PHYS 434: Electromagnetic theory Chapter Two

CHAPTER TWO
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
2.1. Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, you will be able to do the following:

i. To show understanding of the properties of electromagnetic waves as predicted by

Maxwell's Equations in a vacuum.
ii. To consider the wave equation and to comprehend the nature of solutions to this
equation.
iii. To comprehend the meaning of standing waves as contrasted to traveling waves.

2.2. The Wave Equation

For non-conducting media, or in a vacuum, there are no sources and hence, 𝜌 = 0, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎 = 0.
Maxwell’s equations are;
⃗∇𝐸⃗ = 0 …………………………………….………………..1
⃗∇𝐵
⃗ = 0 ……………………………………….……………..2
⃗
⃗ x𝐸⃗ = − 𝜕𝐵 .............................................………………………..3
∇ 𝜕𝑡
⃗
⃗ = 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝜕𝐸 …………………........... ………………………..4
⃗∇x𝐵
𝜕𝑡

Where 𝜇0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜀0 are permeability and permittivity of free space respectively.

Take the curl of Faraday's law:

⃗ ⃗⃗
⃗ × (∇
∇ ⃗ ) = − 𝜕(∇×𝑩)…:::::::::::::::::::::……………………..5
⃗ × 𝑬
𝜕𝑡

Substitute Ampere’s law for a charge and current-free region:

2⃗ 𝜕2 𝑬
⃗
⃗ × ⃗𝑬) = 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝜕 𝑬2 𝑜𝑟 = 12
⃗∇ × (∇ …………………………………..6
𝜕𝑡 𝐶 𝜕𝑡 2

To complete the derivation, we need the identity;

⃗ × 𝒄
a⃗ × (b ⃗ ) = (a⃗ . 𝒄 ⃗ − (a⃗ . 𝑏⃗)c
⃗ )b
Therefore;
⃗∇ × (∇
⃗ × ⃗𝑬
⃗ ) = ⃗∇(∇
⃗ · ⃗𝑬
⃗ ) − 𝛻 2 ⃗𝑬………………………….……………..7

But, the first of Maxwell equations tells us that ∇· E = 0 in vacuum, so the first term
above vanishes. We find that each component of the electric field satisfies,
𝜕2 𝑬
⃗
⃗ = 𝜇0 𝜀0 2 ……………………………….…………………..8
𝛻2𝑬 𝜕𝑡

This is the wave equation. The speed of the waves, c, is given by,
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PHYS 434: Electromagnetic theory Chapter Two

1
𝑐= …………………………………..…………………..9
√ 𝜇0 𝜀 0

𝜀0 = 8.854187817 𝑥 10−12 𝑚−3 𝐾𝑔−1 𝑠 2 𝐶 2

𝜇0 = 4𝜋𝑥10−7 𝑚𝐾𝑔 𝐶 −2
𝑐 = 2.99792458 𝑚𝑠 −1
Identical manipulations hold for the magnetic field. i.e.

The Maxwell equation ∇·E = 0 tells us that we must have Ex constant in this case. Any constant
electric field can always be added as a solution to the Maxwell equations so, without loss of
generality, we’ll choose this constant to vanish.

We look for solutions of the form, 𝐸 = (0, 𝐸(𝑥, 𝑡), 0)

The most general solution to the wave equation takes the form:
𝐸(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑐𝑡) + 𝑔(𝑥 + 𝑐𝑡)
Here f(x−ct) describes a wave profile which moves to the right with speed c. (Because, as t
increases, x also has to increase to keep f constant). Meanwhile, g(x+ct) describes a wave profile
moving to the left with the speed c.
e.g.

Let the solution take the form,

𝑬 = 𝑬0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)𝑦̂ …………………….………………..10
where k is the wavenumber.

