UNIT-1

Wireless LANs and PANs

 Introduction
Fundamentals of WLANs
IEEE 802.11
HIPERLAN
Bluetooth
Home RF
 Fundamentals of WLANs
• Difference between wireless and wired
– Address is not equivalent to physical location
– Dynamic topology and restricted connectivity
– Medium boundaries are not well-defined
– Error-prone medium

Wired Wireless
Physical medium Used to send the electromagnetic
Used for transfer the electrical waves /infrared waves
signals Have to antenna or sensors
Ethernet cards for each system Uses radio frequency waves
Dataflow using cards Share multiple devices to share the
Share among multiple devices in data
wired n/w
• Use of WLANs
 Surf Internet on the move
 Areas without infrastructure, or affected by earthquakes or
disasters  WLANs can be set up on the fly
 Historic buildings may not be wiring
• Design Goals
 Operational simplicity
 Power-efficient operation
 License-free operation
 Tolerance to interference
 Global usability
 Security
 Safety requirements
 Quality of service requirement
 Compatibility with other technologies and applications
 Operational simplicity:

Design of wireless LANs must incorporate features to enable a

mobile user to quickly set up and access network services in a
simple and efficient manner.

 Power-efficient operation:

The power-constrained nature of mobile computing devices such

as laptops and PDAs necessitates the important requirement of
WLANs operating with minimal power consumption. Therefore,
the design of WLAN must incorporate power-saving features and
use appropriate technologies and protocols to achieve this.
 License-free operation:

One of the major factors that affects the cost of wireless access is
the license fee for the spectrum in which a particular wireless
access technology operates. Low cost of access is an important
aspect for popularizing a WLAN technology. Hence the design of
WLAN should consider the parts of the frequency spectrum (e.g.,
ISM band) for its operation which do not require an explicit
licensing.
 Tolerance to interference:
The proliferation of different wireless networking technologies
both for civilian and military applications and the use of the
microwave frequency spectrum for non- communication purposes
(e.g., microwave ovens) have led to a significant increase in the
interference level across the radio spectrum. The WLAN design
should account for this and take appropriate measures by way of
selecting technologies and protocols to operate in the presence of
interference.
 Global usability:
The design of the WLAN, the choice of technology, and the
selection of the operating frequency spectrum should take into
account the prevailing spectrum restrictions in countries across the
world. This ensures the acceptability of the technology across the
world.
 Security:
The inherent broadcast nature of wireless medium adds to the
requirement of security features to be included in the design of
WLAN technology.

 Safety requirements:
The design of WLAN technology should follow the safety
requirements that can be classified into the following:
(i) interference to medical and other instrumentation devices and
(ii) increased power level of transmitters that can lead to health
hazards. A well-designed WLAN should follow the power
emission restrictions that are applicable in the given frequency
spectrum.
 Quality of service requirements:

Quality of service (QoS) refers to the provisioning of designated

levels of performance for multimedia traffic. The design of WLAN
should take into consideration the possibility of supporting a wide
variety of traffic, including multimedia traffic.

 Compatibility with other technologies and applications:

The interoperability among the different LANs (wired or wireless)

is important for efficient communication between hosts operating
with different LAN technologies. In addition to this,
interoperability with existing WAN protocols such as TCP/IP of
the Internet is essential to provide a seamless communication
across the WANs.
 Network Architecture
 Infrastructure Based vs. Ad Hoc LANs

 Infrastructure: access points (APs) and mobile stations (STAs)

 Ad hoc LANs: do not need fixed infrastructure

 Components in IEEE 802.11 network

 BSA: coverage of an AP
 BSS
 DS
 ESS
 Service offered by IEEE 802.11 network

 Association
 Re-association
 Disassociation
 Distribution: routing
 Integration: if send frames through non-802.11
 Authentication
 De-authentication
 Privacy
 Data delivery
 Association
The identity of an STA and its address should be known to the AP
before the STA can transmit or receive frames on the WLAN. This
is done during association, and the information is used by the AP
to facilitate routing of frames.
 Re-association
The established association is transferred from one AP to another
using re association. This allows STAs to move from one BSS to
another.
 Disassociation
When an existing association is terminated, a notification is issued
by the STA or the AP. This is called disassociation, and is done
when nodes leave the BSS or when nodes shut down.
 Distribution
Distribution takes care of routing frames. If the destination is in
the same BSS, the frame is transmitted directly to the destination,
otherwise the frame is sent via the DS.
 Integration: if send frames through non-802.11
To send frames through non-IEEE 802.11 networks, which may
have different addressing schemes or frame formats, the service is
invoked. The following are the STA services, which are provided
by every station, including Aps.
 Authentication
Authentication is done in order to establish the identity of stations
to each other. The authentication schemes range from relatively
insecure handshaking to public-key encryption schemes.
 De-authentication
De-authentication is invoked to terminate existing authentication.

 Privacy
The contents of messages may be encrypted (say, by using the
WEP algorithm, which is explained later) to prevent
eavesdroppers from reading the messages.

 Data delivery
• IEEE 802.11 naturally provides a way to transmit and receive
data. However, like Ethernet, the transmission is not
guaranteed to be completely reliable.
 IEEE 802.11
 Physical Layer
 Physical medium dependent sub-layer (PMD)
 Physical layer convergence protocol (PLCP)
Abstracts functionality for MAC
Offers service access point (SAP): 1 or 2Mbps
Clear channel assessment (CCA): CSMA/CA
 3 choices:
 FHSS: GFSK and 4-level GFSK
 DSFF: DBPSK and DQPSK
 Infrared: PPM
 Basic MAC Layer Mechanisms
 Distributed Foundation Wireless Medium Access
Control (DFWMAC)

 Distributed coordination function (DCF)

 CSMA/CA
 To avoid hidden terminal, RTS/CTS
 Point coordination function (PCF): real time services
 Inter-Frame Spacing (IFS)
• SIFS (Short inter-frame spacing)
• PIFS (PCF inter-frame spacing)
• DIFS (DCF inter-frame spacing)
• EIFS (Extended inter-frame spacing)
 Short inter-frame spacing (SIFS)
is the shortest of all the IFSs and denotes highest priority to access the medium. It
is defined for short control messages such as acknowledgments for data packets
and polling responses. The transmission of any packet should begin only after the
channel is sensed to be idle for a minimum time period of at least SIFS.
 PCF inter-frame spacing (PIFS)
is the waiting time whose value lies between SIFS and DIFS. This is used for
real-time services.
 DCF inter-frame spacing (DIFS)
is used by stations that are operating under the DCF mode to transmit packets.
This is for asynchronous data transfer within the contention period.
 Extended inter-frame spacing (EIFS)
is the longest of all the IFSs and denotes the least priority to access the medium.
EIFS is used for resynchronization whenever physical layer detects incorrect
MAC frame reception.
 CSMA/CA Mechanism
 CSMA/CD is not applicable
 Fig 2.2 IEEE 802.11 DCF and RTS-CTS

 If medium is busy, node backs off, in which station defers channel

access by a random time chosen within contention window (CW)

 As back off counter reaches zero, station can access medium

 During back off, if busy channel, freeze back off counter; resume
once channel becomes idle
 CW size
 Unnecessary delay if too large
 Collision probability increase if too small
 Binary exponential back off technique is used
 Overhead involved in RTS-CTS
• Non-negligible overhead
• If frame size > RTS_threshold, RTS-CTS is
activated, a four-way handshake (I.e. RTS-
CTS-DATA-ACK)
• If frame size < RTS_threshold, a two-way
handshake (DATA-ACK)
Fig 2.3 MAC as a state machine

本圖取自"Ad Hoc Wireless Networks", by C. Siva Ram Murthy and B. S. Manoj, published by Prentice Hall, 2004
 Fragmentation
• Decreasing frame error rate  use shorter
framessplit user data packet into
fragments
• RTS/CTS carry duration for current
fragment and estimated time for next
fragment
• Medium reserved for successive frames
 2.3.4 Other MAC Layer
Functionalities
• Point Coordination Function
– Guarantee on maximum access delay, minimum
transmission bandwidth and other QoS
– Centralized scheme, applicable only in
networks where AP (Point Coordinator) pool
nodes
– Superframe: contention free
periods(CFP)+contention period(CP)
 Synchronization
• Timing synchronization function (TSF)
• Required for
– Power management
– PCF coordination
– Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) hopping
sequence synchronization
• Within a BSS
– Quasi periodic beacon frames transmitted by AP
– Contains time-stamp for adjusting clock
– Contains information for power optimization and
roaming
 Power Management
• Always ready to receive consume more
power (as high as 100 mA)
• Must be switched off whenever carrier
sensing is not needed
• 2 states: sleep and awake
– Longer periods in sleep leads to low throughput
– Shorter periods in sleep leads to high power
consumption
 Roaming
• Provide uninterrupted service when walk
around with a wireless station
• When poor quality of current link, start
scanning for another AP
– Active scanning: send a probe on each channel
and wait for response
– Passive scanning: listen medium to find other
networks
 2.3.5 Other Issues
• Newer standards
– 802.11a/11b/g
– Trademark by Wireless Ethernet Compatibility
Alliance (WECA) as Wi-Fi
– 802.11e: time-sensitive applications,
voice/video
– 802.11f: inter-AP communication to handle
roaming
– 802.11i: advanced encryption for better privacy
QoS for Voice and Video Packets
• Delay-sensitive packets: higher priority
– Hybrid coordination function (HCF): AP polls
stations in a weighted way to offer QoS
– Extended DCF: higher priority stations choose
random back-off interval from a smaller CW.
Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP)
• Data integrity
• Access control
• Confidentiality
• Vulnerable if more sophisticated
mechanisms are used to crack the key
 2.5 Bluetooth
• Logically partitioned into 3 layers:
– Transport protocol group
• Radio layer
• Baseband layer
• Link manager layer
• Logical link control
• Adaptation layer
• Host controller interface
– Middleware protocol group
• RFCOMM, SDP, IrDA
– Application group
• Application profiles
Fig 2.7 Bluetooth protocol stack

本圖取自"Ad Hoc Wireless Networks", by C. Siva Ram Murthy and B. S. Manoj, published by Prentice Hall, 2004
 Radio (Physical) Layer
• GFSK
• 64Kbps voice channels and asynchronous
data channels with peak rate of 1Mbps
• Data channel: asymmetric or symmetric
• 79 channels, 79 hops
• Typical link range: up to 10 m, can be
extended to 100m by increasing power
 Baseband Layer
• Piconet (Fig 2.8)
• 48-bit address

本圖取自"Ad Hoc Wireless Networks", by C. Siva Ram Murthy and B. S. Manoj, published by Prentice Hall, 2004
 Piconet
• Master + up to 7 active slaves
Fig 2.9 Operational States

本圖取自"Ad Hoc Wireless Networks", by C. Siva Ram Murthy and B. S. Manoj, published by Prentice Hall, 2004
 Fig 2.10 Transmission over a
channel
• ACL: asynchronous connectionless link
• SCO: synchronous connection oriented link

本圖取自"Ad Hoc Wireless Networks", by C. Siva Ram Murthy and B. S. Manoj, published by Prentice Hall, 2004
 Inquiry State
• A potential master sends inquiry packet on
inquiry hop sequence of frequencies
• A slave periodically enter inquiry scan state
and listen for inquiry packets
• When received, send response packet
containing hopping sequence and device
address
 Page State
• Master estimate slave’s clock to determine hop
sequence, and send page message
• Slaves listen in page scan mode
• On receiving page message, slave enter page
response sub-state, send page response containing
its device access code (DAC)
• Master enter page response state (after receiving
slave’s response), inform slaves its clock and
address for determining hopping sequence and
synchronization
 Scatternets and Issues
• Piconet may overlap both spatially and temporally
• Each piconet is characterized by a unique master
and hop independently
• As more piconets added, more probability of
collisions
• Device can participate in 2 or more piconets by
time sharing (as a slave in several piconets, but as
a master in only a single piconet)
• A group of piconets scatternet (Fig2.11)
本圖取自"Ad Hoc Wireless Networks", by C. Siva Ram Murthy and B. S. Manoj, published by Prentice Hall, 2004
• Issues:
– Gateway nodes: bound back-and-forth, hard to
achieve full utilization
– Timing may miss:
 Link Manager Protocol
• Power Management
– Active mode: active slaves are polled by master
– Sniff mode: master issues a command to slave to enter
sniff mode
– Hold mode: temporarily not support ACL packets,
performing scanning, paging, inquiring, or attending
another piconet
– Park mode: slave gives up its active member adress
• Security Management
• Minimal QoS support by allowing control over
parameters such delay and jitter
 2.5.4 Bluetooth Profiles
• Promote interoperability among many
implementations of bluetooth protocol stack
• Provide a clear and transparent standard that can
be used to implement a specific user end function
• 4 categories
– Generic profiles
– Telephony profiles
– Networking profiles
– Serial and object exchange profiles
 UNIT -2

Ad Hoc Wireless Networks

Introduction
Ad Hoc Wireless Networks
Ad Hoc Wireless Internet
 Advent of Ad hoc Wireless Networks
 The principle behind ad hoc networking is multi-hop relaying in which
messages are sent from the source to the destination by relaying through
the intermediate hops (nodes).

