Article

Optical Fiber Pressure Sensor with Self-Temperature

Compensation Structure Based on MEMS for High Temperature
and High Pressure Environment
Ke Li 1,2 , Yongjie Wang 1,2, * , Gaochao Li 1,2 , Zhen Xu 1,2 , Yuanyuan Liu 3,4 , Ancun Shi 1 , Xiaoyan Yu 5
and Fang Li 1,2, *

1 State Key Laboratory of Transducer Technology, Institute of Semiconductors, Chinese Academy of Sciences,
Beijing 100083, China; like@semi.ac.cn (K.L.); ligaochao96@semi.ac.cn (G.L.); xuzhen22@semi.ac.cn (Z.X.);
sacthy@semi.ac.cn (A.S.)
2 College of Materials Science and Opto-Electronic Technology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences,
Beijing 100049, China
3 Center of Materials Science and Optoelectronics Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences,
Beijing 100049, China; liuyy@semi.ac.cn
4 The Engineering Research Center for Semiconductor Integrated Technology, Institute of Semiconductors,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100083, China
5 Technology Innovation Center for Marine Metrology and Instruments Test, Ministry of Natural Resource,
National Center of Ocean Standards and Metrology, Tianjin 300112, China; yuxiaoyan@ncosm.org.cn
* Correspondence: wyj@semi.ac.cn (Y.W.); lifang@semi.ac.cn (F.L.)

Abstract: To meet the pressure measurement requirements of deep earth exploration, we

propose an OFPS (optical fiber pressure sensor) with self-temperature compensation based
on MEMS technology. A spectral extraction and filtering algorithm, based on FFT (fast
Fourier transform), was designed to independently demodulate the composite spectra of
multiple FP (Fabry–Pérot) cavities, enabling the simultaneous measurement of pressure
and temperature parameters. The sensor was fabricated by etching on an SOI (silicon on
insulator) and bonding with glass to form pressure-sensitive FP cavities, with the glass
itself serving as the temperature-sensitive component as well as providing temperature
compensation for pressure sensing. Experimental results showed that within the pressure
range of 0–100 MPa, the sensor exhibited a sensitivity of 0.566 nm/MPa, with a full-scale
Received: 5 February 2025 error of 0.34%, and a linear fitting coefficient (R2 ) greater than 0.9999. Within the tempera-
Revised: 10 March 2025 ture range of 0–160 ◦ C, the temperature sensitivity of the glass cavity is 0.0139 nm/◦ C and
Accepted: 12 March 2025
R2 greater than 0.999.
Published: 13 March 2025

Citation: Li, K.; Wang, Y.; Li, G.; Keywords: MEMS; Fabry–Pérot; optical fiber sensors; high-pressure sensing; temperature
Xu, Z.; Liu, Y.; Shi, A.; Yu, X.; Li, F.
compensation
Optical Fiber Pressure Sensor with
Self-Temperature Compensation
Structure Based on MEMS for
High Temperature and High
Pressure Environment. Photonics 2025, 1. Introduction
12, 258. https://doi.org/10.3390/ Deep earth exploration and deep resource development are cutting-edge fields in
photonics12030258
current geological exploration and engineering technology. According to the IHTHPA
Copyright: © 2025 by the authors. (International High Temperature and High Pressure Association), wells are classified as
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. high temperature and high pressure if the formation temperature exceeds 300◦ F (149 ◦ C),
This article is an open access article
the formation pressure exceeds 15,000 psi (103.4 MPa), or the wellhead pressure exceeds
distributed under the terms and
10,000 psi (68.9 MPa) [1]. Accurate pressure measurement is essential to ensure the safety
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license
of resource extraction, monitor the subsurface fluid dynamics, and maintain equipment sta-
(https://creativecommons.org/ bility. Traditional electronic pressure sensors are widely used in industrial applications due
licenses/by/4.0/). to their established technology and low cost [2–4]. In recent years, OFSs have experienced

Photonics 2025, 12, 258 https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics12030258