Substituting in equation 8, we find that,

𝜕 2 𝑬0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)𝑦̂

𝛻 2 𝑬0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)𝑦̂ = 𝜇0 𝜀0
𝜕𝑡 2
𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
𝛻 2 = 𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦 2 + 𝜕𝑧 2……………………………………………..11

𝜔2 = 𝑐 2 𝑘 2 ……………………………………………………..12

Equations of this kind, expressing frequency in terms of wavenumber, are called dispersion
relations. Because waves are so important in physics, there’s a whole bunch of associated
quantities which we can define. They are:

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PHYS 434: Electromagnetic theory Chapter Two

• The quantity ω is more properly called the angular frequency and is taken to be positive.
The actual frequency f = ω/2π measures how often a wave peak passes you by. But because
we will only talk about ω, we will be lazy and just refer to this as frequency.
• The period of oscillation is T = 2π/ω.
• The wavelength of the wave is λ = 2π/k. This is the property of waves that you first learn
about in kindergarten. The wavelength of visible light is between λ ∼ 3.9 × 10−7 m and 7
× 10−7 m. At one end of the spectrum, gamma rays have wavelength λ ∼ 10−12 m and X-
rays around λ ∼ 10−10 to 10−8 m. At the other end, radio waves have λ ∼ 1 cm to 10 km. Of
course, the electromagnetic spectrum doesn’t stop at these two ends. Solutions exist for all
λ. Although we grow up thinking about wavelength, moving forward the wavenumber k
will turn out to be a more useful description of the wave.
• E0 is the amplitude of the wave.

𝜕𝐵 ⃗
From the relation, ∇x𝐸⃗ = − 𝜕𝑡 we can obtain the solution for the B-field if ⃗𝑬 = 𝐸0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑘𝑥 −
𝜔𝑡)𝑦̂.

𝑥̂ 𝑦̂ 𝑧̂
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇x𝐸⃗ = | | = 𝑬0 𝐾 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)𝑧̂
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
0 𝐸0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) 0

Therefore

⃗
𝜕𝐵
− = 𝑬0 𝐾 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)𝑧̂
𝜕𝑡

⃗ = − ∫ 𝑬0 𝐾 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)𝑧̂ 𝜕𝑡

∫ 𝜕𝐵

Giving,

⃗ = 𝐸0
𝐵
𝐾
𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)𝑧̂ ………………………..12
𝜔

We see that the electric E and magnetic B fields oscillate in phase, but in orthogonal directions.
And both oscillate in directions which are orthogonal to the direction in which the wave travels

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PHYS 434: Electromagnetic theory Chapter Two

𝐾
The magnitudes of E and B are 𝐸0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) and 𝐸0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) respectively,
𝜔

meaning that,
𝐸 𝜔
= =𝑐 ………………………………………..………………………..13
𝐵 𝑘

The linearity of the Maxwell equations also encourages us to introduce some new notation which,
at first sight, looks rather strange. We will often write the solutions shown in equation 10. and 12
in complex notation,

𝑬 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐸 𝟎 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘𝑥−𝜔𝑡) 𝑦̂ …………………..…………………..14

, and
𝐾
𝑩 (𝒙, 𝒕) = 𝐸 0 𝜔 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘𝑥−𝜔𝑡) 𝑧̂ ……………………………………..15
, or
𝐾
𝑩 (𝒙, 𝒕) = 𝐵 0 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘𝑥−𝜔𝑡) 𝑧̂ 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐵 0 = 𝐸 0 𝜔 ………………………..16

In the solutions above, the E field is polarized (fixed to oscillate) in the y direction and B field is
polarized in the z direction. For a electromagnetic wave that is not polarized, the solutions above
can be written as follows,
⃗⃗⃗ 𝑟 − 𝜔𝑡)]………………..………………..17a
𝐸⃗ (𝑟, 𝑡) = 𝐸⃗0 exp[𝑖(𝑘.
⃗ (𝑟, 𝑡) = 𝐵
𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑟 − 𝜔𝑡)]…………………..……………….17b
⃗ 0 exp[𝑖(𝑘.

Where 𝑟 is a space vector, in 3-D

𝑟 = 𝑋𝑥̂ + 𝑌𝑦̂ + 𝑍𝑧̂ …………………………………………..18

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PHYS 434: Electromagnetic theory Chapter Two

2.1. The solutions of the Wave equation and the Maxwell’s’ equations

The solutions to the wave equation, must satisfy the Maxwell’s equations.