 In multi-hop wireless networks, communication between two end nodes

is carried out through a number of intermediate nodes whose function is
to relay information from one point to another. A static string topology is
an example of such network:

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

 In the last few years, efforts have been focused on multi-hop "ad hoc"
networks, in which relaying nodes are in general mobile, and
communication needs are primarily between nodes within the same
network.
 Advent of Ad hoc Wireless Networks
 An examples of such developments is the Bluetooth standard that is one
of the first commercial realizations of ad hoc wireless networking
developed by Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG):

 A piconet formed by a group of nodes establishes a single-hop (master node)

point-to-point wireless link.
 A scatternet formed by multiple piconets (master nodes) can establish a
multi-hop wireless network.

 Though the IEEE 802.11 protocols have developed for the wireless
networks, they don’t function well in multi-hop networks.

 Realizing the necessity of open standards in this emerging area of

computer communication, the mobile ad hoc networks (MANET)
standards are being developed by the Internet Working Tasking Force3
(IETF) MANET working group.
 Advent of Ad hoc Wireless Networks
 Even though ad hoc wireless networks are expected to work in the
absence of any fixed infrastructure, recent advances in wireless network
architectures enable the mobile ad hoc nodes to function in the presence
of infrastructure

 Multi-hop cellular networks (MCNs), self-organizing packet radio ad hoc

networks with overlay (SOPRANO), and mesh networks are examples of
such types of networks.

 Mesh networks serve as access networks that employ multi-hop wireless

forwarding by non-mobile nodes to relay traffic to and from the wired
Internet. In such an environment, hybrid technologies and/or hierarchical
network organization can be used for ad hoc and infrastructure wireless
links.
4
Cellular and Ad Hoc Wireless Networks
 The following figure represents different wireless networks.
• Infrastructure: cellular wireless networks
• Ad hoc: wireless sensor networks
• Hybrid: mesh networks Ad Hoc Wireless networks
Multi-Hop Wireless networks

Hybrid Wireless
Cellular Wireless Networks
Networks Wireless Sensor
Networks
Wireless Mesh
Networks

Infrastructure Dependent
5
Single-Hop Wireless networks
Cellular Wireless Networks

6
Ad Hoc Wireless Networks

7
Comparisons between Cellular and Ad Hoc
Wireless Networks (I)
Cellular Networks Ad Hoc Wireless Networks
Fixed infrastructure-based Infrastructureless
Guaranteed bandwidth (designed for Shared radio channel (more suitable for
voice traffic) best-effort data traffic)
Centralized routing Distributed routing
Circuit-switched (evolving toward Packet-switched (evolving toward
packet switching) emulation of circuit switching)
Seamless connectivity (low call drops Frequent path breaks due to mobility
during handoffs)
High cost and time of deployment Quick and cost-effective deployment
Reuse of frequency spectrum through Dynamic frequency reuse based on
geographical channel reuse carrier sense mechanism
Easier to employ bandwidth reservation Bandwidth reservation requires complex
medium access control protocols 8
Comparisons between Cellular and Ad Hoc
Wireless Networks (II)
Cellular Networks Ad Hoc Wireless Networks
Application domains include mainly Application domains include battlefields,
civilian and commercial sectors emergency search and rescue operations,
and collaborative computing
High cost of network maintenance Self-organization and maintenance
(backup power source, staffing, etc.) properties are built into the network
Mobile hosts are of relatively low Mobile hosts require more intelligence
complexity (should have a transceiver as well as
routing/switching capability)
Major goals of routing and call Main aim of routing is to find paths with
admission are to maximize the call minimum overhead and also quick
acceptance ratio and minimize the call reconfiguration of broken paths
drop ratio
Widely deployed and currently in the Several issues are to be addressed for
third generation of evolution successful commercial deployment even
9
though widespread use exists in defense
Applications of Ad hoc Wireless Networks
 Military applications
• Ad hoc wireless networks is useful in establishing communication in a battle
field.
 Collaborative and Distributed Computing
• A group of people in a conference can share data in ad hoc networks.
• Streaming of multimedia objects among the participating nodes.
 Emergency Operations
• Ad hoc wireless networks are useful in emergency operations such as search
and rescue, and crowd control.
 A Wireless Mesh Network is a mesh network that is built upon
wireless communications and allows for continuous connections
and reconfiguration around blocked paths by "hopping" from node
to node until a connection can be established.
10
Wireless Mesh Networks

11
 Wireless Mesh Networks

 In a wireless mesh network, multiple nodes cooperate to relay a message to its

destination. The mesh topology enhances the overall reliability of the network,
which is particularly important when operating in harsh industrial environments.
12
 Wireless Mesh Networks
 The investment required in wireless mesh networks is much less
than in the cellular network counterparts.
 Such networks are formed by placing wireless replaying
equipment spread across the area to be covered by the network.
 The possible deployment scenarios include:
• Residential zones (where broadband Internet connectivity is required)
• Highways (where a communication facility for moving automobiles is
required)
• Business zones (where an alternate communication system to cellular
networks is required)
• Important civilian regions (where a high degree of service availability is
required)
• University campuses (where inexpensive campus-wide network coverage can
be provided)
13
 Wireless Mesh Networks
 Wireless mesh networks should be capable of self-organization
and maintenance.
 Advantages
• High data rate
• Quick and low cost of deployment
• Enhanced services
• High scalability
• Easy extendability
• High availability
• Low cost per bit
• High availability
• Low cost per bit
 It operates at 2.4 GHz or 5 GHz
 Data rates of 2 Mbps to 60 Mbps can be supported. 14
 Wireless Sensor Networks
 Wireless Sensor Networks are a special category of ad hoc networks that
are used to provide a wireless communication infrastructure among the
sensors deployed in a specific application domain.

 A sensor network is a collection of a large number of sensor nodes that

are deployed in a particular region.

 Distinct properties of wireless sensor networks:

 Mobility of nodes are not needed in all cases in wireless sensor networks.
 The size of the network is much larger than that in a typical ad hoc wireless
network.
 The density of nodes in a sensor network varies with the domain of
application.
 The power constraints in sensor networks are much more stringent than those
15
in ad hoc wireless networks.
 Wireless Sensor Networks
 Distinct properties of wireless sensor networks:
• The power source can be classified into three categories:

• Replenish able power resource

• Non- Replenish able power source

• Regenerative power source

• Data/information fusion aims at processing the sensed data at the

intermediate nodes and relaying the outcome to the monitor node.

• The communication traffic pattern varies with the domain of applications.

16
 Mobility of nodes

 Size of the network

 Density of deployment

 Power constraints
Replenishable power source

Non-replenishable power source

Regenerative power source

 Data/information fusion

 Traffic distribution
17
 Hybrid Wireless Networks
 Hybrid Wireless Networks
• Multi-hop cellular networks (MCNs) allows the transmission through the
base stations or multi-hop of mobile nodes.
• Integrated cellular ad hoc relay (iCAR) is a system that combines
conventional cellular technology with Ad hoc Relay Station (ARS)
technology. In this system cellular stations will relay or reroute calls from the
congested cell to an adjacent one that is not congested.
 Advantages
• Higher capacity than cellular networks
• Increased flexibility and reliability in routing
• Better coverage and connectivity

18
MCN Architecture

19
 Issues in Ad hoc Wireless Networks
Medium access scheme
Routing
Multicasting
Transport layer protocol
Pricing scheme
Quality of service provisioning
Self-organization
Security
Energy management
Addressing and service discovery
Scalability
Deployment considerations
20
 Issues in Ad hoc Wireless Networks
 Medium access scheme
• Distributed operation is required.
• Synchronization is required in TDMA-based systems.
• Hidden terminals are nodes hidden from a sender.
• Exposed terminals are exposed nodes preventing a sender from sending.
• Throughput needs to be maximized.
• Access delay should be minimized.
• Fairness refers to provide an equal share to all competing nodes.
• Real-time traffic support is required for voice, video, and real-time data.
• Resource reservation is required for QoS.
• Ability to measure resource availability handles the resources.
• Capability for power control reduces the energy consumption.
• Adaptive rate control refers to the variation in the data bit rate.
• Use of directional antennas has advantages including increased spectrum
reuse, reduced interference, and reduced power consumption. 21
 Issues in Ad hoc Wireless Networks
 Routing
• Mobility
• Bandwidth constraint
• Error-prone and shared channel: wireless channel (10-5 to 10-3), wired
channel (10-12 to 10-9)
• Location-dependent contention depends on the number of nodes.
• Other resource constraints such as computing power, battery power
• Minimum route acquisition delay
• Quick route reconfiguration
• Loop-free routing
• Distributed routing approach
• Minimum control overhead
• Scalability
• Provisioning of QoS
• Support for time-sensitive traffic: hard real-time and soft real-time traffic
22
• Security and privacy
 Issues in Ad hoc Wireless Networks
 Provisioning of multiple links among the nodes in an ad hoc
network results in a mesh-shaped structure. The mesh-shaped
multicast routing structure work well in a high-mobility
environment.
 The issues in multicast routing protocols are:
• Robustness: It must be able to recover and reconfigure quickly.
• Efficiency: It should make a minimum number of transmissions to deliver a
packet.
• Control overhead: It demands minimal control overhead.
• Quality of service: QoS support is essential.
• Efficient group management needs to be performed with minimal exchange
of control messages.
• Scalability: It should be able to scale for a large network.
• Security is important.
23
 Issues in Ad hoc Wireless Networks
 The objectives of the transport layer protocols include:
• Setting up and maintaining end-to-end connections
• Reliable end-to-end delivery of data packets
• Flow control
• Congestion control
 Connectionless transport layer protocol (UDP), unaware of high
contention, increases the load in the network.
 Pricing Schemes need to incorporate service compensation.
 Quality of Service Provisioning
• QoS parameters based on different applications
• QoS-aware routing uses QoS parameters to find a path.
• QoS framework is a complete system that aims at providing the promised
services to each users.

24
 Issues in Ad hoc Wireless Networks
 Self-Organization is required in ad hoc wireless networks:
• Neighbor discovery
• Topology organization
• Topology reorganization
 Security
• Denial of service
• Resource consumption
• Energy depletion: deplete the battery power of critical nodes
• Buffer overflow: flooding the routing table or consuming the data packet
buffer space
• Host impersonation: A compromised node can act as another node.
• Information disclosure: a compromised node can act as an informer.
• Interference: jam wireless communication by creating a wide-spectrum
noise.
25
 Issues in Ad hoc Wireless Networks
 Addressing and Service Discovery is essential because of
absence of a centralized coordinator.
 Energy Management
• Transmission power management: The radio frequency (RF) hardware
design should ensure minimum power consumption.
• Battery energy management is aimed at extending the battery life.
• Processor power management: The CPU can be put into different power
saving modes.
• Devices power management: Intelligent device management can reduce
power consumption of a mobile node.
 Scalability is expected in ad hoc wireless networks.

26
 Issues in Ad hoc Wireless Networks
 Deployment considerations
• Low cost of deployment
• Incremental deployment
• Short deployment time
• Reconfigurability
• Scenario of deployment
• Military deployment
• Emergency operations deployment
• Commercial wide-area deployment
• Home network deployment
• Required longevity of network
• Area of coverage
• Service availability
• Operational integration with other infrastructure
• Choice of protocols at different layers should be taken into consideration.
27
AD HOC WIRELESS INTERNET

28
 Issues of Ad hoc Wireless Internet
 Gateways
• Gateway nodes are the entry points to the wired Internet and generally
owned and operated by a service provider.
• Perform the following tasks: keeping track of the end users, band-width
fairness, address, and location discovery.
 Address mobility
• Solutions such as Mobile IP can be used.
 Routing
• Specific routing protocols for ad hoc networks are required.
 Transport layer protocol
• Split approaches that use traditional wired TCP for the wired part and a
specialized transport layer protocol for the ad hoc wireless network part.
 Load balancing
• Load balancing techniques are essential to distribute the load so as to avoid
the situation where the gateway nodes become bottleneck nodes. 29
 Issues of Ad hoc Wireless Internet
 Pricing/billing
• It is important to introduce pricing/billing strategies for the ad hoc wireless
internet.
 Provisioning of security
• It is essential to include security mechanisms in the ad hoc wireless Internet.
 QoS support
• Voice over IP (VoIP) and multimedia applications require the QoS support.
 Service, address, and location discovery
• Service discovery refers to the activity of discovering or identifying the
party which provides a particular service or resource.
• Address discovery refers to the services such as address resolution protocol
(ARP) or domain name service (DNS).
• Location discovery refers to different activities such as detecting the
location of a particular mobile node.
30
An illustration of the ad hoc wireless Internet implemented
by a wireless mesh network.

