, monitoring
compliance, and lowering enforcement costs.
● In issue areas as diverse trade, security, finance, and climate

Theoretical perspectives
● Neoliberal institutionalism: IOs as enablers of cooperation
● Realism: IOs as tools for states' interests
● Constructivism: IOs’ role in setting norms and framing problems
● Marxism: IOs reinforcing capitalist global structures
Neoliberal institutionalism
● Key Idea: IOs enable cooperation between states by reducing transaction
costs, providing information, and fostering trust. They are seen as platforms
for achieving shared goals and addressing collective problems.
● IOs as Enablers of Cooperation: IOs function as forums for dialogue,
helping states navigate conflicts and reach agreements. They provide public
goods like international peace, economic stability, and environmental
protection.
● Critique: Liberalism may overestimate the ability of IOs to foster cooperation,
especially in a world where power asymmetries persist.
Realism
● Key Idea: IOs are instruments of powerful states, used to pursue their own
national interests. They are not independent actors but extensions of state
power.
● IOs as Tools for State Interests:Realists view IOs as platforms for states to
project power or achieve goals they could not through unilateral action. IOs
reflect the underlying power dynamics of the international system.
● Example: The UNSC’s inability to act decisively on Syria due to vetoes by
Russia and China demonstrates how IOs are constrained by great power
politics.
● Critique: This perspective underestimates the agency of IOs in shaping
outcomes or framing global agendas independently.
Constructivism
● Key Idea: IOs shape global norms, frame international problems, and
influence state behavior through ideational power rather than material
resources.
● IOs as Norm Entrepreneurs:IOs do not merely implement state directives;
they actively construct and spread norms that guide state actions. Their
bureaucracies and internal cultures play a critical role in shaping how they
interpret and address issues
● Critique: Constructivists may overemphasize the autonomy of IOs,
downplaying how member states can constrain their actions.
Marxist
● Key Idea: IOs reinforce global capitalism by serving the interests of wealthy
states and transnational elites. They perpetuate economic inequality and
exploit developing countries.
● IOs as Reinforcers of Capitalist Structures:IOs are seen as tools for
advancing the neoliberal economic order, which benefits powerful states and
corporations at the expense of marginalized groups. Ios policies reflect the
priorities of capital over people.
● Example: In the 1990s, IMF loans to developing countries often mandated
privatization and trade liberalization, which critics argue deepened inequality
and poverty.
● Critique: This perspective can downplay the ways IOs also promote
development or protect vulnerable populations.
States and International Organisations are public actors
● Traditionally, global governance has been seen as the domain of state actors
and international organizations
● Over the past few decades, IR scholars have increasingly focused on the role
of private actors in shaping the global system. >
● Private authority refers to the capacity of non-state actors (MNCs,
market actors, NGOs) to create and enforce rules, provide governance
functions, and shape policy outcomes.
Main private actors
● MNCs
● Market actors
● NGOs
1. MNCs
MNCs are firms that operate in multiple countries through subsidiaries, branches, or
joint ventures, while maintaining a centralized management structure. They typically
have headquarters in one country (the home country) and conduct business
activities in one or more other countries (the host countries). MNCs play a pivotal
role in the global economy, as they facilitate the flow of capital, technology, goods,
and services across borders.
MNCs and the linkage to money and finance
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI): MNCs engage in FDI, where they invest capital in
foreign economies by establishing or expanding their operations (factories, offices,
supply chains) abroad
Economic impact on host countries (1)
Positive Impacts:
● Job Creation: MNCs create employment opportunities in host countries by
establishing factories, offices, and other operations.
● Technology Transfer: MNCs bring advanced technologies, managerial
practices, and expertise to the host country, potentially raising productivity.
● Capital Inflows: FDI from MNCs brings significant amounts of capital, which
can stimulate economic growth and development.
● Global Integration: MNCs can help integrate local economies into the global
market, providing access to international markets for host countries’ goods
and services.
Economic impact on host countries (2)
Negative Impacts:
● Exploitation of Labor: In some cases, MNCs take advantage of lower labor
standards or weak regulatory environments in host countries, leading to poor
working conditions and wage suppression.
● Market Domination: MNCs can outcompete local firms, driving them out of
business and reducing domestic entrepreneurship.
● Environmental Degradation: MNCs may exploit natural resources in host
countries without regard to environmental sustainability, especially where
environmental regulations are weak.
● Profit Repatriation: A significant portion of the profits generated by MNCs in
host countries is often repatriated to their home countries, limiting the
economic benefits for the host nation.
2. Market actors
Very different actors, including banks, hedge funds and private equity firms, global
asset managers
What do they have in common?
3. NGOs
● NGOs as non-state, non-profit actors:vNGOs operate independently from
states and prioritize public interest over profit-making
● Examples include Amnesty International (AI), Greenpeace, and Médecins
Sans Frontières (MSF).
Growth post-Cold War:
● After the Cold War, democratization, advances in communication
technologies, and globalization propelled the rise of NGOs
● The number of international NGO increased dramatically, vastly outnumbering
IGOs
● NGOs are particularly visible in transboundary issues like human rights,
environmental protection, and humanitarian crises.
Functions
● Agenda-setting and norm creation
● Collaboration w/IGOs
● Provision of Services and Humanitarian Aid
> influence
● Agenda-Setting and Norm Creation: NGOs play a significant role in raising
awareness and shaping international norms by advocating for issues states
may overlook
● Example: Amnesty International (AI):
● AI has been pivotal in promoting international human rights standards, such
as campaigns against torture and for the abolition of the death penalty.
● Collaboration with IGOs: NGOs often work with IGOs like the UN to amplify
their influence and push for policy changes
● Example: Greenpeace:
● Greenpeace has worked with international conferences on climate change,
lobbying governments and IGOs to adopt stricter environmental policies.
● Provision of Services and Humanitarian Aid:NGOs deliver crucial aid and
services in crises, sometimes operating where states and IGOs cannot.
● Example: Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF):
● MSF provides emergency medical assistance during conflicts and natural
disasters, exemplifying NGOs' humanitarian function.
Limits and criticism
● 1. Power Asymmetries Among NGOs: Not all NGOs have equal influence;
larger, well-funded organizations often dominate international policymaking.
● Smaller NGOs may struggle to compete, creating disparities in representation.
● 2. Sovereignty-Based Constraints: The international system, which
prioritizes state sovereignty, limits NGOs’ ability to act independently or
enforce their agendas
● Example: NGOs may face restrictions or hostility from governments wary of
foreign interference.
● 3. Questions of Representation and Legitimacy: Critics argue that NGOs
lack an official mandate, leading to concerns about their accountability and
representativeness
Some NGOs are accused of pursuing their own interests rather than genuinely
representing civil society or affected populations.
Are NGOs influential in global politics? How? Which strategies?
International Campaign to Ban Landmines (ICBL) and the Ottawa Treaty
Overview
The International Campaign to Ban Landmines (ICBL) is a global network of NGOs
founded in 1992 to advocate for the prohibition of anti-personnel landmines. It played
a pivotal role in shaping the Ottawa Treaty, formally known as the Mine Ban Treaty,
signed in 1997.
How the ICBL shaped the treaty
Agenda-Setting:
● The ICBL raised awareness of the humanitarian crisis caused by landmines,
highlighting the indiscriminate harm to civilians during and after conflicts.
● Through reports, testimonies, and public campaigns, it framed landmines as
not only a security issue but also a moral and humanitarian one.
Coalition Building:
● ICBL brought together over 1,000 NGOs worldwide, including groups like
Human Rights Watch and Handicap International, to amplify its message and
coordinate lobbying efforts.
Collaboration with States and IGOs:
● The ICBL partnered with supportive states like Canada, Norway, and Belgium,
creating a "core group" of countries committed to banning landmines.
● It worked closely with the United Nations to align its goals with broader
international peace and security efforts.
Advocacy at Diplomatic Conferences:
● ICBL representatives participated in international forums, advocating for a
comprehensive ban. Their technical reports on landmine casualties and
demining challenges shaped negotiations.
Public Mobilization:
● The campaign used media and grassroots activism to pressure governments
to commit to banning landmines, making it a widely discussed global issue.
Outcome
The Ottawa Treaty, signed by 122 countries in 1997, prohibits the use, stockpiling,
production, and transfer of anti-personnel landmines. It also obligates signatories to
clear mined areas and assist victims.
Significance
● ICBL's Role: This case exemplifies how an NGO can bridge the gap between
grassroots activism and international diplomacy, demonstrating the power of
civil society in shaping international law.
● Impact: The treaty has led to the destruction of millions of stockpiled
landmines and significantly reduced their use globally.
Public versus private authority in global governance
The debate over public and private authority in global governance revolves around
the growing role of non-state actors, such as NGOs, multinational corporations
(MNCs), and hybrid public-private partnerships, in shaping international norms,
policies, and enforcement mechanisms. This shift challenges traditional state-centric
notions of authority in international relations.