Photonics 2025, 12, 258 2 of 18

rapid development and demonstrated exceptional performance in harsh environments

including high temperatures, high pressures, and strong electromagnetic interference. Par-
ticularly in applications requiring power-free operation and long-distance transmission,
OFSs offer distinct advantages including ease of integration and enhanced resistance to
interference [5–7].
Currently, there are two main approaches for OFPSs used in high-pressure measure-
ments: fiber Bragg grating (FBG) and FP interference. However, the pressure sensitivity
of bare gratings is relatively low, requiring the use of complex sensitization structures
that can compromise the accuracy and stability of the sensor [8–10]. Pressure sensors
based on the FP interference principle offer advantages such as a simple structure, high
sensitivity, and high reliability, making them suitable for pressure measurements in ex-
treme environments. The traditional method for fabricating fiber optic FP cavities typically
involves etching the fiber tip and then depositing various materials, such as silicon [11],
silicon dioxide [12], polymers [13], and others, to create sensitive diaphragms that make
the FP cavity responsive to pressure. These studies are generally conducted within a small
pressure range (0–0.1 MPa) for biomedical pressure monitoring. Some progress has been
made in the research of FP pressure sensors for high-pressure environments, for example,
Gao et al. [14] proposed a four-segment structure consisting of two single-mode fibers
(SMFs), one hollow core fiber (HCF), and one coreless fiber (CF), which were fusion spliced
to enable pressure measurement in the range of 0–10 MPa. To enhance pressure resistance
performance, J. Ma et al. [15] fabricated a pressure-sensitive microbubble FP cavity on the
fiber end face using arc welding, achieving pressure measurements up to 40 MPa, and
Zhao et al. [16] utilized a quartz capillary and optical fiber to form a FP cavity, performing
pressure sensing by altering the cavity length through lateral compression of the capillary.
The highest measured pressure was 69 MPa. However, the aforementioned FP cavity is
challenging to produce at scale, which hinders the ability to achieve consistent sensing
demodulation. Additionally, the voltage resistance range remains inadequate and requires
further improvement.
MEMS technology primarily focuses on microelectronics and micro-mechanical pro-
cessing. When applied to the production of sensor chips for diaphragm-type fiber FP
pressure sensors, it offers several advantages including high dimensional accuracy, the po-
tential for mass production, low cost, flexible design options, and excellent consistency [17].
These benefits collectively contribute to the enhanced stability of the sensor. Currently,
most studies on fabricating fiber optic FP pressure sensors based on the MEMS process
use silicon as the sensitive diaphragm to form the FP reflector. These studies predomi-
nantly focused on low-pressure ranges [18–21]. For high-pressure detection, Fu et al. [22]
employed monocrystalline silicon etching and glass bonding to fabricate pressure sensors,
achieving a maximum pressure measurement of 30 MPa, while Qi et al. [23] proposed an
embedded structure designed to withstand high pressure, which involves etching cavities
into glass wafer, bonding it with single-crystal silicon to create sensing diaphragms, and
embedding the diaphragm into the glass tube. This configuration enables pressure mea-
surements in the range of 2–120 MPa. However, the isotropic nature of glass leads to lateral
corrosion during the etching process, which adversely affects the stability and accuracy of
the sensor structure.
Sensors based on the MEMS process typically consist of multiple FP cavities. To
obtain independent spectra, it is necessary to decompose the composite spectrum, and
the commonly used demodulation algorithms include the cross-correlation algorithm and
the Fourier transform. The cross-correlation algorithm determines the actual cavity length
by correlating the sensor spectrum with an ideal reference spectrum and identifying the
maximum correlation [24,25]. Fourier transform is the process of converting signals from
Photonics 2025, 12, 258 3 of 18