31
32
 UNIT 3
• Routing Protocols: Introduction, Issues in Designing a Routing Protocol for
Ad Hoc Wireless Networks, Classification of Routing Protocols, Table –
Driven Routing Protocols, On – Demand Routing Protocols, Hybrid Routing
Protocols, Routing Protocols with Efficient Flooding Mechanisms
Hierarchical Routing Protocols, Power – Aware Routing Protocols.
• Transport Layer and Security Protocols: Introduction, Issues in Designing a
Transport Layer Protocol for Ad Hoc Wireless Networks, Design Goals of a
Transport Layer Protocol for Ad Hoc Wireless Networks, Classification of
Transport Layer Solutions, TCP Over Ad Hoc Wireless Networks, Other
Transport Layer Protocol for Ad Hoc Wireless Networks, Security in Ad Hoc
Wireless Networks, Network Security Requirements, Issues and Challenges
in Security Provisioning, Network Security Attacks, Key Management,
Secure Routing in Ad Hoc Wireless Networks.
 ROUTING PROTOCOLS FOR AD HOC
WIRELESS NETWORKS
• An ad hoc wireless network consists of a set of
mobile nodes (hosts) that are connected by
wireless links
• Routing protocols that find a path to be
followed by data packets from a source node
to a destination node used in traditional wired
networks cannot be directly applied in ad hoc
wireless networks due to their highly dynamic
topology
 ROUTING PROTOCOLS FOR AD HOC
WIRELESS NETWORKS
• absence of established infrastructure for
centralized administration (e.g., base stations
or access points), bandwidth-constrained
wireless links, and resource (energy)-
constrained nodes.
ISSUES IN DESIGNING A ROUTING PROTOCOL
FOR AD HOC WIRELESS NETWORKS
• Mobility
Network topology is highly dynamic due to movement of nodes.
hence, an ongoing session suffers frequent path breaks.
• Disruption occurs due to the movement of either intermediate
nodes in the path or end nodes .
• Even though the wired network protocols find alternate routes
during path breaks, their convergence is very slow.
• Therefore, wired network routing protocols cannot be used in ad
hoc wireless networks where the mobility of nodes results in
frequently changing network topologies.
 CONT..
• Bandwidth Constraint
Abundant bandwidth is available in wired networks due to the
advent of fiber optics and due to the exploitation of
wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) technologies.
• In a wireless network, the radio band is limited, and hence the
data rates it can offer are much less than what a wired network
can offer.
• This requires that the routing protocols use the bandwidth
optimally by keeping the overhead as low as possible.
• The limited bandwidth availability also imposes a constraint
on routing protocols in maintaining the topological
information.
 CONT..
• Error-prone shared broadcast radio channel
The broadcast nature of the radio channel poses a unique challenge
in ad hoc wireless networks.

The wireless links have time-varying characteristics in terms of link

capacity and link-error probability.

This requires that the ad-hoc wireless network routing protocol

interact with the MAC layer to find alternate routes through
better-quality links.

Therefore, it is required that ad hoc wireless network routing

protocols find paths with less congestion
 CONT..
• Hidden and exposed terminal problems
The hidden terminal problem refers to the
collision of packets at a receiving node due to the
simultaneous transmission of those nodes that
are not within the direct transmission range of
the receiver, but are within the transmission
range of the receiver.
Collision occurs when both nodes transmit
packets at the same time without knowing a
bout the transmission of each other.
 CONT..
• Resource Constraints
Devices used in ad hoc wireless networks in
most cases require portability, and hence they
also have size and weight constraints along
with the restrictions on the power source.

Increasing the battery power and processing

ability makes the nodes bulky and less
portable.
 Characteristics of an Ideal Routing
Protocol for Ad Hoc Wireless Networks
1. It must be fully distributed, as centralized routing
involves high control overhead and hence is not
scalable.
2. It must be adaptive to frequent topology changes
caused by the mobility of nodes.
3. Route computation and maintenance must involve
a minimum number of nodes. Each node in the
network must have quick access to routes, that is,
minimum connection setup time is desired.
 Characteristics of an Ideal Routing
Protocol for Ad Hoc Wireless Networks
4. It must be localized, as global state maintenance
involves a huge state propagation control
overhead.
5. It must be loop-free and free from stale routes.
6. The number of packet collisions must be kept to a
minimum by limiting the number of broadcasts
made by each node. The transmissions should be
reliable to reduce message loss and to prevent the
occurrence of stale routes.
 Characteristics of an Ideal Routing
Protocol for Ad Hoc Wireless Networks
7. It must converge to optimal routes once the
network topology becomes stable. The
convergence must be quick.
8. It must optimally use scarce resources such as
bandwidth, computing power, memory, and
battery power.
9. Every node in the network should try to store
information regarding the stable local topology
only.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF ROUTING
PROTOCOLS
 Based on the Routing Information
Update Mechanism
• Ad hoc wireless network routing protocols can
be classified into three major categories:
1. Proactive or table-driven routing protocols
• In table-driven routing protocols, every node
maintains the network topology information
in the formof routing tables by periodically
exchanging routing information. Routing
• information is generally flooded in the whole
network.
 Based on the Routing Information
Update Mechanism
2. Reactive or on-demand routing protocols
• In Protocols that fall under this category do not
maintain the network topology information.
3.Hybrid routing protocols
• Protocols belonging to this category combine the
best features of the above two categories.
• Nodes within a certain distance from the node
concerned, or within a particular geographical
region, are said to be within the routing zone of
the given node
TABLE-DRIVEN ROUTING PROTOCOLS
 Destination Sequence
Distance Vector
• is one of the first protocols proposed for ad hoc
wireless networks
• It is an enhanced version of the distributed
Bellman-Ford algorithm
• It incorporates table updates with increasing
sequence number tags to prevent loops, to
counter the count-to-infinity problem
• As it is a table-driven routing protocol, routes to
all destinations are readily available at every
node at all times
 The Wireless Routing Protocol
• A table-based distance-vector routing protocol
• Each node maintains
– Distance table
– Routing table
– Link-Cost table
– Message Retransmission List (MRL) table
• The DT contains the network view of the
neighbors of a node
• The RT contains the up-to-date view of the
network for all known destinations.
• It keeps the shortest distance, the predecessor
node (penultimate node), the successor node
(the next node to reach the destination), and
a flag indicating the status of the path.
• The LCT contains the cost (e.g., the number of
hops to reach the destination) of relaying
messages through each link. The cost of a
broken link is ∞.
• The MRL contains an entry for every update
message that is to be retransmitted and
maintains a counter for each entry. This
counter is decremented after every
retransmission of an update message
 Clusterhead Gateway Switch
Routing
• Cluster member table
– Using DSDV algorithm.
• The mobile nodes are aggregated into clusters
and a cluster-head is elected.
– Least Cluster Change (LCC) algorithm
• A cluster-head control a group of ad hoc
nodes.
• A gateway is a node that is in the
communication range of two or more cluster-
heads.
• As per this protocol, when a node with packets to be
transmitted to a destination gets the token from its cluster-
head, it obtains the destination clusterhead and the next
hop node from the cluster member table and the routing
table, respectively.
• CGSR improves the routing performance by routing packets
through the cluster-heads and gateways. A path from any
node a to any node b will be similar to a − C1 − G1 − C2 −G2
− ...Ci − Gj...Gn − b, where Gi and Cj are the ith gateway
and the jth cluster-head, respectively, in the path.
 CGSR Example
12

11
5 10
7
4 8

2
1 9
3

Internal node Gateway Cluster-head

 ON-DEMAND ROUTING
PROTOCOLS
• on-demand routing protocols execute the
path-finding process and exchange routing
information only when a path is required by a
node to communicate with a destination
 Source-Initiated On-Demand Routing
Protocols
• Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing
• Dynamic Source Routing
• Temporally Ordered Routing Algorithm
• Associativity-Based Routing
• Signal Stability Routing
 Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector
Routing (AODV)
Introduction
• AODV is an improvement on DSDV
• Nodes that are not on a selected path do not maintain routing
information or participate in routing table exchanges.
• It creates the followingt
• Route discovery
• 1. route req(broadcast)
• 2. route reply(unicast)
• Route maintenance
 Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector
Routing (AODV)
Routing Protocol
Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector
Routing (AODV)
 Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector
Routing (AODV)
• Route Request (RREQ)
• Route Reply (RREP)
• AODV uses destination sequence numbers to
ensure that all routes are loop-free and contain
the most recent route information
Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector
Routing (AODV)
Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector
Routing (AODV)
 Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector
Routing (AODV)
• If a source node moves, it has to reinitiate the route discovery
protocol to find a new route to the destination
• If a node along the route moves, its upstream neighbor notices
the move and propagates a link failure notification message
to each of its active upstream neighbors to inform them of the
erasure of that part of the route.
 Dynamic source routing protocol
• The dierence between DSR and other on-demand
routing protocols is:
• on-demand protocols periodically exchange the so-
called beacon (hello) packets:
• hello packets are used to inform neighbors about
existence of the node.
• DSR does not use hello packets
 Dynamic source routing protocol
• The basic approach of this protocol is as follows:
• during route contraction DSR oods a RouteRequest packets
in the network;
• intermediate nodes forward RouteRequest if it is not
redundant;
• destination node replies with RouteReply;
• the RouteReply packet contains the path traversed by
RouteRequest packet;
• the receiver responds only if this is a rst RouteRequest (not
duplicate).
• The DSR protocol uses the sequence numbers:
• RouteRequest packet carries the path
traversed and the sequence number;
• the sequence numbers are used to prevent
loop formation and nodes check it.
• The DSR also uses route cache in each node:
• if node has a route in the cache, this route is
used.
• TORA is an on-demand routing protocol.
• The main objective of TORA is to limit control
message propagation in the highly dynamic
mobile computing environment.
• Each node has to explicitly initiate a query when
it needs to send data to a particular destination.
• TORA belongs to a class of algorithms called the link
reversal algorithms
• Link reversal algorithms provide a simple mechanism for
routing in communication networks whose topology is
frequently changing, such as in mobile ad hoc networks.
• TORA essentially performs three tasks
1. Creation of a route from a source to a destination.
2. Maintenance of the route.
3. Erasure of the route when the route is no longer valid.
• During the route creation and maintenance phases, nodes
use a height metric to establish a directed acyclic graph
(DAG) rooted at destination. Thereafter links are assigned
based on the relative height metric of neighboring nodes.
• A directed acyclic graph is a directed graph that has no
cycles.
Example
 Hybrid Protocol - Zone Routing Protocols (ZRP)

• The Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP) combines the advantages of the

proactive and reactive approaches by maintaining an up-to-
date topological map of a zone centered on each node
• The routing in ZRP is divided into two parts
– Intrazone routing : First, the packet is sent within the
routing zone of the source node to reach the peripheral
nodes.
– Interzone routing : Then the packet is sent from the
peripheral nodes towards the destination node.
 Intrazone Routing
• Each node collects information about all the nodes in its
routing zone proactively. This strategy is similar to a
proactive protocol like DSDV.

• Each node maintains a routing table for its routing zone, so

that it can find a route to any node in the routing zone from
this table.
• In the original ZRP proposal, intrazone routing is done by
maintaining a link state table at each node
 Interzone Routing
• The interzone routing discovers routes to the destination
reactively.

• Consider a source (S) and a destination (D). If D is within

the routing zone of S, the routing is completed in the
intrazone routing phase.

• Otherwise, S sends the packet to the peripheral nodes of its

zone through bordercasting.
 D

S
 POWER AWARE ROUTING(PAR)
conserve power and share cost of routing
packets to ensure increase in life of node and
network

Metrics
1. Minimize energy consumed / packet
2. Maximize time to Network Partition
3. Minimize variance in node power levels
4. Minimize cost / packet
5. Minimize maximum node cost
• Minimal energy consumption per a packet:
This metric involves a number of nodes from source to destination.
uniform consumption of power throughout the network;
• Maximize the network connectivity:
To balance the load between the cut-sets (those nodes removal of which
causes partitions).
• Minimum variance in node power levels:
To distribute load such that power consumption pattern remains uniform
across nodes.
nearly optimal performance is achieved by routing a packet to least loaded
next-hop.
• Minimum cost per a packet:
• Cost as a function of the battery charge (less energy { more cost) and use
it as a metric.
easy to compute (battery discharge patterns are available);
this metric handles congestions in the network.
 TRANSPORT LAYER AND SECURITY PROTOCOLS
FOR AD HOC WIRELESS NETWORKS
• The objectives of a transport layer protocol include the
setting up of an end-to end connection, end-to-end delivery
of data packets, flow control, and congestion control.
• There exist simple, unreliable, and Connection-less transport
layer protocols such as UDP, and reliable, byte-stream-based,
and connection oriented transport layer protocols such as
TCP for wired networks.
• This chapter mainly focus on communication and security has
been established in all the protocols and also it provides the
infrastructure network with secure transmission.
 ISSUES IN DESIGNING A TRANSPORT LAYER PROTOCOL
FOR AD HOC WIRELESS NETWORKS
• In this section, some of the issues to be considered while designing a
transport layer protocol for ad hoc wireless networks are discussed.
• Induced traffic
In a path having multiple links, transmission at a particular link affects one
upstream link and one downstream link. This traffic at any given link (or
path) due to the traffic through neighboring links (or paths) is referred to as
induced traffic.
• Induced throughput unfairness
This refers to the throughput unfairness at the transport layer due to the
throughput/delay unfairness existing at the lower layers such as the
network and MAC layers.
• Separation of congestion control, reliability, and flow control
Transport layer protocol can provide better performance if end-to-end
reliability, flow control, and congestion control are handled separately.
Reliability and flow control are end-to-end activities, whereas congestion
can at times be a local activity.
• Power and bandwidth constraints
Nodes in ad hoc wireless networks face resource constraints including the two
most important resources: (i) power source and (ii) bandwidth.
• Misinterpretation of congestion
Traditional mechanisms of detecting congestion in networks, such as packet
loss and retransmission timeout, are not suitable for detecting the network
congestion in ad hoc wireless networks.
• Completely decoupled transport layer
In ad hoc wireless networks, the cross-layer interaction between the transport
layer and lower layers such as the network layer and the MAC layer is
important for the transport layer to adapt to the changing network environment.
• Dynamic topology
Some of the deployment scenarios of ad hoc wireless networks experience
rapidly changing network topology due to the mobility of nodes. This can lead
to frequent path breaks, partitioning and remerging of networks, and high delay
in reestablishment of paths.
 DESIGN GOALS OF A TRANSPORT LAYER PROTOCOL FOR
AD HOC WIRELESS NETWORKS