Tensions between public and private authority

Legitimacy and Accountability:
● Public authority is accountable to states and, indirectly, to citizens via
governments.
● Private actors, such as NGOs and MNCs, often face criticism for lacking
democratic mandates, raising questions about whose interests they represent.
Effectiveness:
● IGOs like the WTO or UN can be slow due to bureaucracy and state
disagreements.
● NGOs and MNCs may act faster and innovate solutions, but they may also
prioritize narrow agendas over collective interests.
Power Asymmetries:
● Public institutions like the IMF are dominated by powerful states.
● Private authority reflects inequalities in resources and influence; large NGOs
or MNCs can overshadow smaller actors or marginalized voices.
To wrap-up
● From state to non-state actors
● Some major non-state actors (public and private)
● The debate between public and private authority in global governance
 6. Trade and finance

Agenda

1. Trade and finance as pillars of globalization

2. Historical evolution
3. Global governance
○ Trade
○ Finance

1. Trade and Finance as Separate but Interconnected Spheres

- Trade: Involves the exchange of goods and services

- Finance: Centers on monetary flows, capital mobility, and investments. Unlike
trade, finance lacks a clear physical infrastructure and relies on digital
networks and financial hubs

Interconnections

Disturbances in finance (e.g., currency crises) can disrupt trade by limiting credit or
altering exchange rates. Similarly, trade imbalances can lead to financial instability
through unsustainable debt accumulation. In short, crises in one sphere often have
"knock-on problems" in the other

Regulatory gaps between these domains: While the WTO governs trade, finance
is dominated by institutions like the IMF and World Bank, creating fragmented and
sometimes contradictory systems of global governance

Trade and finance as the two pillars of economic globalization

Intensity vs. Extensity in Globalization

● Intensity: Refers to the degree to which global economic flows (trade or

finance) cross borders. For example, increasing trade volumes signal
heightened intensity.
● Extensity: Refers to the geographical spread of these flows—how many
regions and countries are integrated into the global economy. Extensity
measures highlight whether globalization is truly global or limited to specific
"hotspots."

While intensity often increases with globalization, extensity is more uneven. For
instance, your readings argue that regions bypassed by global trade and finance
remain marginalized, reinforcing economic asymmetries.
In the reading, this distinction is used to critique the narrative of globalization
as universally beneficial.

It demonstrates that while trade and finance volumes have grown dramatically since
the 1970s, this growth has concentrated in certain regions and sectors, bypassing
others entirely.

2. Historical Evolution

Bretton Woods Conference

● Established the post-WWII economic governance system, prioritizing stable

global trade and financial systems through institutions like the IMF and World
Bank
● Introduced capital controls to ensure financial stability, a system that
facilitated global trade by minimizing volatility in exchange rates and financial
flows.
● The reading (and not just it!) describes Bretton Woods as a high-water mark
of global regulatory coherence, creating a system where finance served trade
rather than dominating it

Transition to Financial Liberalization in the 1970s

● The U.S. dismantled the Bretton Woods system under Nixon, leading to
floating exchange rates and the liberalization of capital markets. This allowed
finance to become globally mobile, resulting in growing inequalities and
financial crises
● The breakdown of the Bretton Woods system led to floating exchange rates
and the liberalization of capital markets, allowing finance to operate globally
with minimal constraints.
● This liberalization fueled massive financial flows and speculative activities,
concentrating wealth in financial hubs like New York and London while
increasing instability in less developed economies.
● Your reading (and not only it!) discusses how this transformation allowed
finance to dominate the global economy, with trade increasingly subordinated
to financial interests

3. Governance of Global Trade and Finance

What do we mean by governance?

a. Trade

The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)

 ● Established: 1947 as a provisional framework for reducing tariffs and other
trade barriers. Initially signed by 23 nations, it became the de facto institution
for global trade governance.

Challenges of GATT

● Provisional Nature: GATT was never a formal organization but a series of

agreements managed through ad hoc negotiations.
● Rise of Non-Tariff Barriers: While GATT was successful in reducing tariffs,
non-tariff barriers like quotas and subsidies became increasingly prominent.
● Growing Membership: The inclusion of more countries, especially after
decolonization, made negotiations more complex and cumbersome, as seen
during the Uruguay Round.