We have shown that the electric and magnetic fields are then given by equation 17a and b:
⃗⃗⃗ 𝑟 − 𝜔𝑡)]
𝐸⃗ (𝑟, 𝑡) = 𝐸⃗0 exp[𝑖(𝑘.
⃗ (𝑟, 𝑡) = 𝐵
𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑟 − 𝜔𝑡)]
⃗ 0 exp[𝑖(𝑘.

𝐸⃗0 and 𝐵
⃗ 0 are constant vectors that define the maximum size and directions of the electric and
magnetic field vectors respectively.
If we Plug this pair of plane wave solutions into Maxwell's Equations in vacuum, we get four
Maxwell's equations as algebraic relationships between the k-vector and the constant vectors 𝐸⃗0
⃗ 0.
and 𝐵
That is;
Maxwell’s Equation Solution to wave equation Physical interpretation of the
in vacuum substituted to Maxwell’s equations results
⃗∇𝐸⃗ = 0 ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑟 − 𝜔𝑡)]} = 0
⃗∇{𝐸⃗0 exp[𝑖(𝑘. ⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸⃗ are orthogonal.
That 𝑘
This results to This shows that the wave vector 𝐸⃗ is
perpendicular to the direction of
⃗ . 𝐸⃗ = 0
𝑖. 𝑘 propagation.
⃗∇𝐵
⃗ =0 ⃗∇. { 𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑟 − 𝜔𝑡)]}= 0
⃗ 0 exp[𝑖(𝑘. ⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵
That 𝑘 ⃗ are orthogonal.
This results to
⃗ is
This shows that the wave vector 𝐵
⃗ .𝐵
𝑖. 𝑘 ⃗ =0 perpendicular to the direction of
propagation.
⃗
⃗∇x𝐸⃗ = − 𝜕𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑟 − 𝜔𝑡)]} =
⃗ x{𝐸⃗0 exp[𝑖(𝑘.
∇ ⃗ ,𝐵
That 𝑘 ⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸⃗ are all orthogonal.
𝜕𝑡 𝜕
− {𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑟 − 𝜔𝑡)]}
⃗ 0 exp[𝑖(𝑘. This shows that the wave vector
𝜕𝑡
⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸⃗ are perpendicular to each
𝐵
This results to
other and to the direction of
⃗ 𝑥 𝐸⃗ = 𝑖𝜔𝐵
𝑖. 𝑘 ⃗ propagation.

𝜕𝐸⃗ ⃗∇x{ 𝐵
⃗ 0 exp[𝑖(𝑘.⃗⃗⃗ 𝑟 − 𝜔𝑡)]} = ⃗ ,𝐵
That 𝑘 ⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸⃗ are all orthogonal.
⃗∇x𝐵
⃗ = 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝜕
𝜕𝑡 𝜇0 𝜀0 { 𝐵 ⃗ 0 exp[𝑖(𝑘.⃗⃗⃗ 𝑟 − 𝜔𝑡)]} This shows that the wave vector
𝜕𝑡
⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸⃗ are perpendicular to each
𝐵
This results to
other and to the direction of
⃗ 𝑥𝐵
𝑖. 𝑘 ⃗ = −𝑖𝜔𝜇0 𝜀0 𝐵
⃗ propagation.

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PHYS 434: Electromagnetic theory Chapter Two

Questions
i. What is the meaning of the direction of the k-vector? What is the magnitude of the k-vector?
The k-vector points in the direction of the wave propagation. The magnitude is related to the
wavelength via
|𝑘| = 2𝜋/𝜆

The vector
⃗ = 𝑘𝑥 𝑥̂ + 𝑘𝑦 𝑦̂ + 𝑘𝑧 𝑧̂
𝑘
, is the wave vector; its magnitude,
𝑘 = √𝑘𝑥 2 + 𝑘𝑦 2 + 𝑘𝑧 2

, is the wavenumber. The unit vector

⃗⃗⃗𝑘
𝑘̂ =
𝑘
, is the wave's propagation direction.

ii. Explain how you know that these electromagnetic wave solutions are describing transverse
waves. In particular, what is the directional relationship of the k-vector and the constant vectors
𝐸⃗0 and 𝐵
⃗0

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PHYS 434: Electromagnetic theory Chapter Two

iii. How many magnitudes of k and ω related to the speed of propagation of the wave? How is
this speed related to the constants 𝜀0 and 𝜇0

2.3. Energy Transport and the Poynting Vector

EM waves carry energy. The rate of energy transport in an EM waves is characterized by the
Poynting vector, S:

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PHYS 434: Electromagnetic theory Chapter Two

The magnitude of S is related to the rate at which energy is transported by a wave across a unit
area at any instant (inst). The unit for S is (W/m2).