• The protocol should maximize the throughput per

connection. It should provide throughput fairness across
contending flows.
• It should incur minimum connection set up and connection
maintenance overheads. It should have mechanisms for
congestion control and flow control in the network.
• It should be able to provide both reliable and
unreliable connections as per the requirements of the
application layer.
• It should be able to adapt to the dynamics of the network
such as rapid changes in topology. Bandwidth must be used
efficiently.
 DESIGN GOALS OF A TRANSPORT LAYER PROTOCOL FOR
AD HOC WIRELESS NETWORKS

• It should be aware of resource constraints such as battery

power and buffer sizes and make efficient use of them.
• It should make use of information from the lower layers for
improving network throughput. It should have a well-
defined cross-layer interaction framework.
• It should maintain End-to-End Semantics.
 Classification of Transport Layer
Solutions
Transport
Transport Layer
Layer Solutions
Solutions for
for Ad
Ad Hoc
Hoc Wireless
Wireless Networks
Networks

TCP
TCP over
over ad
ad hoc
hoc wireless
wireless networks
networks Other transport layer approach

ATCP
End-to-end
ATP
Split Approach
approach

Split-TCP TCP-F
TCP-ELFN
TCP-Bus
56
 TCP Over Ad Hoc Wireless Network
 Feedback-based TCP (TCP Feedback – TCP-F)
 Requires the support of a reliable link layer and a routing protocol that can provide
feedback to the TCP sender about the path breaks.
 The routing protocol is expected to repair the broken path within a reasonable time
period.
 Advantages: Simple, permits the TCP congestion control mechanism to respond to
congestion
 Disadvantages:
 If a route to the sender is not available at the failure point (FP), then additional
control packets may need to be generated for routing the route failure notification
(RFN) packet.
 Requires modification to the existing TCP.
 The congestion window after a new route is obtained may not reflect the
achievable transmission rate acceptable to the network and the TCP-F receiver.
57
58
TCP-F

RFN RFN
N
S A B C Failed Point D

59
TCP-F

RFN RFN RFN

S A B C D
RRN RRN RRN RRN

60
 TCP Over Ad Hoc Wireless Network
 TCP with explicit link failure notification (TCP-ELFN)
 Handle explicit link failure notification
 Use TCP probe packets for detecting the route reestablishment.
 The ELFN is originated by the node detecting a path break upon detection of a link
failure to the TCP sender.
 Advantages:
 improves the TCP performance by decoupling the path break information from
the congestion information by the use of ELFN.
 Less dependent on the routing protocol and requires only link failure
notification
 Disadvantages
 When the network is partitioned, the path failure may last longer
 The congestion window after a new route is obtained may not reflect the
achievable transmission rate acceptable to the network and TCP receiver.
TCP ELFN
 Sender reaction
 When a TCP sender receives an ELFN,
 It disables its retransmission timers and enters a “standby” mode
 While on standby,
 A packet is sent at periodic intervals to probe the network to see if a
route has been established
 If an acknowledgment is received,
 Then it leaves standby mode

62/41
 TCP Over Ad Hoc Wireless Network
TCP with buffering capability and sequence information (TCP-BuS)

 Use feedback information from an intermediate node on detection of a path break.

 Use localized query (LQ) and REPLY to find a partial path
 Upon detection of a path break, an upstream intermediate node originates an explicit
route disconnection notification (ERDN) message.
 Advantages
 Performance improvement and avoidance of fast retransmission
 Use on-demand routing protocol
 Disadvantages
 Increased dependency on the routing protocol and the buffering at the intermediate
nodes
 The failure of intermediate nodes may lead to loss of packets.
 The dependency of TCP-BuS on the routing protocol many degrade its performance.

63
64
 TCP Over Ad Hoc Wireless Network
 Ad Hoc TCP (ATCP)
 uses a network layer feedback mechanism to make the TCP sender aware of the status of the
network path
 Based on the feedback information received from the intermediate nodes, the TCP sender
changes its state to the persist state, congestion control state, or the retransmit state.
 When an intermediate node finds that the network is partitioned, then the TCP sender state
is changed to the persist state.
 The ATCP layer makes use of the explicit congestion notification (ECN) for maintenance
for the states.
 Advantages
 Maintain the end-to-end semantics of TCP
 Compatible with traditional TCP
 Provides a feasible and efficient solution to improve throughput of TCP
 Disadvantages
 The dependency on the network layer protocol to detect the route changes and
partitions
 The addition of a thin ATCP layer to the TCP/IP protocol changes the interface
functions currently being used.
65
66
 Split-TCP
 Issues addressed by Split-TCP:
 Throughput degradation with increasing path length
 Channel capture effect (802.11)
 Mobility issues with regular TCP

67
 Channel Capture Effect
 Definition:
 “The most data-intense connection dominates the multiple-
access wireless channel”
 Higher SNR(Signal-to-noise ratio)
 Early start
 Example: 2 simultaneous heavy-load TCP flows located close to
each other.

68
 How does Split-TCP work?
 Connection between sender and receiver broken into
segments
 A proxy controls each segment
 Regular TCP is used within segments
 Global end-to-end connection with periodic ACKs (for
multiple packets)

69
 Split-TCP Segmentation

70
 Split-TCP in a MANET:
Proxy Functionality
 Proxies:
 Intercept and buffer TCP packets
 Transmit packet, wait for LACK
 Send local ACK (LACK) to previous proxy
 Packets cleared upon reception of LACK
 Increase fairness by maintaining equal connection length

71
 Split-TCP in a MANET (2)

 Steps:
 Node 1 initiates TCP session
 Nodes 4 and 13 are chosen as
proxies on-demand
 Upon trx, 4 buffers packets
 If a packet lost at 15, request
made to 13 to retransmit
 1 unaware of link failure at 15

72
 NETWORK SECURITY REQUIREMENTS

 Confidentiality:
 Integrity:
 Availability:
 Non-repudiation:
 NETWORK SECURITY REQUIREMENTS

Confidentiality:
 The data sent by the sender (source node) must be
comprehensible only to the intended receiver
(destination node).
 Though an intruder might get hold of the data being
sent, he/she must not be able to derive any useful
information out of the data. One of the popular
techniques used for ensuring confidentiality is data
encryption.
Integrity:
 The data sent by the source node should reach the
destination node as it was sent: unaltered.
Availability:
 The network should remain operational all the time.
 It should be able to provide the guaranteed services
whenever an authorized user requires them.
Non-repudiation:
• Non-repudiation is a mechanism to guarantee that
the sender of a message cannot later deny having sent
the message and that the recipient cannot deny
having received the message.
 Digital signatures, which function as unique identifiers
for each user, much like a written signature, are used
commonly for this purpose.
 KEY MANAGEMENT
 Cryptography is one of the most common and reliable
means to ensure security.
 Cryptography is not specific to ad hoc wireless networks. It
can be applied to any communication network
 The processes of encryption and decryption are governed
by keys, which are small amounts of information used by the
cryptographic algorithms.
 When the key is to be kept secret to ensure the security of
the system, it is called a secret key. The secure administration
of cryptographic keys is called key management.
 Symmetric Key Algorithms
Symmetric key algorithms rely on the presence of the shared
key at both the sender and receiver, which has been
exchanged by some previous arrangement.
Asymmetric Key Algorithms
Asymmetric key (or public key) algorithms use different keys
at the sender and receiver ends for encryption and
decryption, respectively.
Key Management Approaches
The primary goal of key management is to share a secret (some
information) among a specified set of participants.
Key Predistribution
Key predistribution, as the name suggests, involves
distributing keys to all interested parties before the start of
communication. This method involves much less
communication and computation, but all participants must
be known a priori, during the initial configuration.
Key Transport
In key transport systems, one of the communicating entities
generates keys and transports them to the other members.
The simplest scheme assumes that a shared key already exists
among the participating members.
 Key Arbitration
Key arbitration schemes use a central arbitrator to create and
distribute keys among all participants. Hence, they are a class
of key transport schemes. Networks which have a fixed
infrastructure use the AP as an arbitrator.
Key Agreement
Most key agreement schemes are based on asymmetric key
algorithms. They are used when two or more people want to
agree upon a secret key, which will then be used for further
communication.
Key Management in Ad Hoc Wireless Networks

 Password-Based Group Systems

A password-based system has been explored where, in the
simplest case, a long string is given as the password for users
for one session. However, human beings tend to favor natural
language phrases as passwords, over randomly generated
strings.
 Threshold Cryptography
Public key infrastructure (PKI) enables the easy distribution
of keys and is a scalable method. Each node has a
public/private key pair, and a certifying authority (CA) can
bind the keys to the particular node.
 QUALITY OF SERVICE IN AD HOC
WIRELESS NETWORKS
INTRODUCTION

ISSUES AND CHALLENGES IN PROVIDING QOS IN AD HOC

WIRELESS NETWORKS

CLASSIFICATIONS OF QOS SOLUTIONS

MAC LAYER SOLUTIONS

NETWORK LAYER SOLUTIONS

QOS FRAMEWORKS FOR AD HOC WIRELESS NETWORKS

 INTRODUCTION
 An ad hoc wireless network (AWN) is a collection of mobile
hosts forming a temporary network on the fly, without using any
fixed infrastructure. Characteristics of AWNs such as lack of
central coordination, mobility of hosts, dynamically varying
network topology, and limited availability of resources make
QoS provisioning very challenging in such networks.

 we describe the issues and challenges in providing QoS for

AWNs and review some of the QoS solutions proposed. We first
provide a layer-wise classification of the existing QoS solutions,
and then discuss each of these solutions
An example of QoS routing in ad hoc wireless network
QoS parameters in ad hoc wireless networks
 As different applications have different requirements, the services
required by them and the associated QoS parameters differ from
application to application.

 For example, in case of multimedia applications, bandwidth, delay jitter,

and delay are the key QoS parameters, whereas military applications have
stringent security requirements. For applications such as emergency
search and rescue operations, availability of network is the key QoS
parameter.

 Applications such as group communication in a conference hall require

that the transmissions among nodes consume as minimum energy as
possible. Hence battery life is the key QoS parameter here.

 QoS parameters are mainly characterized by the requirements of

multimedia traffic, in AWNs the QoS requirements are more influenced by
the resource constraints of the nodes.
 QoS Parameters in Ad Hoc Wireless Networks
• Unlike traditional wired networks, where the QoS parameters are
mainly characterized by the requirements of multimedia traffic, in
ad hoc wireless networks the QoS requirements are more
influenced by the resource constraints of the nodes.
• Some of the resource constraints are battery charge, processing
power, and buffer space.
• Applications such as group communication in a conference hall
require that the transmissions among nodes consume as little
energy as possible. Hence, battery life is the key QoS parameter
here.
 Real-Time Traffic Support in Ad Hoc Wireless Networks
• Real-time applications require mechanisms that guarantee
bounded delay and delay jitter. The end-to-end delay in packet
delivery includes the queuing delay at the source and
intermediate nodes, the processing time at the intermediate
nodes, and the propagation duration over multiple hops from the
source node to the destination node. Real-time applications can
be classified as hard real-time applications and soft real-time
applications.
• A hard real-time application requires strict QoS guarantees. Some
of the hard real-time applications include nuclear reactor control
systems, air traffic control systems, and missile control systems. In
these applications, failure to meet the required delay constraints
may lead to disastrous results.
• Some of the soft real-time applications are voice telephony, video-
on-demand, and video conferencing. In these applications, the
loss of data and variation in delay and delay jitter may degrade the
service but do not produce hazardous results.
ISSUES AND CHALLENGES IN PROVIDING QOS IN AD HOC
WIRELESS NETWORKS
 Dynamically varying network topology
 Since the nodes in an ad hoc wireless network do not have
any restriction on mobility, the network topology changes
dynamically.
 Hence, the admitted QoS sessions may suffer due to frequent
path breaks, thereby requiring such sessions to be
reestablished over new paths.
 The delay incurred in reestablishing a QoS session may cause
some of the packets belonging to that session to miss their
delay targets/deadlines, which is not acceptable for
applications that have stringent QoS requirements.
 Imprecise state information: In most cases, the nodes in an
ad hoc wireless network maintain both the link-specific state
information and flow-specific state information.
• Lack of central coordination
 Unlike wireless LANs and cellular networks,ad hoc wireless
networks do not have central controllers to coordinate the
activity of nodes. This further complicates QoS provisioning in ad
hoc wireless networks.
• Error-prone shared radio channel
 The radio channel is a broadcast medium by nature. During
propagation through the wireless medium, the radio waves suffer
from several impairments such as attenuation, Multipath
propagation, and interference

• Hidden terminal problem

 The hidden terminal problem is inherent in ad hoc wireless
networks. This problem occurs when packets originating from two
or more sender nodes, which are not within the direct
transmission range of each other, collide at a common receiver
node. and adopted later in the IEEE 802.11 standard
• Limited resource availability
 Resources such as bandwidth, battery life, storage space, and
processing capability are limited in ad hoc wireless networks. Out of
these, bandwidth and battery life are critical resources, the availability
of which significantly affects the performance of the QoS provisioning
mechanism.
• Insecure medium
 Due to the broadcast nature of the wireless medium, communication
through a wireless channel is highly insecure. Therefore, security is an
important issue in ad hoc wireless networks, especially for military and
tactical applications.
• Hard state versus soft state resource reservation
• hard state and soft state reservation mechanisms. In hard state
resource reservation schemes, resources are reserved at all
intermediate nodes along the path from the source to the destination
throughout the duration of the QoS session. If such a path is broken due
to network dynamics, these reserved resources have to be explicitly
released by a deallocation mechanism.
• Stateful versus stateless approach
 In the stateful approach, each node maintains either global
state information or only local state information, while in the
case of a stateless approach, no such information is maintained
at the nodes. State information includes both the topology
information and the flow specific information. If global state
information is available,

• Hard QoS versus soft QoS approach

 The QoS provisioning approaches can be broadly classified into

two categories: hard QoS and soft QoS approaches. If QoS
requirements of a connection are guaranteed to be met for the
whole duration of the session, the QoS approach is termed a
hard QoS approach. If the QoS requirements are not guaranteed
for the entire session, the QoS approach is termed a soft QoS
approach.
 Layer-wise classification of existing QoS solutions
 The existing QoS solution s can also be classified based on which layer
in the network protocol stack they operate in. Fig. 3 gives a layer-wise
classification of QoS solutions. The figure also shows some of the cross-
layer QoS solutions proposed for AWNs. The following sections describe
the various QoS solution s listed.
• MAC layer solutions
The MAC protocol determines which node should transmit next on the
broadcast channel when several nodes are competing for transmission
on that channel. Some of the MAC protocols that provide QoS support
for applications in AWNs are described below.