The Uruguay Round (1986–1994)

The Uruguay Round was a turning point in global trade governance and laid the
groundwork for the WTO. This round was the most ambitious in GATT’s history,
addressing several new issues:

● Inclusion of Services: Negotiations extended to trade in services, leading to

the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS).
● Intellectual Property Rights: Intellectual property became a trade issue,
culminating in the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual
Property Rights (TRIPS).
● Agriculture: For the first time, agricultural trade was explicitly addressed,
though significant asymmetries remained.
● Dispute Settlement: The round strengthened mechanisms for resolving trade
disputes, introducing a more structured and enforceable system.
● Institutional Reform: The need for a permanent body to oversee these
expanded trade rules became evident.
● The Uruguay Round concluded in 1994 with the Marrakesh Agreement,
which officially established the WTO.

The WTO replaced GATT and became the primary institution for global trade
governance. It inherited and expanded upon GATT’s framework with the following
innovations:

● Legal Entity: Unlike GATT, the WTO was established as a formal

international organization with a legal personality, granting it greater authority
and institutional stability.
● Enhanced Dispute Settlement: The WTO introduced a more binding and
enforceable dispute settlement mechanism through the Dispute Settlement
 Body (DSB). This addressed one of GATT’s key weaknesses—its reliance on
voluntary compliance.

Key Principles of the WTO

● The World Trade Organization (WTO) is built on several foundational

principles that aim to create a predictable, transparent, and fair global trading
system.

These include:

- Most Favored Nation (MFN) Principle

- National Treatment

Most Favored Nation (MFN) Principle

● The MFN principle ensures that any trade advantage granted by one member
to another must be extended to all members. This principle, codified in GATT
Article I, aims to eliminate discriminatory trade practices and promote
multilateralism.
● In other words, the MFN principle requires that any trade advantage, such as
lower tariffs or favorable import conditions, granted by one WTO member to
another must be extended to all other WTO members.

Example: Imagine Country A negotiates a trade deal with Country B to reduce tariffs
on steel imports from 10% to 5%. If both countries are WTO members, Country A is
obligated to apply the same 5% tariff to steel imports from all other WTO members,
such as Country C or Country D, even if they were not part of the original
negotiation.

Purpose: The MFN principle ensures fairness by preventing countries from favoring
specific trading partners while excluding others.

Note of caution: Your chapter notes how regional trade blocs and preferential
agreements have undermined this principle, creating asymmetries in the global trade
system

National Treatment

This principle requires WTO members to treat imported goods no less

favorably than domestically produced goods once they have entered the
market. It prevents countries from using domestic policies to indirectly protect their
own industries.
In other words, National Treatment requires that once goods, services, or intellectual
property from a foreign country enter a domestic market, they must be treated the
same as domestically produced goods.

Example: Suppose Country X imports cars from Country Y. Under National

Treatment, Country X cannot impose additional taxes, stricter safety standards, or
other regulatory barriers on imported cars that are not applied to domestically
produced cars.

Purpose: National Treatment ensures that imported goods are not disadvantaged
after entering a market, promoting non-discrimination and fair competition.

Institutional Structure

The WTO operates through a multilateral framework involving several key bodies:

● Ministerial Conference: The top decision-making body meets every two

years to make major decisions and set the organization’s agenda. It is
composed of representatives from all member states.
● General Council: Composed of ambassadors or senior officials from member
countries, it oversees the day-to-day functioning of the WTO. It also operates
as the Dispute Settlement Body (DSB) and the Trade Policy Review Body
(TPRB).

Committees and Councils: Various specialized bodies manage specific

agreements, such as those on agriculture, intellectual property (TRIPS), and trade in
services (GATS). These committees ensure technical and operational coherence.

WTO Secretariat: Located in Geneva, the Secretariat provides administrative and

technical support but does not have decision-making powers. It plays a crucial role in
compiling trade data and assisting members in negotiations.

Major Negotiating Rounds

● Geneva Round (1947): The first GATT round established foundational rules
and achieved tariff reductions among 23 nations.
● Kennedy Round (1964-1967): Focused on further tariff reductions and
introduced an Anti-Dumping Agreement to prevent predatory pricing in
international trade.
● Tokyo Round (1973-1979): Broadened the scope of negotiations to include
non-tariff barriers, resulting in agreements on subsidies and technical barriers
to trade.
● Uruguay Round (1986-1994): The most ambitious round, it led to the
creation of the WTO in 1995. It expanded trade rules to include services
(GATS), intellectual property (TRIPS), and agriculture. This round highlighted
 tensions between developed and developing nations, particularly regarding
agricultural subsidies.
● Doha Development Round (2001-Present): Launched with a focus on
addressing the needs of developing countries, the Doha Round remains
stalled due to disagreements over agricultural subsidies, market access, and
non-agricultural goods liberalization. The chapter notes that these
impasses reflect deep-seated asymmetries in trade governance

Criticisms

Asymmetries in Trade Governance: WTO rules often favor industrialized nations,

leaving developing countries with limited bargaining power. Sectors like agriculture
and textiles, crucial for developing economies, remain highly protected in advanced
economies, reflecting systemic inequities.

Example: Agricultural subsidies in advanced economies (e.g., the EU and U.S.)

protect domestic farmers but disadvantage developing countries that depend on
agricultural exports

Neglect of Social and Environmental Dimensions: Critics argue that global trade
governance prioritizes economic growth over labor rights, environmental protection,
and equitable development.

Ineffectiveness in Current Global Challenges: The WTO has struggled to address

modern challenges like climate change, digital trade, and global inequality. Its focus
on liberalization is seen as outdated in an era of populist nationalism and rising
protectionism.

Example: The rise of bilateral and regional trade agreements, which undermine its
multilateral framework

But also benefits

1. Reduction of trade barriers and Promotion of Multilateralism and

Rules-Based Trade:
● Since its predecessor GATT, global governance of trade has significantly
lowered tariffs and other trade barriers, increasing global trade volumes.
● The WTO has provided a structured, rules-based system for trade, reducing
uncertainty and promoting stability in international markets.
2. Support for Developing Countries:
● Programs like the Aid for Trade Initiative and provisions for special and
differential treatment aim to help developing nations integrate into the global
trading system.
3. Economic Growth and Poverty Reduction:
 ● By facilitating trade liberalization, global trade governance has contributed to
economic growth and reduced poverty in many parts of the world.
● Example: Trade openness in Asia, particularly in countries like China and
Vietnam, has driven rapid economic development and lifted millions out of
poverty.

b. The Governance of Finance

Role of the IMF and World Bank:

● The International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank were created at
Bretton Woods to help manage crises and promote economic stability and
growth

Financial Stability and Crisis Management

● IMF: The IMF provides financial assistance to countries facing

balance-of-payments crises, offering short-term loans to stabilize economies.
Its role is critical in preventing currency crises and mitigating the risk of
contagion.
● World Bank: The World Bank plays a key role in long-term economic
development, offering loans and grants for infrastructure projects, poverty
reduction, education, health, and environmental sustainability. This helps
developing countries build the infrastructure necessary for economic growth.