Photonics 2025, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 18

the wavelength domain to the frequency domain. Since the spectrum of a multi-cavity
FP sensor consists of signals at different frequencies, this method can be used to separate
the individual spectral components. Gao et al. [14] used the fast Fourier transform (FFT)
implement
method dual-parameter
to implement sensing forsensing
dual-parameter temperature and pressure.
for temperature andLiu et al. [26]
pressure. Liuemployed
et al. [26]
the FFT and Fourier band pass filtering (FBPF) methods to analyze
employed the FFT and Fourier band pass filtering (FBPF) methods to analyze the tempera- the temperature and
pressure sensitivities of two different cavities. Additionally, Guo et al. [27]
ture and pressure sensitivities of two different cavities. Additionally, Guo et al. [27] appliedapplied the FFT
with
the FFTthewith
minimum mean square
the minimum mean error
square(FFT-MMSE)
error (FFT-MMSE) algorithm to demodulate
algorithm the optical
to demodulate the
cavity length of the sensor, enabling temperature and pressure measurements
optical cavity length of the sensor, enabling temperature and pressure measurements in the ranges
in the
of 25 °Cofto25600
ranges ◦ C°Cto and
600 0◦ Ctoand
10 MPa.
0 to 10 MPa.
In this paper, an FP-OFPS
In this paper, an FP-OFPS based based on onMEMS
MEMStechnology
technology isisproposed.
proposed. The The cavity
cavity was
was
fabricated on
fabricated on anan SOI
SOI using
using ICP
ICP etching
etching technology
technology and and bonded
bonded with
with BF33
BF33 glass
glass with
with aa low
low
thermal expansion coefficient to form a FP cavity, which can measure pressure.
thermal expansion coefficient to form a FP cavity, which can measure pressure. In addition, In addition,
the glass
the glass itself
itself forms
forms aa FPFP cavity,
cavity, which
which functions
functions as as aa temperature
temperature sensor,
sensor, enabling
enabling self-
self-
temperature compensation of the structure. A testing platform was
temperature compensation of the structure. A testing platform was developed to perform developed to perform
performance testing
performance testing and
and analysis
analysis of of the
the sensor
sensor across
across aa pressure
pressure range
range ofof 0–100
0–100 MPa
MPa andand aa
temperature range of 0–160 ◦°C. The sensor exhibited a pressure sensitivity
temperature range of 0–160 C. The sensor exhibited a pressure sensitivity of 0.56 nm/MPa, of 0.56 nm/MPa,
with an
with an accuracy
accuracy of of 0.34%
0.34%F.S.F.S.The
Thetemperature
temperaturecompensation
compensation structure
structure demonstrated
demonstrated aa
sensitivity of 0.0139 nm/°C,◦ and the nonlinear fitting of the pressure
sensitivity of 0.0139 nm/ C, and the nonlinear fitting of the pressure sensing structure sensing structure to to
temperature exceeded
temperature exceeded0.999.
0.999.Figure
Figure1 1systematically
systematically illustrates thethe
illustrates technical
technicalroadmap
roadmap of this
of
study.
this study.

Sensor Design (SOI-Glass)

Sensing
Fiber collimator diaphragm

Self-temperature Compensation Spectral Demodulation

(Dual F-P Cavties) (FFT frequency domain separation)

SOI Simultaneously temperature/

FPcav Spectrum
FPcav pressure sensitive
Glass
FPglass Temperature sensitive only
(Compensation) FPglass Spectrum

Packaging and Experiment

(Pressure/Temperature Test)

0–100 MPa
0–160 ℃

Figure Generalapproach
Figure 1. General approach of of
thethe proposed
proposed research.
research. The research
The research encompasses
encompasses sensorsensor
designdesign
featur-
featuring an innovative
ing an innovative self-temperature
self-temperature compensated
compensated structure,
structure, independent
independent spectral
spectral demodulation
demodulation utiliz-
utilizing dual FP cavities, and testing under high-temperature and high-pressure
ing dual FP cavities, and testing under high-temperature and high-pressure environments.environments.