Cluster TDMA
 The time division multiple access (TDMA) scheme is used within
a cluster for controlling access to the channel.
 Further, it is possible for multiple sessions to share a given
TDMA slot via code division multiple access (CDMA).
 A synchronous time division frame is defined to support TDMA
access within a cluster and to exchange control information.
Each synchronous time division frame is divided into slots. Slots
and frames are synchronized throughout the network.
• IEEE 802.11e
 In this section the IEEE 802.11 MAC protocol is first described briefly.
Then, the recently proposed mechanisms for QoS support, namely
enhanced
 distributed coordination function (EDCF) and
 hybrid coordination function (HCF),
• IEEE 802.11 MAC protocol
 The 802.11 MAC protocol supports two modes of operation, namely
 Distributed coordination function (DCF)
 Point coordination function (PCF).
 The DCF mode provides best-effort service, while the PCF mode has
been designed to provide real-time traffic support in infrastructure-
based wireless network configurations. The DCF mode does not use any
kind of centralized control, all stations are allowed to contend for the
shared medium simultaneously.
 CSMA/CA mechanism and random back off scheme are used to reduce
frame collisions.
• QoS support mechanisms of IEEE 802.11e
 The IEEE 802.11 Task Group e (TGe) has been setup to enhance the
current 802.11 MAC protocol such that it is able to support multimedia
applications.
• Enhanced distributed coordination function(EDCF)
 Each frame from the higher layer carries its user priority (UP). After
receiving each frame, the MAC layer maps it into an access category
(AC). Each AC has a different priority of access to the wireless medium.
One or more Ups can be assigned to each AC.
 Hybrid coordination function
The Hybrid coordination function (HCF)
combines features of EDCF and PCF to provide
the capability of selectively handling MAC
service data units (MSDUs),
in a manner that has upward compatibility
with the both DCF and PCF.
It uses a common set of frame exchange
sequences during both the CP
 QAP may include one or more TXOPs. During the CAP, the HC may
transmit frames and issue polls to stations which grant them TXOPs.

 At the end of the TXOP or when the station has no more frames to
transmit, it explicitly hands over control of the medium back to the HC.

 During CP, each TXOP begins either when the medium is determined to
be available under the EDCF rules (EDCF-TXOP) or when the station
receives a QoS CF-Poll frame from the HC (Polled- TXOP).
• DBASE(Ditributed Bandwidth allocation Sharing/Extension)
 Like the IEEE 802.11 standard, the DBASE protocol divides the frames into three
priority classes.
 Frames belonging to different priority classes have to wait for different IFSs
before they are transmitted.
 Stations have to wait for a minimum of PIFS(PCF(Point coordination
function) Inter-frame Space (PISF)
 before transmitting rt-frames such as reservation frame (RF) and request to
send (RTS).
 The Non real time-frames have the lowest priority, and hence stations have to
wait for DIFS(DCF(Distributed coordination function) Inter-frame Space)
before transmitting such frames.
• The access procedure for real-time stations
 Each real time-station maintains a virtual Reservation table (RSVT). In this
virtual table, the information regarding all rt-stations that have successfully
reserved the required bandwidth is recorded.
 Before initiating an rt-session, the rt-station sends an RTSin order to reserve the
required bandwidth.
 Before transmitting the RTS, a corresponding entry is made in the RSVT of the
node. Every station that hears this RTS packet also makes a corresponding entry
in its RSVT.
• Network layer solutions
 The bandwidth reservation and real-time traffic support capability of
MAC protocols can ensure reservation at the link level only, hence the
network layer support for ensuring end-to-end resource negotiation,
reservation, and reconfiguration is very essential. This section describes
the existing network layer solutions that support QoS provisioning.
• QoS routing protocols
 QoS routing protocols search for routes with sufficient resources in
order to satisfy the QoS requirements of a flow. The information
regarding the availability of resources is managed by a resource
management module which assists the QoS routing protocol in its
search for QoS feasible paths.
 The QoS routing protocol should find paths that consume minimum
resources. The QoS metrics can be classified as additive metrics, concave
metrics, and multiplicative metrics.
• Ticket-based QoS routing protocol
• Ticket-based routing (TBR) protocol is a promising protocol because it
can select routes based on several desired metrics, for example route
cost and delay.
 Ticket-based QoS routing is a distributed QoS routing protocol for
AWNs. It can tolerate imprecise state information during QoS route
computation and exhibits good performance even when the degree of
imprecision is high.
• Advantages and disadvantages
 The objective of ticket-based probing is to improve the average call
acceptance ratio (ACAR) of AWNs.
 The protocol assumes that each node has global state information, but
maintaining such information incurs huge control overhead in the
already bandwidth constrained AWNs.
• Predictive location based QoS routing protocol
 The predictive location-based QoS routing protocol (PLBQR) is based on the
prediction of the location of nodes in AWNs.
 The prediction scheme overcomes to some extent the problem arising due to
the presence of stale routing information.
 No resources are reserved along the path from the source to the destination,
but QoS-aware admission control is performed.

• Location and delay predictions

 In establishing a connection to the destination D, the source S has to
first predict the geographic location of node D and the intermediate
nodes, at the instant when the first packet reaches the respective
nodes.
• QoS routing
Each node in the network has information about the complete
network topology, which is refreshed by means of update messages. Using
this information, the source node performs source routing. The network state
information is maintained in two tables viz., the update table and the routing
table.
Then it performs a depth-first search for the destination starting with
each of these candidate neighbors to find all candidate routes satisfying the
QoS requirements of the connection request. From the
resulting candidate routes, the geographically shortest route is chosen and the
connection is established.
• Advantages and disadvantages
PLBQR protocol uses location and delay prediction schemes which
reduce to some extent the problem arising due to the presence of stale
routing information.
The end-to-end delay for a packet depends on several factors such
as, the size of the packet, current traffic load in the network, scheduling
policy and processing capability of intermediate nodes, and capacity of links.
• Trigger based distributed QoS routing protocol
 The trigger-based (on-demand) distributed QoS routing (TDR) protocol
was proposed by Deetal. for supporting real-time applications in AWNs.
Every node maintains only the local neighborhood information in order
to reduce computation overhead and storage overhead. For each
neighbor, every node maintains received power level, current geographic
coordinates, velocity, and direction of motion. To reduce control
overhead, nodes maintain only the active routes.
• Routing protocol
 The messages that are exchanged for initiating and maintaining a real-
time session are described below.
• Alternate route discovery
 In SIRR(Source Intiated re-routing), when the received power
level at an intermediate node falls below a threshold Pth2, the
intermediate node sends a rerouting indication to the source S.
Then the source S initiates the rerouting process through
selective forwarding.
• Advantages and disadvantages
 In TDR protocol, if the source node knows the location of the
destination node, it performs route discovery through selective
forwarding to reduce the control overhead. For a quick rerouting
with reduced control overhead and to reduce the packet loss during
path breaks, it uses INRR(intermediate node initiated rerouting )
and SIRR schemes. But, in this protocol a QoS sessi on is rerouted
if the received power level from a downstream node falls below a
certain value (i.e., threshold).
• QoS extensions to AODV protocol
 Several modifications have been carried out for the routing table
structure, and RREQ and RREP messages in order to support QoS
routing. Each routing table entry corresponds to a different
destination node. The following fields are appended to each
routing table entry
• Maximum delay,
• Minimum available bandwidth,
• List of sources requesting delay guarantees,
• List of sources requesting bandwidth guarantees.
• Maximum delay extension field
 The maximum delay extension field is interpreted differently for
RREQ and RREP messages. In a RREQ message it indicates the
maximum time (in seconds) allowed for a transmission from the
current node to the destination node.
• Bandwidth routing protocol
 The bandwidth routing (BR) protocol consists of an end-to-end
path bandwidth calculation algorithm to inform the source node
of the available bandwidth to any destination in the ad hoc
network, a bandwidth reservation algorithm to reserve sufficient
number of free slots for the QoS flow, and a standby routing
algorithm to reestablish the QoS flow in case of path breaks.
• Bandwidth calculation
• Slot assignment
 The slot assignment algorithm in each node assigns free slots
during the call setup. When a node receives a call setup packet, it
checks whether the slots that the immediate sender will use for
transmission are free, and it also finds if there are free slots that
can be used for forwarding the incoming packets.
• Standby routing mechanism
 The standby routing mechanism has to reestablish connections
that are broken due to mobility of nodes. The standby route is
easily computed.
 QOS FRAMEWORKS FOR AD HOC
WIRELESS NETWORKS
• A framework for QoS is a complete system
that attempts to provide required/promised
services to each user or application.
The key components
• Routing protocol
• QoS resource reservation signaling
• Admission control
• Packet scheduling
Routing protocol
• It is used to find a path from the source to the destination and to forward
the data packet to the next intermediate relay node. QoS routing
describes the process of finding suitable path(s).
QoS resource reservation signaling
• Once a path with the required QoS is found, the next step is to reserve the
required resources along that path. This is done by the resource
reservation signalling protocol.
Admission control
• It is a validation process in communication systems where a check is
performed before a connection is established to see if current resources
are sufficient for the proposed connection.
Packet scheduling
• When multiple QoS connections are active at the same time through a
link, the decision on which QoS flow is to be served next is made by the
scheduling scheme.
 QoS Resource Reservation
Signaling
• The QoS resource reservation signalling scheme is
responsible for reserving the required resources
and informing the corresponding applications,
which then initiate data transmission.

• Signalling protocol consists of three phases,

namely, connection establishment, connection
maintenance, and connection termination.
 INSIGNIA
• INSIGNIA is an IP (Internet Protocol) based
framework that supports adaptive services for
MANETs.
• The INSIGNIA QoS framework was developed to
provide adaptive services in ad hoc wireless
networks.
• Adaptive services support applications that
require only a minimum quantitative QoS
guarantee (such as minimum bandwidth) called
base QoS.
 INSIGNIA
• The key design issues in providing adaptive
services are as follows:
• How fast can the application service level be
switched from base QoS to enhanced QoS .
• How and when is it possible to operate on the
base QoS or enhanced QoS level.
• Routing module: The routing protocol finds a route from the source
to the destination. It is also used to forward a data packet to the
next intermediate relay node.
• In-band signaling: This module is used to establish, adapt, restore,
and tear down adaptive services between source-destination pairs.
• Admission control: This module allocates bandwidth to flows based
on the maximum/minimum bandwidth requested.
• Packet scheduling: Packets that are to be routed to other nodes are
handled by the packet-scheduling module. The packets to be
transmitted by a node are scheduled by the scheduler based on the
forwarding policy.
• Medium access control (MAC): The MAC protocol provides QoS-
driven access to the shared wireless medium for adaptive real-time
services.
 INORA
• INORA is a QoS framework for ad hoc wireless
networks that makes use of the INSIGNIA in-
band signaling mechanism.
 Coarse Feedback Scheme
• In this scheme, if a node fails to admit a QoS flow
either due to lack of minimum required
bandwidth (BWmin ) or because of congestion at
the node,
• it sends an out-of-band admission control failure
(ACF) message to its upstream node.
• After receiving the ACF message, the upstream
node reroutes the flow through another
downstream node provided by the TORA routing
protocol.
• The operations of the coarse feedback scheme
are explained through the following example
• Let S → A → B → D be the path chosen by the
TORA routing protocol.
• INSIGNIA tries to establish soft state reservations for the QoS flow
along the path. Assume that node A has admitted the flow
successfully and node B fails to admit the flow due to lack of
sufficient resources. Node B sends an ACF message to node A.

• Node A tries to reroute the flow through neighbor node Y provided

by TORA.

• If node Y admits the flow, the flow gets the required reservation all
along the path. The new path is S→ A → Y → D.

• If node Y fails to admit the flow, it sends an ACF message to node

A,which in turn sends an ACF message to node S.

• Node S tries with its other downstream neighbors to find a QoS

path for the flow.

If no such neighbour is available, node S rejects the flow.