Promotion of Global Economic Stability

● IMF: The IMF’s role in surveillance and policy advice aims to ensure global
economic stability. By monitoring the global economy, providing policy
recommendations, and offering a forum for countries to discuss economic
challenges, it seeks to prevent global financial instability.
● World Bank: The World Bank supports global efforts to reduce poverty and
boost shared prosperity, aligning its projects with the sustainable development
goals (SDGs).

Capacity Building and Technical Assistance

● Both the IMF and World Bank provide technical assistance to member
countries, helping them build the institutional and regulatory frameworks
necessary for economic development. This includes training government
officials, improving fiscal management, and enhancing financial sector
regulation.
Global Coordination

● International financial governance, led by institutions like the IMF and World
Bank, fosters coordination between nations on financial and economic
policies. This can help ensure that global economic policies are aligned,
reducing the risks of conflicts that could destabilize the global financial
system.

Among the functions the two institutions perform, lending is certainly one of the most
distinctive functions

Countries borrow from the institutions based on quota

Lending is conditional

Conditionality
Why is lending conditional?

Criticisms of Financial Governance

Conditionality and Austerity Measures

● IMF: The IMF has been heavily criticized for imposing austerity measures as
conditions for its loans. Critics argue that these policies, which often include
spending cuts, tax increases, and privatization of state assets, can exacerbate
economic hardship, especially in developing countries. Austerity has been
blamed for deepening recessions, increasing inequality, and social unrest in
countries that received IMF assistance.
● World Bank: The World Bank’s approach to development has also been
criticized for promoting policies that favor market-oriented reforms, such as
deregulation and privatization, which critics claim can harm social welfare,
deepen inequality, and undermine local economies.

Power Imbalance and Lack of Accountability

● Both the IMF and World Bank are often seen as institutions where power is
disproportionately concentrated in the hands of developed countries,
particularly the United States, which holds significant voting power in both
institutions.
● This power imbalance can lead to policies that prioritize the interests of
wealthy nations over those of developing countries, limiting the influence of
poorer countries in decision-making processes.

Examples: choice of the top officials

■ The IMF Managing Director

 ■ The World Bank President

How are they selected?

A Gentlemen’s Agreement

The informal convention that the Managing Director of the IMF is always a European
citizen and the President of the World Bank is always a U.S. citizen dates back to the
founding of the Bretton Woods institutions in 1944.

This practice is rooted in the geopolitical dynamics of the post-World War II era and
reflects the power balance between the United States and Europe at the time.

Environmental and Social Concerns

● World Bank: The World Bank has been criticized for financing projects that
cause environmental damage, such as large-scale infrastructure projects
(e.g., dams) that displace communities, destroy ecosystems, and contribute to
climate change. Although the World Bank has taken steps to improve its
environmental and social safeguards, these concerns remain significant.

Sovereignty Concerns

● The policies promoted by the IMF and World Bank are sometimes seen as a
violation of national sovereignty, as countries are pressured to implement
foreign-imposed economic policies. This can lead to tensions between
countries and international institutions, as well as public backlash from
citizens who view these interventions as foreign interference in domestic
affairs.

In Short

The IMF and World Bank have played pivotal roles in shaping the global economic
order, promoting stability and development.

However, their principles, tasks, and structures have sparked debates over their
fairness, effectiveness, and alignment with the interests of all member states,
particularly developing nations.

Reforming these institutions to address modern challenges and ensure greater

inclusivity remains a pressing issue in global governance.

To Wrap-Up

● Trade and finance as key areas of investigation in IR

● Governance of trade
 ● Governance of finance
● Benefits and criticisms

7. Climate and environment

Agenda

1. The climate issue

2. Understand how environmental issues intersect with international relations: 4
major questions
3. The evolution of global environmental governance
4. IR theories (realism, liberalism, and critical theories) and environmental
politics.

1. The climate issue

● Earth’s average surface temperature in 2023 was the warmest on record

● Warmest year since modern record keeping began in 1880!
Source: NASA Earth observatory

Global average temperature compared with the middle of the 20th century

Source: NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies

Impact of socio-economic trends

Action is needed
These developments underscore that environmental problems transcend national
borders, making them inherently international and global governance issues.

This challenges traditional IR, which focuses on state sovereignty, by necessitating

cooperation across borders and with non-state actors like NGOs and scientific
bodies.

It also introduces the idea that global environmental governance involves

“governance without government,” requiring collaborative action in the absence of a
central authority.

2. Connecting the climate issue with IR - Some fundamental questions:

a. Do globalization and development come at the expense of the environment?

b. Can states cooperate effectively to protect the planet?
c. Is climate justice possible?
d. Economic growth vs Climate

A. Must globalization and development come at the expense of the

environment?

● Your chapter discusses how globalization has intensified production,

consumption, and environmental degradation, leading to pollution and climate
change.
● Examples include the relocation of industry to countries with lower
environmental standards and the rise in greenhouse gas emissions due to
global supply chains.

Incompatibility between the two goals!

However, it also highlights globalization's potential for positive impacts, such as the
diffusion of green technologies and the role of NGOs in advocating for sustainable
practices.

B. Can states cooperate effectively to protect the planet?

● Question connected to global environmental governance, emphasizing the

challenges of achieving cooperation among sovereign states.
● Historical successes like the Montreal Protocol and partial successes like the
Paris Agreement provide examples of both the potential and the limitations of
international cooperation.

Cooperation problems: cooperation also means taking and sharing

responsibility
 ● The countries with the highest levels of greenhouse gas emissions are
generally those with more developed economies and/or a strong reliance on
fossil fuels for energy and industry.
● However, the ranking varies depending on the type of emissions considered
(e.g., total emissions, per capita emissions) and the period taken into account.

image: share of global CO2 emissions by countries

C. Is climate justice possible?

● This question connects to the chapter’s focus on inequalities between the

Global North and South in terms of responsibility and vulnerability.
● It raises issues of fairness in addressing climate change, such as the principle
of "common but differentiated responsibilities” and loss and damage
compensation.

Common But Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR)

This principle is central to international environmental law and underpins agreements
like the UNFCCC and the Paris Agreement. CBDR acknowledges that:

1. Common Responsibility: All nations share a duty to protect the global

environment because environmental degradation affects everyone.
2. Differentiated Responsibilities: The extent of this responsibility differs
based on nations' historical contributions to environmental problems and their
capabilities to address them.

The principle reflects equity by recognizing that developed countries have historically
contributed more to greenhouse gas emissions during their industrialization and
therefore bear a greater responsibility for mitigation and support to less-developed
nations. It also acknowledges that developing nations may lack the resources to
address climate change without assistance.