2. Methods
2. Methods
2.1. Fabry–Pérot Cavity Sensing Principle
2.1. Fabry–Pérot Cavity Sensing Principle
An FP cavity consists of two parallel mirrors, one typically fixed and the other movable.
An FP cavity consists of two parallel mirrors, one typically fixed and the other movable.
When light passes through the FP cavity, the distance L between the mirrors creates a
When light passes through the FP cavity, the distance L between the mirrors creates a dif-
ference in the optical path length, which leads to interference. According to the principle of
multi-beam interference, the reflected light intensity is given by [28],
Photonics 2025, 12, 258 4 of 18

difference in the optical path length, which leads to interference. According to the principle
of multi-beam interference, the reflected light intensity is given by [28],
 
2R 1 − cos 4π n
λ 0 L
IR = I0 , (1)
1 + R2 − 2R cos 4π
λ n0 L

where R is the radius of the FP cavity, n0 is the refractive index of the medium inside the
cavity, λ is the wavelength of the incident light, and L is the cavity length. In the interference
pattern of the FP cavity, the fringe reaches an extreme when the phase difference δ satisfies:

δ = 2π∆
λm = 2mπ m = 0, 1, 2 . . . . . . (2)
∆ = 2n0 L ,

where ∆ is the optical path difference. Therefore, for a particular peak of the fringe,
it satisfies:
L = const · λm , (3)

When the cavity length changes, the peak resonance condition shifts, leading to
the expression:
∆L ∆λ
= , (4)
L λ
When the structure of the FP cavity is fixed, meaning that the values of R and n0
remain constant, the reflected light intensity becomes a function of the wavelength λ
and the cavity length L. When external environmental parameters such as pressure and
temperature change, the cavity length of the FP cavity changes. The change in cavity length
can be obtained by demodulating the wavelength shift, thus realizing the measurement of
pressure parameters.

2.2. Diaphragm Deformation Principle

The core sensing element of the MEMS fiber-optic pressure sensor is the SOI di-
aphragm, which deforms when external pressure is applied to its surface. According to
thin-plate bending theory, the deformation of the diaphragm under a uniform pressure P
can be calculated using the following equation [29]:

2
3(1 − ν2 )(r2 − a2 )
ω (r ) = , (5)
16ET 3

where E is the Young’s modulus of the silicon diaphragm, T is the diaphragm’s thickness,
and ν is the Poisson’s ratio of silicon. At r = a, where r represents the radial distance from
the center and a is the radius of the diaphragm, the deformation is maximized at the center,
with the deformation gradually decreasing toward the edges. The diaphragm’s deformation
is influenced by factors such as the applied pressure, the diaphragm’s geometry, and the
material’s elastic modulus. According to the theory of small deflections for thin plates,
the maximum deformation should be less than one-fifth of the diaphragm’s thickness to
maintain linear sensor behavior.

3PR4 1 − v2


T
ωmax = < , (6)
16ET 3 5

By satisfying this condition, the diaphragm deformation remains within the small de-
formation range, ensuring that the sensor output retains good linearity. Meanwhile, the
sensitivity of the diaphragm is given by the following equation [29]:
Photonics 2025, 12, 258 5 of 18

3R4 1 − v2


dωmax
S= = , (7)
dP 16ET 3
From this formula, it is evident that increasing the effective radius of the diaphragm
and reducing its thickness will result in higher sensor sensitivity.