 ENERGY MANAGEMENT IN AD
HOC WIRELESS NETWORKS
• Energy management deals with the process of
managing energy resources by means of
controlling the battery discharge, adjusting
the transmission power, and scheduling of
power sources so as to increase the lifetime of
the nodes of an ad hoc wireless network.
NEED FOR ENERGY MANAGEMENT
IN AD HOC WIRELESS NETWORKS
Limited energy reserve:
• The main reason for the development of ad hoc wireless
networks is to provide a communication infrastructure in
environments where the setting up of a fixed infrastructure
is impossible.
• Ad hoc wireless networks have very limited energy
resources.
Difficulties in replacing the batteries:
• Sometimes it becomes very difficult to replace or recharge
the batteries. In situations such as battlefields, this is
almost impossible. Hence, energy conservation is essential
in such scenarios.
Lack of central coordination:
• The lack of a central coordinator, such as the base station in
cellular networks, introduces multi-hop routing and
necessitates
Constraints on the battery source:
• Batteries tend to increase the size and weight of a mobile
node.
• Hence, in addition to reducing the size of the battery,
energy management techniques are necessary to utilize
the battery capacity in the best possible way.
Selection of optimal transmission power:
• The transmission power selected determines the
reachability of the nodes. The consumption of battery
charge increases with an increase in the transmission
power.
Channel utilization:
• A reduction in the transmission power increases frequency
reuse, which leads to better channel reuse.
• Power control becomes very important for CDMA-based
systems in which the available bandwidth is shared among
all the users.
 CLASSIFICATION OF ENERGY
MANAGEMENT SCHEMES
Energy conservation can be implemented using
the following techniques:

1. Battery management schemes

2. Transmission power management schemes
3. System power management schemes
 Battery management schemes

• Overview of Battery Characteristics

• Battery technologies:
The most popular rechargeable battery
technologies developed over the last two
decades are comprised of nickel-cadmium,
lithium ion, nickel metal-hydride, reusable
alkaline, and lithium polymer.
 Principles of battery discharge:

• A battery typically consists of an array of one or more cells.

Hence, in the subsequent sections, the terms "battery" and
"cell" are used interchangeably.
• The three main voltages that characterize a cell are:
• (1) the open circuit voltage (Voc), that is, the initial voltage
under a no-load condition of a fully charged cell,
• (2) the operating voltage (Vi), that is, the voltage under
loaded conditions, and
• (3) the cut-off voltage (Vcut ) at which the cell is said to be
discharged.
Device-Dependent Schemes
The lifetime of a node is determined by the capacity of its
energy source and the energy required by the node. the
battery life can be improved by introducing techniques which
make efficient utilization of the battery power.
Effect of Battery Pulsed Discharge
Recent works shows that pulsed current discharge applied for
bursty stochastic transmissions improves the battery lifetime.
If pulsed current discharge is applied to a cell, significant
improvement in the specific energy delivered is realized.
• Binary Pulsed Discharge
In this mode, if there are packets in the queue,
transmission of a packet occurs in one time slot;
one charge unit is recovered if the queue is
empty. The current required for transmission is
drained during the entire time frame.
 TRANSMISSION POWER
MANAGEMENT SCHEMES
• The components used in the communication
module consume a major portion of the
energy in ad hoc wireless networks.
• Increasing the transmission range not only
increases coverage, but also the power
consumption rate at the transmitter.
• Data Link Layer Solutions
As stated earlier, transmitter power greatly
influences the reachability of the node and
thus the range covered by it.
Power control can be affected at the data link
layer by means of topology control and
constructing a power control loop.
• Some of the solutions proposed to calculate
the optimum transmission range are as
follows:
1 Dynamic power adjustment policies
2Distributed topology control algorithms
3 constructing distributed power control loop
4 Centralized topology control algorithm
1 Dynamic power adjustment policies
• Ad hoc wireless networks are prone to constant
link failures due to node mobility; hence the
stability of routes cannot be assured in such
situations. But frequent link failures lead to
reduced throughput.
• A parameter called affinity that decides the
stability of a route.
2.Distributed Topology Control Mechanisms
• According to this algorithm, each node of the
ad hoc wireless network independently runs a
localized algorithm and decides the
appropriate power level to be used by that
node.
3. The power control algorithm has been
incorporated into the IEEE 802.11 MAC
protocol.
• We now discuss the modifications made to
the 802.11 MAC protocol. Unlike the usual
IEEE 802.11 DCF protocol which uses only one
common power level, the modified algorithm
uses ten different power levels varying with a
step size of one tenth of the maximum power
level available.
 SYSTEM POWER MANAGEMENT
SCHEMES
This power can be conserved significantly by
applying the following schemes:
• Processor power management schemes
• Device power management schemes
 Processor Power Management
Schemes
• Processor power management schemes deal with
techniques that try to reduce the power consumed
by the processor.
• Power-Saving Modes
The nodes in an ad hoc wireless network consume a
substantial amount of power even when they are in
an idle state since they keep listening to the channel,
awaiting request packets from the neighbors.
In order to avoid this, the nodes are switched off
during idle conditions and switched on only when
there is an arrival of a request packet.
• This primarily has two advantages:
• reducing the wastage in power consumed when
the node is in the listen mode,
• providing idle time for the batteries of the node
to recover charges.
 Device Power Management
Schemes
• Some of the major consumers of power in ad
hoc wireless networks are the hardware
devices present in the nodes.
• Various schemes have been proposed in the
design of hardware that minimizes the power
consumption.
Low-Power Design of Hardware
• Low-power design of hardware results in a significant
improvement in the energy conservation. Some of the low-
power design suggestions include varying clock speed
CPUs, disk spin down, and flash memory.
CPU Power Consumption
The energy required for the CPU operation depends largely
on the clock frequency (F).
As the clock rate increases, frequent switching of the logic
gates between different voltage levels (V), that is, the
ground voltage and the peak voltage, takes place, which
leads to higher power consumption.
Hard Disk Drive (HDD) Power Consumption
1. As mentioned earlier, the basic source for power
consumption in hard disks is the disk spin. Various
approaches have been suggested for turning off the drives
and to bring down the speed of spinning.
2. By analyzing various spin-down thresholds, an optimal
value for threshold has to be agreed upon, which acts as a
balance between the two contradictory requirements of
reducing power consumption and reducing the access
delays
 UNIT V-Wireless Sensor Networks
• Sensor networks are highly distributed
networks of small, lightweight wireless nodes,
• deployed in large numbers to monitor the
environment or system by the measurement
of physical parameters such as temperature,
pressure, or relative humidity
• Each node of the sensor network consists of
three subsystems:
• Sensor subsystem: senses the environment
• Processing subsystem: performs local
computations on the sensed data
• Communication subsystem: responsible for
message exchange with neighboring sensor
nodes
 Applications of Sensor Networks

• The military applications of sensor nodes include battlefield

surveillance and monitoring, guidance systems of
intelligent missiles, and detection of attack by weapons of
mass destruction, such as chemical, biological, or nuclear
• Sensors are also used in environmental applications such as
forest fire and flood detection, and habitat exploration of
animals. Sensors can be extremely useful in patient
diagnosis and monitoring
• Patients can wear small sensor devices that monitor their
physiological data such as heart rate or blood pressure
Issues and Challenges in Designing
a Sensor Network
• Sensor nodes are randomly deployed and hence do not fit into
any regular topology. Once deployed, they usually do not require
any human intervention. Hence, the setup and maintenance of
the network should be entirely autonomous.
• Sensor networks are infrastructure-less. Therefore, all routing
and maintenance algorithms need to be distributed.
• Hardware design for sensor nodes should also consider energy
efficiency as a primary requirement.
• Provisions must be made for secure communication over sensor
networks, especially for military applications which carry
sensitive data.
SENSOR NETWORK ARCHITECTURE
• The two basic kinds of sensor network
architecture are layered and clustered.
1. Layered Architecture
2. Clustered Architecture
 Layered Architecture
• A layered architecture has a single powerful base station (BS), and the
layers of sensor nodes around it correspond to the nodes that have the
same hop-count to the BS.
 Layered Architecture
• Layered architectures have been used with in-building wireless backbones,
and in military sensor-based infrastructure, such as the multi-hop
infrastructure network architecture (MINA).
• In the in-building scenario, the BS acts an an access point to a wired
network, and small nodes form a wireless backbone to provide wireless
connectivity.
• The users of the network have hand-held devices such as PDAs which
communicate via the small nodes to the BS. Similarly, in a military
operation, the BS is a data-gathering and processing entity with a
communication link to a larger network.
 Clustered Architecture
• A clustered architecture organizes the sensor nodes into clusters, each
governed by a cluster-head. The nodes in each cluster are involved in
message exchanges with their respective cluster-heads, and these heads
send messages to a BS, which is usually an access point connected to a
wired network
 Clustered Architecture
• Clustered architecture is especially useful for
sensor networks because of its inherent
suitability for data fusion.
• The data gathered by all members of the
cluster can be fused at the cluster-head, and
only the resulting information needs to be
communicated to the BS.
 DATA DISSEMINATION
• Data dissemination is the distribution or transmitting of
statistical, or other, data to end users
• Data dissemination is the process by which queries or data
are routed in the sensor network. The data collected by
sensor nodes has to be communicated to the BS or to any
other node interested in the data.
• The node that generates data is called a source and the
information to be reported is called an event.
• node which is interested in an event and seeks information
about it is called a sink.
Some data dissemination techniques are,
Flooding
In flooding, each node which receives a packet broadcasts it if the
maximum hop-count of the packet is not reached and the node itself is
not the destination of the packet.
flooding has the following disadvantages :
• Implosion: This is the situation when duplicate messages are sent to the
same node. This occurs when a node receives copies of the same message
from many of its neighbors.
• Overlap: The same event may be sensed by more than one node due to
overlapping regions of coverage. This results in their neighbors receiving
duplicate reports of the same event.
• Resource blindness: The flooding protocol does not consider the available
energy at the nodes and results in many redundant transmissions. Hence,
it reduces the network lifetime
• Rumor Routing
• Rumor routing is an agent-based path creation algorithm. These are
basically packets which are circulated in the network to establish shortest
paths to events that they encounter.
• Sequential Assignment Routing
• A set of algorithms which performs organization and mobility
management in sensor networks is proposed. The sequential assignment
routing (SAR) algorithm creates multiple trees, where the root of each
tree is a one-hop neighbor of the sink. Each tree grows outward from the
sink and avoids nodes with low throughput or high delay
Directed Diffusion
• The directed diffusion protocol is useful in scenarios where
the sensor nodes themselves generate requests/queries
for data sensed by other nodes, instead of all queries
arising only from a BS.
• Hence, the sink for the query could be a BS or a sensor
node. The directed diffusion routing protocol improves on
data diffusion using interest gradients.
 DATA GATHERING
• The objective of the data-gathering problem
is to transmit the sensed data from each
sensor node to a BS.
• The goal of algorithms which implement data
gathering is to maximize the number of
rounds of communication before the nodes
die and the network becomes inoperable
• A few algorithms that implement data
gathering are discussed below.
Direct Transmission
All sensor nodes transmit their data directly to
the BS. This is extremely expensive in terms of
energy consumed , since the BS may be very
far away from some nodes
• Power-Efficient Gathering for Sensor Information Systems
Power-efficient gathering for sensor information systems
(PEGASIS) is a data-gathering protocol based on the
assumption that all sensor nodes know the location of
every other node.
• The goals of PEGASIS are as follows:
• Minimize the distance over which each node transmits
• Minimize the broadcasting overhead
• Minimize the number of messages that need to be sent to
the BS
• Distribute the energy consumption equally across all nodes.
• A node which is designated as the leader finally transmits one message to
the BS. Leadership is transferred in sequential order, and a token is passed
so that the nodes know in which direction to pass messages in order to
reach the leader.
Binary Scheme
• This is also a chain-based scheme like PEGASIS, which
classifies nodes into different levels. All nodes which
receive messages at one level rise to the next. The number
of nodes is halved from one level to the next.
• This scheme is possible when nodes communicate using
CDMA, so that transmissions of each level can take place
simultaneously
 MAC PROTOCOLS FOR SENSOR
NETWORKS
• There are three basic kinds of MAC protocols used in sensor
networks: fixed allocation, demand-based, and contention-
based.
• Fixed-allocation protocols provide a bounded delay for each
node. However, in the case of bursty traffic, where the
channel requirements of each node may vary over time.
• Demand based MAC protocols are used in such cases,
where the channel is allocated according to the demand of
the node.
• Finally, the contention based MAC protocols involve
random-access-based contention for the channel when
packets need to be transmitted.
 Self-OrganizingMAC for Sensor
Networks
• Self-organizing MAC for sensor (SMACS)
networks and eavesdrop and register (EAR)
are two protocols which handle network
initialization and mobility support,
respectively. In this protocol, neighbor
discovery and channel assignment take place
simultaneously in a completely distributed
manner.
 Hybrid TDMA/FDMA
• A pure TDMA scheme minimizes the time for
which a node has to be kept on, but the
associated time synchronization costs are very
high.
• A pure FDMA scheme allots the minimum
required bandwidth for each connection.
 CSMA-Based MAC Protocols

• Traditional CSMA-based schemes are more

suitable for point-to-point stochastically
distributed traffic flows.
• The sensing periods of CSMA are constant for
energy efficiency, while the back-off is random
to avoid repeated collisions.
• Hence, CSMA based MAC protocols are
contention-based and are designed mainly to
increase energy efficiency and maintain
fairness
 LOCATION DISCOVERY