Loss and Damage Compensation

This refers to financial and non-financial assistance provided to countries that

experience the unavoidable impacts of climate change, such as extreme weather
events, rising sea levels, or ecosystem loss.

Loss and damage have become a key topic in climate negotiations, especially under
the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
Developing nations, often the most vulnerable to climate impacts, advocate for
compensation mechanisms as they typically contribute less to the causes of climate
change.
> COP 2009 and climate finance: What is climate finance?

Climate finance

Climate finance refers to the financial resources allocated to support projects and
initiatives that aim to address climate change and its impacts.

Objectives of climate finance

● Mitigation: Funds directed toward reducing greenhouse gas emissions

through renewable energy projects, energy efficiency improvements, and
sustainable land use practices.
● Adaptation: Financing aimed at helping communities and ecosystems adapt
to the effects of climate change, such as rising sea levels or increased
extreme weather events.

Sources of finance

● Public Financing: Governments allocate budgetary resources for

climate-related initiatives, often supplemented by international aid and
development assistance.
● Private Investment: This includes capital from businesses and financial
institutions that invest in green technologies and sustainable practices.
● International Funding: Multilateral organizations like the Green Climate
Fund and World Bank provide significant funding to developing countries for
climate projects.
● Climate finance is important for ALL countries but especially for developing
and emerging economies.
● Many emerging markets and developing economies have financial constraints
and are highly vulnerable to climate hazards.
● However, access to climate finance can be inequitable, often favoring larger
projects and wealthier nations over smaller, localized efforts in developing
countries.

D. Climate versus Economic Growth?

Why does the fight against climate change get in the way of economic growth and
well-being?

There are several reasons why the two objectives clash:

1. Initial costs: Many efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate
climate change require significant investments in cleaner technologies,
sustainable infrastructure, and less polluting production processes.
 These investments may involve high initial costs for businesses and
governments, which could be seen as a drag on economic growth or a
reduction in welfare in the short term.

2. Reduced demand for some industries: The transition to a low-carbon

economy could lead to a decrease in demand for products and services
related to fossil fuels or polluting processes.

This could cause economic disruptions and job losses in sectors such as
the mining industry, the oil industry, and traditional automotive manufacturing.

3. Regulations and restrictions: Policies aimed at reducing greenhouse gas

emissions, such as stricter pollution regulations, carbon taxes, or limitations
on fossil fuel extraction, can impose restrictions or additional costs on
businesses, especially those heavily dependent on fossil fuels or high-carbon
intensity production processes.

4. International competitiveness: If some economies adopt stricter policies to

reduce emissions while others do not, it could lead to distortions in
international competition.

Businesses may be discouraged from implementing emission reduction

measures if it makes them less competitive compared to competitors
operating in countries with less stringent regulations.

The energy crisis dilemma: Businesses and farmers’ backlash in the EU

● This explains why, despite the need to address the challenges of climate
change being a widely recognized and accepted issue, it does NOT
 automatically translate into public support for policies aimed at combating
climate change.

Please note that fighting climate change brings economic benefits!

● Job Creation: Transitioning to a green economy can create millions of new

jobs in renewable energy sectors, energy efficiency, sustainable agriculture,
and environmental protection. For example, jobs in solar and wind energy
have been rapidly increasing.
● Energy Savings: Investing in energy efficiency reduces energy consumption
and lowers utility bills for businesses and households. Energy-efficient
buildings, appliances, and transportation can lead to significant long-term
savings.
● Reduced Health Costs: Addressing climate change can lead to cleaner air
and water, resulting in improved public health. This can reduce healthcare
costs associated with air pollution, respiratory diseases, and other health
issues linked to environmental degradation.
● Long-Term Economic Stability: Mitigating climate change can prevent
severe economic disruptions caused by extreme weather events, food
shortages, and loss of livelihoods. Investing in sustainable practices can lead
to more stable and predictable economic growth.
● Attracting Investment: Governments and businesses that commit to
sustainable practices may attract investments from environmentally conscious
investors and consumers, leading to increased economic activity.
● Social Equity: Climate action can promote social equity by creating job
opportunities in underserved communities and ensuring access to clean
energy, which can improve living standards and economic prospects.
To Sum-Up:

The climate/environmental issue is closely connected with IR and IR questions.

3. Environmental Governance: Key Historical Milestones

● Early Awareness and Limited Efforts (Pre-1970s):

Before the 1970s, environmental concerns were largely local or regional, focusing on
conservation (e.g., wildlife protection) and pollution.

● Key Examples:
- The 1946 International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling reflected
early multilateral attempts to manage shared natural resources.
- The 1958 International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea
by Oil addressed specific forms of pollution.
● Your chapter explains that these early efforts were limited in scope and
impact, as they were not tied to broader international governance frameworks.
● The 1972 Stockholm Conference

Global Environmental Governance Begins

- First major international conference addressing global environmental

concerns.
- Marked the emergence of environmental issues on the international agenda.

● Outcomes:
- Creation of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
- Recognition of the link between environmental and development issues by the
Global South.

The Stockholm Conference initiated a shift in how states viewed environmental

issues—beyond national borders to transnational governance. However, tensions
between development and environmental protection, particularly for Global South
countries, began to emerge.

The 1987 Montreal Protocol successfully phased out chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

to address the problem of the ozone layer depletion, setting a precedent for
international environmental action.

The Montreal Protocol is celebrated as a success because of its science-based

framework and provision for financial support to developing countries.
 ● The 1992 Earth Summit (UNCED): Sustainability and Global Cooperation
- A watershed moment for integrating environmental and development
concerns.
- Popularized the concept of sustainable development (defined as meeting
"the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs").
● Outcomes:
- Adoption of key multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs), including the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and
the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).

The Earth Summit reflected the growing role of global institutions in managing
shared environmental challenges.

It also underscores the tension between developed and developing countries over
the financial and technological resources required for sustainable development.

The Kyoto Protocol adopted in December 1997 under the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), was the first legally binding
international agreement to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.

It represented an ambitious but complex step toward addressing global climate

change by committing developed countries to specific emission reduction targets.
The Protocol set binding targets for industrialized countries to reduce their GHG
emissions
The rationale was rooted in the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities
(CBDR), which acknowledged the historical responsibility of developed countries for
most emissions.

The 2015 Paris Agreement: A New Approach to Climate Governance

Built on lessons from the Kyoto Protocol, addressing its limitations.

● Adopted a “bottom-up” approach, with countries submitting Nationally

Determined Contributions (NDCs) to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
● Outcomes:
- Goal to limit global temperature increases to "well below 2˚C" and pursue
efforts to keep it under 1.5˚C.
- Introduction of mechanisms for "ratcheting up" ambition through regular
reviews.
The Paris Agreement’s shift from binding emissions targets to flexible national
contributions reflects the challenges of reconciling diverse state interests.