2.3. Mechanical Simulation

Photonics 2025, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW

Finite element mechanical simulations of the SOI–glass composite diaphragm 5 of 18
were
conducted to assess its structural stability and overload resistance. The constitutive model
included SOI layers (comprising substrate silicon, silicon dioxide, and top silicon) and glass
layers, with a cavity formed in the SOI to serve as the FP cavity, as shown in Figure 2a.
d ωmaxwere3R 4 (1 − v 2 )
The geometric parameters of theS model = = input into, the simulation software, and (7) the
3
dP 16 ET
physical properties of the materials were defined as outlined in Table 1.
From this formula,
The boundary it is evident
conditions werethat increasing
set to the bottom
fully fix the effectiveand
radius of the diaphragm
perimeter of the structure,
and reducing its thickness will result in higher sensor sensitivity.
simulating the support conditions encountered in practical use. A steady-state pressure of
10 MPa was applied to the outer surface of the SOI as the external load. The three-dimensional
2.3. Mechanical Simulation
deformation distribution of the diaphragm, as shown in the simulation results in Figure 2b,
Finitethat
revealed element
undermechanical simulations
uniform pressure, the of the SOI–glass
maximum composite
deformation diaphragm
occurred at thewere
center of
conducted to assess its structural stability and overload resistance. The constitutive
the diaphragm, and the deformation gradually decreased as it approaches the edges. This model
included SOI layers (comprising substrate silicon, silicon dioxide, and top silicon) and glass
observation is consistent with the theoretical analysis presented in Equation (5). In addition,
layers, with a cavity formed in the SOI to serve as the FP cavity, as shown in Figure 2a. The
the effects of varying diaphragm thicknesses and FP cavity radii on diaphragm deformation
geometric parameters of the model were input into the simulation software, and the physi-
were analyzed, as shown in Figure 2c. The deformation at the center of the diaphragm
cal properties of the materials were defined as outlined in Table 1.
decreased with an increase in diaphragm thickness and a decrease in the FP cavity radius.

(a) a
(b)
2r T
SOI FPcav l

Glass FPglass FPcom H

(c) (d)
4
10 150 μm
Maximum deformation (μm)

200 μm
Maximum deformation (μm)

250 μm
8 300 μm 3
350 μm
6 400 μm
2

4
1
Slope = 0.03864 μm/MPa
2
R2 = 1
0
0
600 800 1000 1200 0 20 40 60 80 100
FP cavity radius (μm) Pressure (MPa)

(e)

Figure
Figure2.2.(a)(a)
Geometric
Geometricstructure of the
structure ofsensing diaphragm.
the sensing (b) Displacement
diaphragm. nephogram
(b) Displacement of the dia-of the
nephogram
diaphragm
phragm under under 10 MPa
10 MPa of pressure.
of pressure. (c) The(c) The maximum
maximum deformation
deformation of the diaphragm
of the diaphragm varied
varied with dif- with
different
ferent diaphragm
diaphragm thicknesses
thicknesses T and
T and FP FPradii
cavity cavity radii
r. (d) r. (d) Sensitivity
Sensitivity fitting
fitting curve curve of diaphragm
of diaphragm under
under pressure
pressure of 0–100 of 0–100
MPa. MPa. nephogram
(e) Stress (e) Stress nephogram of the diaphragm
of the diaphragm under 100 MPa under 100 MPa of pressure.
of pressure.

Table 1. Physical properties of the materials.

Material Young’s Modulus (GPa) Poisson’s Ratio CTE * (/°C)