• The location information of sensors has to be

considered during aggregation of sensed
data.
• This implies each node should know its
location and couple its location information
with the data in the messages it sends.
• Two basic mechanisms of location discovery
are now described
• Indoor Localization
• Indoor localization techniques use a fixed infrastructure to
estimate the location of sensor nodes.
• Fixed beacon nodes are strategically placed in the field of
observation, typically indoors, such as within a building.
• The randomly distributed sensors receive beacon signals
from the beacon nodes and measure the signal strength,
angle of arrival, and time difference between the arrival of
different beacon signals.
 Sensor Network Localization

• In situations where there is no fixed

infrastructure available and prior measurements
are not possible, some of the sensor nodes
themselves act as beacons.
• They have their location information, using GPS,
and these send periodic beacons to other nodes.
• In the case of communication using RF signals,
the received signal strength indicator (RSSI) can
be used to estimate the distance.
• Localization algorithms require techniques for
location estimation depending on the beacon
nodes' location. These are called multi-
lateration (ML) techniques. Some simple ML
techniques are,
• Atomic ML
• Iterative ML
• Collaborative ML
• Atomic ML: If a node receives three beacons,
it can determine its position by a mechanism
similar to GPS.
• Iterative ML: Some nodes may not be in the direct range of
three beacons. Once a node estimates its location,
• it sends out a beacon, which enables some other nodes to
now receive at least three beacons. Iteratively, all nodes in
the network can estimate their location.
• Collaborative ML: When two or more nodes
cannot receive at least three beacons each,
they collaborate with each other.
QUALITY OF A SENSOR NETWORK
• The purpose of a sensor network is to monitor
and report events or phenomena taking place
in a particular area. Hence, the main
parameters which define how well the
network observes a given area are "coverage"
and "exposure."
Coverage
• Coverage is a measure of how well the network can
observe or cover an event. Coverage depends upon the
range and sensitivity of the sensing nodes, and the location
and density of the sensing nodes in the given region.
• The worstcase coverage defines areas of breach, that is,
where coverage is the poorest.
• Thebest-case coverage, on the other hand, defines the
areas of best coverage.
Exposure
Exposure is defined as the expected ability of observing a
target in the sensor field. It is formally defined as the
integral of the sensing function on a path from source
node P s to destination node P d . The sensing power of a
node s at point p is usually modeled as

• where λ and k are constants, and d(s, p) is the distance of p

from s. Consider a network with sensors s1 ,s2 , ..., sn .
 OTHER ISSUES

• Energy-Efficient Design
• Synchronization
• Transport Layer Issues
• Security
• Real-Time Communication
 Energy-Efficient Design
In node level :
• Dynamic power management (DPM)
• One of the basic DMP is to shut down several component of the sensor
node when no events take place.
• Dynamic voltage scaling (DVS)
• The processor has a tome-varying computational load, hence the voltage
supplied to it can be scaled to meet only the instantaneous processing
requirement.
• The real-time task scheduler should actively support DVS by predicting the
computation and communication loads.
• Sensor applications can also be trade-off between energy and accuracy.
In network level :
• The computation-communication trade-off determines how much local
computation is to be performed at each node and what level of
aggregated data should be communicated to neighbor node or BSs.
 Synchronization

Synchronization protocols typically involve delay measurements of control

packets. The delay experienced during a packet transmission can be split into
four major components :
• Send time : sender to construct message
• Access time : taken by the MAC layer to access the medium
• Propagation time : taken by the bit to be physically transmitted through
the medium over the distance separating the sender and receiver
• Receive time : receiver receive the message from the channel
• The information of time obtained by GPS
• Depend on the number of satellites observed by the GPS receiver
• Not accuracy, 1µs (worst case)
• Not suitable for building, basements, underwater, satellite-unreachable
environment
• Two major kinds of synchronization algorithms :
– Long-lasting global synchronization , (for entire network lifetime)
– Short-lived synchronization, (only for an instant)
Long-lasting synchronization protocol

• Ensure global synchronization of a connect network or within connected

partitions of a network
• Each node maintain its own local clock (real clock) and a virtual clock to
keep track of its leader’s clock
• A unique leader is elected for each partition in the network, and virtual
clocks are updated to match the leader’s real clock
•
 Transport Layer Issues

• The major issue in transport layer protocols for sensor

networks is the provision of reliable data delivery.
• Reliable data delivery
– Pump slowly fetch quickly (PSFQ)
– Event-to-sink reliable transport (ESRT)
 Pump slowly fetch quickly (PSFQ)

• In, a reliable, robust, scalable, and customizable transport

protocol, pump slowly fetch quickly (PSFQ), is proposed.
• The key concept behind the protocol is that a source node
distributes data at a slow rate (pump slowly), and a
receiver node which experiences data loss retrieves the
missing data from immediate neighbors quickly (fetch
quickly).
. It proposes a hop-by-hop error recovery scheme, rather than
holding only the destination node responsible for error
detection
 Event-to-sink reliable transport (ESRT)
• It defines event-to-sink reliability in place of the traditional
end-to-end reliability provided by the transport layer.
• The sink is required to track reliably only the collective report
about the event and not individual reports from each sensor
• Observed reliability :
– the number of packets that are routed from event to sink
• Required reliability :
– The desired number of packets for the event to be
successfully track
• If observed reliability < required reliability ,ESRT increase report
freq
• Otherwise, decrease the reporting freq for saving energy
 Security
• Sensor networks, based on an inherently broadcast wireless medium,
are vulnerab le to a variety of attacks,
• Security is of prime importance in sensor networks because nodes
assume a large amount of trust among themselves during data
aggregation and event detection
• The Sybil attack
– When a single node presents itself as multiple entities to the network.
This can affect the fault tolerance of the network and mislead
geographic routing algorithms.
• A selective forwarding attack
– When certain nodes do not forward any of messages they receive
• Sinkhole attack
– A node act as BS or a very favorable to the routing
– And do not forward any of messages it receive
• Wormhole attack
– Make the traffic through a very long path by giving false information to
the node about the distance between them.
– Increase latency
• Hello flood attack
– Broadcast a Hello packet with very high power, so that a large number
of node even far away in the network choose it as the parent.
– Increase delay
• Since no one can get the common key, it is impossible to inject false data
or decrypt the earlier exchange message. Also, no node can later forge the
master key of any other node.
• In this way, pairwise shared key are generated between all immediate
neighbors.
• The cluster key is established by a node after the pairwise key
establishment.
• Then group key is established by cluster key.
• Localized Encryption and Authentication Protocol (LEAP)
• LEAP uses different keying mechanisms for different packets depending on
their security requirements.
• Every sensor node maintains four types of keys:
– Individual key : share with BS, preload into the node before
deployment
– Group key : share with all node of the network and the BS
– Cluster key : share between a node and its neighbor
– Pairwise share key : share with each neighbor
• A common initial key is loaded into each node before deployment. Each
node obtain a master key by common key and unique ID. Nodes then
exchange hello message, which authenticated by receiver. Compute the
neighbor’s master key (by their ID and common key). Compute the shared
key based on their master key. Clear the common key in all node after the
establishment.
Security Protocol for Sensor Network (SPINS)
• For highly resource-constrained sensor network
• Two main modules:
– Sensor network encryption protocol (SNEP)
– Micro-version of time, efficient, streaming, loss-tolerant
authentication protocol (mTESLA)
• SNEP
– Provide data authentication, protection from replay attack
– Semantic encrypted, the same message is encrypted differently at
different instance in time
– Message integrity and confidentiality are maintained using a message
authentication code (MAC)
• mTESLA
– The MAC keys are obtained from a chain of key and one-way function
– All nodes have an initial key K0, which is some key in the key-chain
– K0=F(K1), K1=F(K2),…, Ki=F(Ki+1) , and given K0…Ki it is impossible to
compute Ki+1
• Used for surveillance or safety-critical system
• Nuclear power plant
 Real-Time Communication
• Support for real-time communication is often essential in
sensor networks which are used for surveillance or safety-
critical systems.
• Two protocols which support real-time
communication in sensor networks - SPEED and RAP
SPEED
• Provide real-time packet transmission
• Do not require routing table
• Distributes traffic and load equally across the network
• SPEED require periodic beacon transmission between neighbor
• Use two on-demand beacons for delay estimation and congestion
detection.
• Routing of packets is performed by stateless non-deterministic geographic
forwarding (SNGF). Using geographic information, packet are forwarded
only to the nodes which are closer to the destination.
• Among the closer nodes, the ones which have least delay have a higher
probability of being chosen.
• If there is no nodes that satisfy the delay constraint, the packet is dropped.
And reduce the sending rate to avoid congestion, until the delay is below
the average.
RAP
• Real-time communication Architecture for large-scale WSNs
• The application layer program in the BS can specify the kind of event
information required, the area to which the query is address, and the
deadline within which information is required.
• The underlying layers of RAP ensure that the query is sent to all nodes in
the specified area, and results are sent back to the BS.
• Consist of location address protocol (LAP) , velocity monotonic scheduling
(VMS)
• LAP use location to address nodes instead of IP. It supports three kind of
communication: unicast, area multicast, area anycast.
• VMS is based on the concept of packet-requested velocity, which reflect
both the timing and the distance constraint. The velocity of a packet is
calculated as the ratio of the geographic distance between sender and
receiver.
 UNIT –V:
Wireless Sensor Networks: Introduction, Sensor Network Architecture, Data Dissemination,
Data Gathering, MAC Protocols for Sensor Networks, Location Discovery, Quality of a Sensor
Network, Evolving Standards, Other Issues.

Wireless Sensor Networks(2 marks)

Sensor networks are highly distributed networks of small, lightweight wireless nodes, deployed
in large numbers to monitor the environment or system by the measurement of physical
parameters such as temperature, pressure, or relative humidity

Subsystems of Sensor Networks(2 marks)

Each node of the sensor network consists of three subsystems:

• Sensor subsystem: senses the environment

• Processing subsystem: performs local computations on the sensed data
• Communication subsystem: responsible for message exchange with neighboring sensor
nodes

Q1: Applications of Sensor Networks(6 Marks)

➢ military
Battlefield surveillance and monitoring, guidance systems of intelligent missiles,
detection of attack by weapons of mass destruction such as chemical, biological,
or nuclear
➢ nature
Forest fire, flood detection, habitat exploration of animals
➢ health
Monitor the patient’s heart rate or blood pressure, and sent regularly to alert the
concerned doctor, provide patients a greater freedom of movement
➢ home (smart home)
Sensor node can built into appliances at home, such as ovens, refrigerators, and
vacuum cleaners, which enable them to interact with each other and be remote-
controlled
➢ office building
Airflow and temperature of different parts of the building can be automatically
controlled
➢ warehouse
Improve their inventory control system by installing sensors on the products to
track their movement
Q2: SENSOR NETWORK ARCHITECTURE(10 marks)

The two basic kinds of sensor network architecture are layered and clustered.

1. Layered Architecture

2. Clustered Architecture

1. Layered Architecture

A layered architecture has a single powerful base station (BS), and the layers of sensor nodes
around it correspond to the nodes that have the same hop-count to the BS.

• Layered architectures have been used with in-building wireless backbones, and in
military sensor-based infrastructure, such as the multi-hop infrastructure network
architecture (MINA).

• In the in-building scenario, the BS acts an an access point to a wired network, and small
nodes form a wireless backbone to provide wireless connectivity.

• The users of the network have hand-held devices such as PDAs which communicate via
the small nodes to the BS. Similarly, in a military operation, the BS is a data-gathering
and processing entity with a communication link to a larger network.
Unified Network Protocol Framework (UNPF)

➢ UNPF is a set of protocols for complete implementation of a layered architecture for

sensor networks

➢ UNPF integrates three operations in its protocol structure:

✓ Network initialization and maintenance

✓ MAC Protocol
✓ Routing protocol

Network initialization and maintenance

✓ The BS broadcasts its ID using a known CDMA code on the common control channel.

✓ All nodes which hear this broadcast then record the BS ID. They send a beacon signal
with their own IDs at their low default power levels.

✓ Those nodes which the BS can hear form layer one

✓ BS broadcasts a control packet with all layer one node IDs. All nodes send a beacon
signal again.

✓ The layer one nodes record the IDs which they hear (form layer two) and inform the BS
of the layer two nodes IDs.

✓ Periodic beaconing updates neighbor information and change the layer structure if
nodes die out or move out of range.

MAC protocol

During the data transmission phase, the distributed TDMA receiver oriented channel (DTROC)
assignment MAC protocol is used.

Two steps of DTROC

Channel allocation: Each node is assigned a reception channel by the BS, and channel reuse is
such that collisions are avoided.

Channel scheduling: The node schedules transmission slots for all its neighbors and broadcasts
the schedule. This enables collision-free transmission and saves energy, as nodes can turn off
when they are not involved on a send/receive operation.

Routing protocol

✓ Downlink from the BS is by direct broadcast on the control channel. Uplink from the
 sensor nodes to BS is by multi-hop data forwarding.

✓ The node to which a packet is to be forwarded is selected considering the remaining

energy of the nodes. This achieves a higher network lifetime.

2 Clustered Architecture

✓ A clustered architecture organizes the sensor nodes into clusters, each governed by a
cluster-head. The nodes in each cluster are involved in message exchanges with their
cluster-heads, and these heads send message to a BS.

✓ Clustered architecture is useful for sensor networks because of its inherent suitability for
data fusion. The data gathered by all member of the cluster can be fused at the cluster-
head, and only the resulting information needs to be communicated to the BS.