A Note of Caution

Not just international policies and cooperation: fighting climate change also requires
domestic policies.

● Examples:
○ Price signal policies (e.g., carbon taxes)
○ Subsidies policies (i.e., policies that affect individual industries and
sectors)

Price Signal Policies

● Example: Carbon tax

- A carbon tax is a direct financial charge levied on the carbon content of
fuels.
- It aims to encourage emitters to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions by
increasing the cost of fossil fuel consumption.

Benefits

● Environmental Impact: By putting a price on carbon emissions, carbon taxes

can effectively reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Studies show that
countries implementing carbon taxes have seen significant emissions
reductions.
● Economic Efficiency: Carbon taxes provide a flexible and market-driven
approach, allowing businesses to find the most cost-effective ways to reduce
emissions. This can lead to innovation in cleaner technologies.
Challenges

● Political Resistance: Carbon taxes can be politically controversial, as they

may lead to higher energy prices, which can be unpopular with consumers.
● Equity Concerns: There are concerns about the regressive nature of carbon
taxes, as lower-income households may be disproportionately affected by
higher energy costs. Policymakers often address this by using tax revenues to
fund rebates or social programs.

Subsidies Policies

Subsidies are financial support mechanisms provided by governments to encourage

specific industries, activities, or technologies.

In the context of climate change, they often target renewable energy sources, energy
efficiency improvements, and sustainable practices.

4. IR Theories and Environmental Politics: realism, liberalism, critical theories

Realism

● Core Argument: Realism prioritizes state sovereignty, national security, and

power competition, viewing environmental issues as secondary unless they
affect these priorities.
● Environmental concerns are typically framed as resources or strategic
assets, such as control over oil reserves or access to the Arctic’s natural
resources.
○ Key Example: The chapter discusses the geopolitics of Arctic climate
change. Here, the melting ice caps due to climate change have
intensified competition over new shipping routes and untapped oil and
gas reserves. States such as Russia and the US treat the Arctic as a
site for asserting power rather than a common resource needing
protection.

Liberalism

● Core Argument: Liberalism emphasizes the potential for cooperation and

mutual gains through international regimes, treaties, and institutions.
● Environmental governance is seen as a public goods problem requiring
institutions to reduce free-riding and ensure compliance.
○ Key Examples:
■ Paris Agreement (2015): The chapter describes the
Agreement’s innovative “bottom-up” approach, where countries
 set their own emission reduction targets (NDCs) and are
encouraged to "ratchet up" ambition through periodic reviews.

Critical Theories

● Core Argument: Critical theories (e.g., Marxism, Gramscianism) view global

capitalism as a key driver of environmental degradation, arguing that
international environmental governance legitimizes rather than solves the
problem.
● They critique the dominance of neoliberal economic policies, which prioritize
growth and consumerism over sustainability.
○ Key Example: The chapter links the failures of climate governance to
structural inequalities between the Global North and South, noting that
wealthier states disproportionately benefit from globalization while
poorer states bear the brunt of environmental damage.
■ Example: The North-South divide in climate negotiations, where
developing countries demand "loss and damage" compensation,
is framed as a struggle against historical and systemic
inequalities.

To Wrap-Up
The climate issue
Understand how environmental issues intersect with international relations: 4 major
questions
The evolution of global environmental governance
IR theories (realism, liberalism, and critical theories) and environmental politics

8. Gender and race

Agenda

1. How gender shape global politics

2. Race and global politics
3. Intersectionality

How do gender and race influence international politics?

Examples

Leadership: Representation of women and racial minorities in positions of global

power
Wars: Role of gendered and racialized tropes in justifying military interventions (e.g.,
"saving women" narratives in Afghanistan)

Global Economy: Impact of feminized labor and racial inequalities in global supply
chains

1. Gender in IR

Defining Sex and Gender:

● Sex: Biological differences (e.g., male/female based on reproductive

anatomy).
● Gender: Socially constructed roles, behaviors, and norms associated with
masculinity and femininity.

Masculinity and Femininity as Relational Constructs:

● Masculinity and femininity are not inherent traits but relational constructs that
society creates and reinforces.
● These constructs define what is considered "appropriate" behavior for men
and women, often setting up masculinity as dominant and femininity as
subordinate.
● In international relations (IR), these constructs influence who is seen as a
"natural" leader.

Who is a “natural” leader?

Leadership is often associated with traits labeled as "masculine," such as:

● Rationality: Emphasizing logic and objective decision-making.

● Strength: Physical and emotional resilience, assertiveness.
● Courage: Willingness to take risks and make decisive actions.

Feminine traits—like emotionality, nurturing, or collaboration—are often marginalized

as weak or inappropriate for leadership roles.

Implications for IR:

This bias perpetuates gender disparities in global leadership.

Women leaders are often judged against male standards of leadership and must
"perform" masculinity to gain acceptance.

The relational nature of these constructs means that "feminine" traits are only weak
in contrast to "masculine" traits, which are idealized as strong.
This dynamic reinforces the exclusion of women and non-dominant
masculinities from power structures.

As the first female Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, Margaret Thatcher altered
her voice to lower its pitch.

● Why? In the context of a male-dominated political system, higher-pitched

voices (associated with femininity) were perceived as less authoritative or
serious.
● Effect: Thatcher’s voice training enabled her to project traits society
associated with masculinity—assertiveness and rationality—helping her
navigate a political environment biased against feminine expressions.

This example underscores the relational construct of masculinity and femininity:

Thatcher had to adopt masculine norms to overcome the perceived deficiencies of
femininity in leadership.

Another example: Militarism and Patriotism in IR

● Militarism exemplifies hegemonic masculinity in IR. Soldiers are trained to

embody toughness, discipline, and the willingness to sacrifice, which are
culturally celebrated as masculine virtues.
● Patriotism often invokes imagery of the "just warrior" defending the "beautiful
soul" (a feminized representation of the nation or its vulnerable citizens). This
reinforces the perception of men as protectors and women as needing
protection.
● For instance, in colonial and postcolonial contexts, men from dominant
powers were often portrayed as rational defenders of civilization, while
colonized men were feminized.

Why do these concepts matter in IR?

Gendered Leadership: The framing of leadership through masculine ideals affects

global decision-making, perpetuating gender disparities.

Hegemonic Masculinity in Policy: Policies driven by militarism and economic

dominance reflect hegemonic masculinity, often sidelining alternative approaches
like diplomacy or cooperative economic models.

Relational Framework: Viewing masculinity and femininity as relational constructs

helps uncover how power is distributed and maintained in global systems,
challenging traditional IR theories that overlook gender dynamics.