Si 130 0.28 2.6 × 10−6
SiO2 70 0.17 0.5 × 10−6
 10 MPa was applied to the outer surface of the SOI as the external load. The three-dimen-
sional deformation distribution of the diaphragm, as shown in the simulation results in Fig-
ure 2b, revealed that under uniform pressure, the maximum deformation occurred at the
Photonics 2025, 12, 258 6 of 18
center of the diaphragm, and the deformation gradually decreased as it approaches the
edges. This observation is consistent with the theoretical analysis presented in Equation (5).
In addition,
Table theproperties
1. Physical effects ofofvarying diaphragm thicknesses and FP cavity radii on diaphragm
the materials.
deformation
Material
wereYoung’s
analyzed, as shown in Figure
Modulus (GPa)
2c. The deformation
Poisson’s Ratio
at the center of the
CTE * (/◦ C)
diaphragm decreased with an increase in diaphragm thickness and a decrease in the FP
Si 130 0.28 2.6 × 10−6
cavity SiOradius.
2 70 0.17 0.5 × 10−6
The final
BF33 Glass design structural
64 parameters are presented
0.21 in Table 2. × 10−6 load rang-
A pressure
3.25
ing from 0 to 100
* CTE—coefficient MPa, expansion.
of thermal applied in increments of 10 MPa, was used to obtain the linear fitting
plots of the diaphragm center deformation under varying pressure loads, as shown in Fig-
ure 2d. The final
The design structural
diaphragm parameters
deformation increasedare presented in Table
linearly with 2. A pressure
the applied load, and load
the cavity
ranging from 0 to 100 MPa, applied in increments of 10 MPa, was used to obtain the linear
length sensitivity was calculated to be 0.0386 μm/MPa, corresponding to a wavelength sen-
fitting plots of the diaphragm center deformation under varying pressure loads, as shown
sitivity of 0.5983 nm/MPa (assuming the center wavelength of the incident light is 1550 nm).
in Figure 2d. The diaphragm deformation increased linearly with the applied load, and
Furthermore, the maximum stress in the structure increased gradually with the external
the cavity length sensitivity was calculated to be 0.0386 µm/MPa, corresponding to a
pressure in the rangeof
wavelength sensitivity of0.5983
0 to 100 MPa. (assuming
nm/MPa As shownthe in center
Figurewavelength
2e, the maximum stress in the
of the incident
structure,
light is 1550which
nm). occurred
Furthermore,at the
theedge of the stress
maximum FP cavity
in theunder a 100
structure MPa load,
increased was approxi-
gradually
mately
with the1.026 GPa,
external remaining
pressure belowofthe
in the range 0 to maximum
100 MPa. Asallowable stress2e,
shown in Figure forthesilicon
maximum [23]. There-
fore,
stressbased
in the on the simulation
structure, analysis,
which occurred theedge
at the designed sensing
of the FP diaphragm
cavity under a 100 MPais structurally
load, was stable
approximately 1.026 GPa, remaining below the maximum
and can maintain its integrity under a 100 MPa pressure condition. allowable stress for silicon [23].
Therefore, based on the simulation analysis, the designed sensing diaphragm is structurally
stable2.and
Table can maintain
Parameters of theits integritymodels.
structural under a 100 MPa pressure condition.

Parameters
Table 2. Parameters Value (μm)
of the structural models. Description
r 900 FP cavity radius
Parameters Value (µm) Description
l 100 FP cavity length
r 900 FP cavity radius
l a 100 5000 Diaphragm
FP cavity length side length
a H 5000 650 DiaphragmGlass thickness
side length
H T 650 350 Glass thickness
Substrate silicon thickness
T 350 Substrate silicon thickness
2.4. Spectra Simulation and Demodulation Algorithm
2.4. Spectra Simulation and Demodulation Algorithm
Based on the determination of the structural parameters of the model, spectral simula-
Based on the determination of the structural parameters of the model, spectral simu-
tions of the sensing diaphragm were conducted by inputting the refractive index of the ma-
lations of the sensing diaphragm were conducted by inputting the refractive index of the
terial and the thickness parameters. Due to the presence of multiple reflective surfaces
material and the thickness parameters. Due to the presence of multiple reflective surfaces
within thestructure,
within the structure,the
the light
light beam
beam undergoes
undergoes multiple
multiple reflections
reflections and interference
and interference within within
the
the sensing
sensing diaphragm.
diaphragm. As As a a result,
result, the
the final collected signal
final collected signalisisnot
notan
anideal
idealsinusoidal
sinusoidal wave-
form, but rather
waveform, a spectral
but rather a spectralsignal formed
signal formedbybythe interference
the interferencefrom
from both the air
both the aircavity
cavity (FPcav)
and the glass cavity (FP ), as shown in Figure 3.
(FPcav ) and the glass cavity (FPglass ), as shown in Figure 3.
glass

0.0
Intensity (dB)

−0.2

−0.4

−0.6
1520 1540 1560 1580
Wavelength (nm)
Figure 3. Simulated spectrum with a cavity length of 100 µm.
Photonics 2025, 12, 258 7 of 18