✓ The cluster formation and election of cluster-heads must be an autonomous, distributed

process.
Q3: DATA DISSEMINATION(10marks)

• Data dissemination is the distribution or transmitting of statistical, or other, data to end

users

• Data dissemination is the process by which queries or data are routed in the sensor
network. The data collected by sensor nodes has to be communicated to the BS or to any
other node interested in the data.

• The node that generates data is called a source and the information to be reported is
called an event.

• node which is interested in an event and seeks information about it is called a sink.

Flooding

In flooding, each node which receives a packet broadcasts it if the maximum hop-count
of the packet is not reached and the node itself is not the destination of the packet.

flooding has the following disadvantages :

• Implosion: This is the situation when duplicate messages are sent to the same node.
This occurs when a node receives copies of the same message from many of its
neighbors.

• Overlap: The same event may be sensed by more than one node due to overlapping
regions of coverage. This results in their neighbors receiving duplicate reports of the
same event.

• Resource blindness: The flooding protocol does not consider the available energy at the
nodes and results in many redundant transmissions. Hence, it reduces the network
lifetime.

Gossiping

✓ Modified version of blooding

✓ The nodes do not broadcast a packet, but send it to a randomly selected neighbor.
✓ Avoid the problem of implosion
✓ It takes a long time for message to propagate throughout the network.
✓ It does not guarantee that all nodes of network will receive the message.

Rumor Routing

✓ Agent-based path creation algorithm

✓ Agent is a long-lived packet created at random by nodes, and it will die after visit k hops.
 ✓ It circulated in the network to establish shortest paths to events that they encounter.
✓ When an agent finds a node whose path to an event is longer than its own, it updates the
node’s routing table.

Sequential Assignment Routing (SAR)

✓ The sequential assignment routing (SAR) algorithm creates multiple trees, where the root
of each tree is a one-hop neighbor of the sink.
✓ To avoid nodes with low throughput or high delay.
✓ Each sensor node records two parameters about each path though it : available energy
resources on the path and an additive QoS metric such as delay.
• Higher priority packets take lower delay paths, and lower priority packets have to use
the paths of greater delay, so that the priority x delay QoS metric is maintained.
✓ SAR minimizes the average weighted QoS metric over the lifetime of the network.
Directed Diffusion

• The directed diffusion protocol is useful in scenarios where the sensor nodes themselves
generate requests/queries for data sensed by other nodes, instead of all queries arising
only from a BS.

• Hence, the sink for the query could be a BS or a sensor node. The directed diffusion
routing protocol improves on data diffusion using interest gradients.

Q4 : DATA GATHERING(10 marks)

• The objective of the data-gathering problem is to transmit the sensed data from each
sensor node to a BS.

• The goal of algorithms which implement data gathering is to maximize the number of
rounds of communication before the nodes die and the network becomes inoperable

A few algorithms that implement data gathering are discussed below.

Direct Transmission

All sensor nodes transmit their data directly to the BS. This is extremely expensive in
terms of energy consumed , since the BS may be very far away from some nodes

Power-Efficient Gathering for Sensor Information Systems

Power-efficient gathering for sensor information systems (PEGASIS) is a data-gathering

protocol based on the assumption that all sensor nodes know the location of every other node.

✓ PEGASIS based on the assumption that all sensor nodes know the location of every other
node.
✓ Any node has the required transmission range to reach the BS in one hop, when it is
selected as a leader.
✓ The goal of PEGASIS are as following
– Minimize the distance over which each node transmit
– Minimize the broadcasting overhead
– Minimize the number of messages that need to be sent to the BS
– Distribute the energy consumption equally across all nodes
✓ To construct a chain of sensor nodes, starting from the node farthest from the BS. At each
step, the nearest neighbor which has not been visited is added to the chain.
✓ It is reconstructed when nodes die out
✓ At every node, data fusion or aggregation is carried out.
✓ A node which is designated as the leader finally transmits one message to the BS.
✓ Leadership is transferred in sequential order.
✓ The delay involved in messages reaching the BS is O(N)
 Figure:Data gathering with PEGASIS.

Binary Scheme
✓ This is a chain-based scheme like PEGASIS, which classifies nodes into different levels.
✓ This scheme is possible when nodes communicate using CDMA, so that transmissions of
each level can take place simultaneously.
✓ The delay is O(logN)

Chain-Based Three-Level Scheme

✓ For non-CDMA sensor nodes
✓ The chain is divided into a number of groups to space out simultaneous transmissions in
order to minimize interference.
✓ Within a group, nodes transmit data to the group leader, and the leader fusion the data,
and become the member to the next level.
✓ In the second level, all nodes are divided into two groups.
✓ In the third level, consists of a message exchange between one node from each group of
the second level.
✓ Finally, the leader transmit a single message to the BS.
Q5: MAC PROTOCOLS FOR SENSOR NETWORKS(10 Marks)

• There are three basic kinds of MAC protocols used in sensor networks: fixed allocation,
demand-based, and contention-based.

• Fixed-allocation protocols provide a bounded delay for each node. However, in the case
of bursty traffic, where the channel requirements of each node may vary over time.

• Demand based MAC protocols are used in such cases, where the channel is allocated
according to the demand of the node.

• Finally, the contention based MAC protocols involve random-access-based contention

for the channel when packets need to be transmitted.

Self-Organizing MAC for Sensor Networks and Eavesdrop and Register

✓ Self-Organizing MAC for sensor (SMACS) networks and eavesdrop and register (EAR)
are two protocols which handle network initialization and mobility support, respectively.
In SMACS
– neighbor discovery and channel assignment take place simultaneously in a
completely distributed manner.
– A communication link between two nodes consists of a pair of time slots, at fixed
frequency.
– This scheme requires synchronization only between communicating neighbors, in
order to define the slots to be used for their communication.
✓ Power is conserved by turning off the transceiver during idle slots.
In EAR protocol
– Enable seamless connection of nodes under mobile and stationary conditions.
– This protocol make use of certain mobile nodes, besides the existing stationary
sensor nodes, to offer service to maintain connections.
– Mobile nodes eavesdrop on the control signals and maintain neighbor
information.
Hybrid TDMA/FDMA
 ✓ A pure TDMA scheme minimize the time for which a node has to be kept on, but the
associated time synchronization cost are very high.
✓ A pure FDMA scheme allots the minimum required bandwidth for each connection
✓ If the transmitter consumes more power, a TDMA scheme is favored, since it can be
switch off in idle slots to save power.
✓ If the receiver consumes greater power, a FDMA scheme is favored, because the receiver
need not expend power for time synchronization.
CSMA-Base MAC Protocols
✓ CSMA-based schemes are suitable for point-to-point randomly distributed traffic
flows.
✓ The sensing periods of CSMA are constant for energy efficiency, while the back-off
is random to avoid repeated collisions.
✓ Binary exponential back-off is used to maintain fairness in the network.
✓ Use an adaptive transmission rate control (ARC) to balance originating traffic and
route-through traffic in nodes. This ensures that nodes closer to the BS are not
favored over farther nodes.
✓ CSMA-based MAC protocol are contention-based and are designed mainly to
increase energy efficiency and maintain fairness.

Q6: LOCATION DISCOVERY(10 marks)

• The location information of sensors has to be considered during aggregation of sensed

data.
• This implies each node should know its location and couple its location information
with the data in the messages it sends.
• Two basic mechanisms of location discovery are now described
Indoor Localization
✓ Fixed beacon nodes are placed in the field of observation, such as within building.
✓ The randomly distributed sensors receive beacon signals from the beacon nodes and
measure the signal strength, angle of arrival, time difference between the arrival of
different beacon signals.
✓ The nodes estimate distances by looking up the database instead of performing
computations.
✓ Only the BS may carry the database.
✓
Sensor Network Localization

✓ In situations where there is no fixed infrastructure available, some of the sensor nodes
themselves act as beacons.
 ✓ Using GPS, the beacon nodes have their location information, and send periodic beacons
signal to other nodes.
✓ In the case of communication using RF signals, the received signal strength indicator
(RSSI) can be used to estimate the distance.
✓ The time difference between beacon arrivals from different nodes can be used to estimate
location.
✓ Multi-lateration (ML) techniques
– Atomic ML
– Iterative ML
- Collaborative ML

Atomic ML: If a node receives three beacons, it can determine its position by a mechanism
similar to GPS.

Iterative ML: Some nodes may not be in the direct range of three beacons. Once a node
estimates its location, it sends out a beacon, which enables some other nodes to now receive at
least three beacons. Iteratively, all nodes in the network can estimate their location.

Collaborative ML: When two or more nodes cannot receive at least three beacons each, they
collaborate with each other.

Coverage(2 marks)
 • Coverage is a measure of how well the network can observe or cover an event. Coverage
depends upon the range and sensitivity of the sensing nodes, and the location and density
of the sensing nodes in the given region.
• The worstcase coverage defines areas of breach, that is, where coverage is the poorest.
• Thebest-case coverage, on the other hand, defines the areas of best coverage.

Exposure(2 marks)

• Exposure is defined as the expected ability of observing a target in the sensor field. It is
formally defined as the integral of the sensing function on a path from source node P s
to destination node P d

Q7: Security(10 marks)

• Sensor networks, based on an inherently broadcast wireless medium, are vulnerab le to

a variety of attacks,

Security is of prime importance in sensor networks because nodes assume a large

amount of trust among themselves during data aggregation and event detection.

✓ The Sybil attack

– When a single node presents itself as multiple entities to the network. This can
affect the fault tolerance of the network and mislead geographic routing
algorithms.
✓ A selective forwarding attack
– When certain nodes do not forward any of messages they receive
✓ Sinkhole attack
– A node act as BS or a very favorable to the routing
– And do not forward any of messages it receive
✓ Wormhole attack
– Make the traffic through a very long path by giving false information to the node
about the distance between them.
– Increase latency
✓ Hello flood attack
– Broadcast a Hello packet with very high power, so that a large number of node
even far away in the network choose it as the parent.
– Increase delay
Since no one can get the common key, it is impossible to inject false data or decrypt the
earlier exchange message. Also, no node can later forge the master key of any other node.
In this way, pairwise shared key are generated between all immediate neighbors. The
cluster key is established by a node after the pairwise key establishment. Then group key
is established by cluster key.
Localized Encryption and Authentication Protocol (LEAP)
 ✓ LEAP uses different keying mechanisms for different packets depending on their security
requirements.
✓ Every sensor node maintains four types of keys:
– Individual key : share with BS, preload into the node before deployment
– Group key : share with all node of the network and the BS
– Cluster key : share between a node and its neighbor
– Pairwise share key : share with each neighbor
✓ A common initial key is loaded into each node before deployment. Each node obtain a
master key by common key and unique ID. Nodes then exchange hello message, which
authenticated by receiver. Compute the neighbor’s master key (by their ID and common
key). Compute the shared key based on their master key. Clear the common key in all
node after the establishment.
✓ Since no one can get the common key, it is impossible to inject false data or decrypt the
earlier exchange message. Also, no node can later forge the master key of any other node.
✓ In this way, pairwise shared key are generated between all immediate neighbors.
✓ The cluster key is established by a node after the pairwise key establishment.
✓ Then group key is established by cluster key.
Security Protocol for Sensor Network (SPINS)
✓ For highly resource-constrained sensor network
✓ Two main modules:
– Sensor network encryption protocol (SNEP)
– Micro-version of time, efficient, streaming, loss-tolerant authentication protocol
(mTESLA)
✓ SNEP
– Provide data authentication, protection from replay attack
– Semantic encrypted, the same message is encrypted differently at different
instance in time
– Message integrity and confidentiality are maintained using a message
authentication code (MAC)
✓ mTESLA
– The MAC keys are obtained from a chain of key and one-way function
– All nodes have an initial key K0, which is some key in the key-chain
– K0=F(K1), K1=F(K2),…, Ki=F(Ki+1) , and given K0…Ki it is impossible to
compute Ki+1
✓ Used for surveillance or safety-critical system
✓ Nuclear power plant
Q8: Real-Time Communication(10 marks)
• Support for real-time communication is often essential in sensor networks which are
used for surveillance or safety-critical systems.
Two protocol which support real-time communication in sensor network:
– SPEED
– RAP
SPEED
✓ Provide real-time packet transmission
✓ Do not require routing table
✓ Distributes traffic and load equally across the network
✓ SPEED require periodic beacon transmission between neighbor
✓ Use two on-demand beacons for delay estimation and congestion detection.
✓ Routing of packets is performed by stateless non-deterministic geographic forwarding
(SNGF). Using geographic information, packet are forwarded only to the nodes which are
closer to the destination.
✓ Among the closer nodes, the ones which have least delay have a higher probability of
being chosen.
✓ If there is no nodes that satisfy the delay constraint, the packet is dropped. And reduce the
sending rate to avoid congestion, until the delay is below the average.
RAP
✓ The application layer program in the BS can specify the kind of event information
required, the area to which the query is address, and the deadline within which
information is required.
✓ The underlying layers of RAP ensure that the query is sent to all nodes in the specified
area, and results are sent back to the BS.
✓ Consist of location address protocol (LAP) , velocity monotonic scheduling (VMS)
✓ LAP use location to address nodes instead of IP. It supports three kind of communication:
unicast, area multicast, area anycast.
✓ VMS is based on the concept of packet-requested velocity, which reflect both the timing
and the distance constraint. The velocity of a packet is calculated as the ratio of the
geographic distance between sender and receiver.