Division of labor in the global economy

Gender and the Global Economy

Sexual Division of Labor: Refers to the historical and structural division of work into
"male" and "female" spheres:

● Male Labor: Often associated with physically demanding or higher-paid

formal jobs.
● Female Labor: Tied to caregiving, domestic work, and low-wage sectors like
garment production.

This division is not natural but socially constructed and sustained by patriarchal
norms and economic policies.
In globalization, this division takes on an international scale, where women are
overrepresented in precarious, low-paid, and informal labor sectors.

Feminized Labor in Globalization:

● Certain industries (e.g., textiles, electronics, domestic care) disproportionately

employ women due to perceptions of "female" traits such as docility, patience,
and manual dexterity.
● Feminized labor often entails:
○ Lower wages compared to male-dominated industries.
○ Poor job security and working conditions.
○ Lack of union representation or legal protections.
● Example: Women working in export-processing zones (EPZs) are often
denied maternity leave or benefits, as companies prioritize profit over workers'
rights.

Reproductive vs. Productive Economies

Reproductive Economy:

● Encompasses unpaid work like child-rearing, caregiving, cooking, and

cleaning—tasks essential for sustaining life and the workforce.
● Women disproportionately bear the burden of reproductive labor, often
alongside formal employment, resulting in a "double burden."
● This labor remains undervalued and invisible in economic metrics like GDP,
despite its foundational role in the global economy.
● Example: During the COVID-19 pandemic, women’s unpaid care work
increased significantly, further marginalizing their economic participation.

Productive Economy:

● Refers to formal, wage-earning activities recognized in traditional economic

models.
 ● The productive economy relies on the reproductive economy; without care
and social reproduction, the workforce cannot function.
● Example: A garment worker’s ability to labor depends on her reproductive role
at home, such as caring for children and ensuring household stability.

Tensions Between the Two Economies:

● The undervaluation of reproductive labor exacerbates gender inequality.

● Policies like flexible working hours or childcare support aim to address this
divide but are often inadequately implemented or exclude marginalized
women.

gender inequalities

Another debate in IR and gender concerns the role of IOs

Are International Organizations Addressing Gender Inequalities Effectively?

United Nations Efforts

Women, Peace, and Security (WPS) Agenda:

● Initiated with UNSC Resolution 1325 (2000), emphasizing:

- Women’s participation in conflict resolution and peacebuilding.
- Prevention of gender-based violence in conflict.
● Achievements:
- Highlighted the gendered impacts of war.
- Established frameworks for including women in peace processes.
● Critiques:
- Implementation remains uneven across countries.
- Women are often depicted primarily as victims, not agents of change.

Broader Criticisms:

Tokenism: Inclusion of women is often symbolic, without substantive shifts in

decision-making power.

Focus on Formal Equality: Efforts tend to prioritize legal reforms, which do not
always translate into real-world changes, especially for economically or socially
marginalized women.

Neglect of Structural Inequalities: Policies may fail to address systemic issues like
the undervaluation of reproductive labor or intersectional oppression.

Open Challenges:

Addressing the reproductive economy explicitly by:

- Recognizing and compensating unpaid care work.

- Expanding access to affordable childcare and eldercare.

Bridging the implementation gap in international frameworks by:

- Monitoring compliance with gender equality goals.

- Supporting grassroots initiatives that address the needs of marginalized
women.

Race and IR

Defining Race

● Race as a Social Construct:

- Race is not a biological fact but a social and political categorization tied to
power dynamics. It is used to ascribe attributes, competencies, and value to
 groups based on perceived physical characteristics, such as skin color, hair
texture, and facial features.
- These ascriptions are arbitrary and have shifted across time and place,
demonstrating that race is not fixed but socially constructed.

Historical Roots

● Race became a central tool for justifying imperial conquest and colonial
rule
● During the colonization of the Americas, European powers framed
indigenous peoples as "savages," using this narrative to legitimize land
dispossession and genocide.
● The transatlantic slave trade racialized Africans as inferior, using
pseudo-scientific ideas of biology to justify slavery. The concept of Blackness
was associated with servitude, inferiority, and dehumanization, contrasting
with whiteness, which symbolized civilization and superiority.

This "hierarchization" of humanity created enduring global structures of inequality

that framed white Europeans as superior to non-Europeans.
For instance: In the Americas, Indigenous populations were often depicted as
"uncivilized" and incapable of self-governance.

This racialized narrative justified European land theft and violent assimilation
policies.

Race as an Ordering Principle

Central to Colonial Administration:

● Race hierarchies underpinned the political, economic, and social structures of

colonial empires:
- Segregationist policies kept racial groups physically and economically divided.
- Indigenous peoples and enslaved Africans were subjected to forced labor and
denied political rights.
● These hierarchies were presented as natural and reinforced through
colonial governance and education systems.

Not just in the past… contemporary racial inequalities:

● Global institutions
● Global economy
● Global health
● Migration
Persistence in Global Institutions

● Race continues to operate as an ordering principle in global institutions today

● The power structures of international institutions like the United Nations (UN)
and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) reflect the dominance of
historically colonial powers
● Decision-making power is concentrated in countries that were colonizers,
marginalizing voices from the Global South​

Global Economy (1):

● Modern trade systems often replicate colonial power dynamics:

- Wealthier, predominantly white nations control global trade rules,
disadvantaged countries in the Global South.
- Example: Unfair subsidies and tariffs favor agricultural products from the
Global North over those from Africa or Latin America.

Global Economy (2):

● Global Supply Chains: Companies outsource production to the Global

South, where racialized workers face poor wages and unsafe conditions.
● Example: Garment workers in Bangladesh, primarily women of color, labor in
exploitative conditions to produce goods for multinational brands.

Global Health:

● Inequities in access to healthcare and vaccines reflect colonial legacies:

- During the COVID-19 pandemic, wealthier nations hoarded vaccines while
many African and Asian countries faced severe shortages.
- The framing of the Global South as dependent perpetuates racialized
stereotypes of incompetence.

Migration Policies:
Immigration policies often privilege individuals from wealthier (and predominantly
white) countries while criminalizing migrants from the Global South.

Example: Refugees from war-torn regions in Africa or the Middle East face harsher
restrictions than European migrants.

3. Intersectionality

It describes how various forms of oppression (e.g., race, gender, class, and
nationality) intersect and overlap, creating unique experiences of marginalization and
privilege.
This approach moves beyond analyzing individual categories (e.g., race or
gender in isolation) to examine how they interact dynamically within systems
of power.

In the context of international relations, intersectionality reveals how global

political and economic systems produce and sustain inequalities that
disproportionately affect marginalized groups

Key Principles:

● Multiplicity: Individuals are situated within multiple overlapping systems of

power and oppression.
● Relationality: These systems (e.g., patriarchy, capitalism, colonialism) do not
act independently but reinforce one another.
● Context-Specific: Intersectional oppression varies depending on historical,
cultural, and geographical contexts.