The direction of at any point gives the wave's travel direction

and the direction of energy transport at that point.

2.4. Variation of intensity with distance

Consider a point source S that is emitting EM waves isotropically (equally in all directions) at a
rate PS. Assume that the energy of waves is conserved as they spread from source

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PHYS 434: Electromagnetic theory Chapter Two

2.5. Questions

1. Explain in words what Poynting’s vector represents. Calculate Poynting’s vector a point P where
the electric field is ⃗𝑬
⃗ = 0.03x̂ V/m and the magnetic field is ⃗𝑬
⃗ = 0.01𝑥̂ + 0.04ŷ T.
2. For this question, we will derive the wave equation for the electric field. Maxwell's Equation's
⃗ ⃗
⃗ = 0; ⃗∇x𝐸⃗ = − 𝜕𝐵 and ⃗∇x𝐵
in vacuum can be written as, ⃗∇𝐸⃗ = 0; ⃗∇𝐵 ⃗ = 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝜕𝐸 . The wave
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

1 𝜕2 𝑬
⃗
⃗ = 2 2 where v is the speed of the
equation for a vector field in 3 dimensions is given by 𝛻 2 𝑬 𝑣 𝜕𝑡

wave. Here are the steps to follow.

(a) Take the curl of the ⃗∇x𝐸⃗ field equation.
(b) Use the identity in the last problem to simplify the left hand side of this equation.
(c) For the right hand side, assume that you can switch the order of the spatial and time
derivatives.
⃗ 𝐸⃗ and the ∇
(d) You can use two other Maxwell equations involving the ∇ ⃗ x𝐵
⃗ simplify your
equation and derive the wave equation.
(e) From the wave equation you derived, what is the speed of light in terms of 𝜇0 𝜀0 ?

3.

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PHYS 434: Electromagnetic theory Chapter Two

4.

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PHYS 434: Electromagnetic theory Chapter Two

5. A magnetic field wave propagating with wave vector ⃗𝒌 and angular frequency 𝜔, may described
⃗⃗ (𝒓 ⃗
by 𝑩 ⃗ , 𝒕) = 𝑩𝟎 𝑒 𝑖(𝒌.𝒓⃗−𝜔𝑡) .
i. By writing 𝑩 ⃗⃗ , 𝒌⃗ and 𝒓
⃗ in terms of their rectangular components, or otherwise, show that,
⃗
𝝏𝑩⃗
a. = 𝒊𝝎𝑩⃗⃗ .
𝝏𝒕
b. div 𝑩⃗⃗ = 𝒊𝒌𝑩⃗⃗
c. curl 𝑩⃗⃗ = 𝒊𝒌 𝒙 𝑩⃗⃗
ii. Show that the electric field, the magnetic field, and the direction of propagation are mutually
perpendicular.
iv. The Poynting vector 𝑺 ⃗ = 1𝑬
⃗ is defined (in free space) to be, 𝑺 ⃗ 𝒙𝑩⃗⃗ . What physical property
𝜇
0
does the Poynting vector represent?

1. Show that by taking the curl of both sides of the ampere-Maxwell law a wave equation of the
2⃗
⃗ = 12 𝜕 𝐵2 can be derived for the magnetic field. Calculate v the speed of the wave. (You
form ∇2 𝐵 𝑣 𝜕𝑡
may use Maxwell’s second law ⃗∇. 𝐵
⃗ = 0 and that ⃗∇ 𝑥 (∇
⃗ 𝑥𝐴 ) = ⃗∇. (∇
⃗ . 𝐴 ) − ∇2 𝐴
2.

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