Examples (1) Care Workers

● Migrant women from the Global South often fill roles as domestic and care
workers in wealthier nations, exemplifying the intersection of gender, race,
and class.
● These workers are racialized as "naturally suited" for caregiving due to
stereotypes about their gender and ethnicity.

Challenges:

- Poor working conditions,

- lack of labor protections,
- separation from their families as they care for others.

Structural Impact: This reinforces global hierarchies where wealthier nations rely on
the exploitation of racialized and gendered labor from poorer countries.

Example (2) Climate Change:

Climate-induced displacement disproportionately impacts women and Indigenous
peoples, who are already marginalized by gender and racial inequalities.

Example: Women in rural, impoverished communities face increased burdens in

securing food and water during environmental crises.

Example (3) War and Conflict:

In conflict zones, women of color are often both targets of violence (e.g., sexual
violence as a weapon of war) and overlooked in peace-building efforts.

Intersectionality explains why international humanitarian interventions must account

for the compounded vulnerabilities of these populations.
Overall, Intersectionality broadens the scope of IR by:

● Recognizing how global structures (e.g., international institutions, trade

systems) reinforce inequalities at the intersection of race, gender, and class.
● Addressing how global phenomena like migration, climate change, and
economic globalization impact different groups in unequal ways.

Wrap-Up:

Gender and Race as Power Structures in IR:

● Both gender and race shape global political and economic systems,
influencing who has access to resources, representation, and rights.
● These power structures intersect with others like class and nationality,
creating complex layers of privilege and oppression.

Deeper understanding of how gender and race intersect within global systems,
emphasizing the relevance of these issues to international relations

9. War and security

Defining War

● War involves organized violence between political entities (states or non-state

actors).
● War is a social relation that shapes and is shaped by society ("war and
society").
● Wars have purposes; strategy involves planning to achieve political aims.
● Tactics are the methods of fighting battles; strategy is the overall plan.

Carl von Clausewitz

● Key concepts: Trinity of passion, chance, and reason. A second trinity linking
these to people, armed forces, and leadership.
● Limited vs. Total War: Distinction based on goals (limited wars have aims less
than state survival; total wars are existential).
● War as a „continuation of politics by other means”

Typologies

● Crises and international disputes

● Military conflict and the war
● New and Old wars
 ● Hybrid warfare
● Cybernetic warfare
● Civil war

War and statehood

● Nation-state development in the West tied to changes in military technology

and organization.
● The nation-state as a war -making machine.
● Mass conscription and nationalism.

(Graphs)

Definition and scope

● Narrow and wide understanding of security

● Definitions of security
● Soft v. Hard Security and soft power v. hard power
● Security in various theoretical approaches

Realists and Neorealists

● International relations as struggle for power – pessimistic view

● States as the most powerful actors fighting for hegemony
● Zero sum game and security dilemma
● Anarchy, but not chaos
● Survival as the main driving force of the actors
● Rationalist assumption
● Structure and balance of power

Liberal Institutionalists

● Important role of institutions, which do not only represent interests of nations

● Institutionalising cooperation between states will enhance security
● Institutions lower the costs, rise credibility, facilitate cooperation
● War still possible, but less likely
● Democratic peace theory

Constructivist approach

● Shares many of the realists’ assumptions about the international system

● The structure of the system is understood through social lenses (shared
ideas, understanding, expectations) – security communities
● Logic of appropriateness
Critical Approaches

● De-emphasis of states’ role, redefinition of security

● Feminist approaches
● Post-structuralist approach and the logic of interpretation and securitisation
● Societal security

Securitisation

● How do security problems emerge, evolve and dissolve?

● Discursive politics of security – security as a speech act
● the general concept of ‘security’ is drawn from its constitution within national
security discourse, which implies an emphasis on authority, and construction
of threats and enemies, and an ability to make decisions on the adoption of
emergency measures
● ‘Security proper’ vs resemblance of security
● Examples??

Human Security: another level of analysis

● What is Human Security (UNDP 1994) and where it came from?

● Criticism of the concept
● Freedom from fear v. freedom from want
● International community’s response to the Human Security

10. Human rights

Liberal narrative of human rights in IR

● Post-WWII origins, emphasizing the devastation of war.

● Three core features: universality, liberal individualism, and progress.

Formal structures
● UDHR (1948) as foundational document.
● ICCPR (civil and political rights) and ICESCR (economic, social, and cultural
rights).
● Treaty bodies, special procedures, and the Human Rights Council,
accountability.
● Role of NGOs in advocacy and monitoring.

What Are Human Rights? Challenging the Dominant View

 ● Human rights as complex, contradictory, and contingent (not always
progressive).
● The "dark side" of human rights: unintended consequences and harms.
● Different interpretations: natural rights, political values, tools of resistance.

Addressing the "Dark Side„ of the Human Rights debate

● The need for critical and nuanced approaches to human rights advocacy.
● Avoiding reproduction of stereotypes and harmful interventions.
● The importance of context-specific analysis and collaboration with diverse
actors.

Conclusion
● The formal human rights structure is only part of the story.
● Ongoing need for critical engagement and re-evaluation.
● Human rights are powerful tools for social change.

International Intervention – Who?

● UN
● EU
● NATO
● OSCE
● AU
● WB
● Nation-states
● NGOs
● ad hoc coalitions

International Intervention – How?

● Peacemaking
● Peacekeeping
● Peace-enforcement
● Other possible civilian engagements
- Border missions
- Training missions
- Police missions
- Monitoring missions
- Security Sector Reform missions

Humanitarian Intervention
● Sovereignty v. human rights
● 1999 Kofi Annan speech: “to forcibly protect civilians who were at risk from
genocide and mass killing”
● 2001 – ICISS report on responsibility to protect
 ● 2005 – the Responsibility to Protect (R2P) adopted by the UNGA – narrow but
deep

Humanitarian Intervention – a controversial concept

● Counter-restrictionists:
- Legal argument: human rights are just as important as peace and security in
the UN Charter
- Moral argument: a moral duty to protect civilians from the mass killing.
State’s sovereignty is derived from its responsibility

Humanitarian Intervention – a contested concept

● Restrictionists
- No legal basis for intervention
- Questioning the states’ motives for intervention
- State and its citizens are not to be interfered with
- Selective choice of countries
- Culturally determined – what constitutes an extreme human rights violation?

Humanitarian Intervention - Examples

● Iraq 1991 – protection of the Kurdish minority
● Somalia 1992 – Protection of population from starvation
● Rwanda 1994 – too little, too late and inadequately
● Kosovo 1999 – "illegal but legitimate"
● Libya 2011