When external pressure is applied to the diaphragm surface, the silicon diaphragm
deforms and bends, resulting in a change in the cavity length of FPcav , while FPglass remains
fixed and is almost unaffected by the pressure. Additionally, temperature variations cause
the glass, silicon, silica, and the air inside the cavity to expand or contract, leading to
changes in the cavity lengths of both FPcav and FPglass . Therefore, the sensitivity of FPcav
to temperature variations can impact the accuracy of its pressure measurements. The
temperature and pressure cross-sensitivity of FPcav can be compensated by the temperature
measurement of FPglass , and the temperature and pressure variations can be obtained from
the following matrix, " # " #" #
∆L glass Sglass−T 0 ∆T
= , (8)
∆Lcav Scav−T −SP ∆P

where ∆Lcav and ∆L glass represent the variations in the cavity lengths of FPcav and FPglass ,
respectively, and ∆T and ∆P denote the variations in temperature and pressure, respectively.
By performing a matrix inversion, the variations in temperature and pressure can be
determined using the following matrix:
" # " #" #
∆T 1 SP 0 ∆L glass
= , (9)
∆P Sglass−T SP Scav−T −Sglass−T ∆Lcav

In this study, a spectrum extraction and filtering algorithm based on Fourier transform
was employed to separate the spectra of the two FP cavities. First, the spectral data were
uniformly converted to the wavenumber domain using cubic spline interpolation, which
eliminates errors introduced by uneven wavelength spacing. The mathematical expression
for the interpolation is as follows:

n
Sinterp (k ) = ∑ Si · ϕi (k), (10)
i =1

where Sinterp (k) represents the spectral intensity after interpolation at the wavenumber, Si is
the spectral intensity of the original data point, and ϕi (k ) is the interpolation basis function.
The interpolated spectra were then windowed using the Hanning window function to
reduce spectrum leakage and side-lobe effects that occur during Fourier transform. Fast
Fourier transform (FFT) was applied to the windowed spectral data to convert it from the
time domain to the frequency domain, as expressed in the following equation:

N −1
SFFT ( f ) = ∑ Swindowed (k )e−i2π f k/N , (11)
k =0

where Swindowed (k) denotes the windowed function, SFFT ( f ) represents the FFT result at
the frequency, N is the number of sampling points of the signal, and k is the index in
the time or wavelength domain. The FFT frequency spectrum revealed the distribution
of various frequency components in the spectral signal. To extract the low-frequency
and high-frequency components, the algorithm employs a bandpass filter to process the
frequency-domain signal. The transfer function of the bandpass filter is given by:
(
1 if f low ≤ | f | ≤ f high
H( f ) = , (12)
0 otherwise

where f low and f high represent the cutoff frequencies for the low- and high-frequency
components, respectively. The inverse Fourier transform (IFFT) was then applied to the
Photonics 2025, 12, 258 8 of 18

filtered frequency-domain signal, converting it from the frequency domain back to spectra
in the wavelength domain,

N −1

Photonics 2025, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW

SIFFT (k ) = ∑ S f iltered ( f )ei2π f k/N , (13)
8 of 18
f =0

After applying this algorithm to process the simulated spectrum in Figure 3, as shown
in Figure 4a, the FFT spectrum displayed three different frequency components corre-
N −1
sponding to FPcav , FPglass , and FPcom , respectively, formed
S IFFT ( k ) = S filtered ( f )ei 2π by
frequency to high frequency. Illustrations f =0
(i) and (ii) show
fk / Nboth, sequentially from low
, (13)
the independent interference

spectrum corresponding to FPcav and FPglass after bandpass filtering, respectively.
After applying this algorithm to process the simulated spectrum in Figure 3, as shown
In the simulation, the cavity lengths of both FPcav and FPglass were set to increase by
in Figure 4a, the FFT spectrum displayed three different frequency components correspond-
0.3 µm with a step size of 0.1 µm, and the FFT spectra processed by the algorithm are shown
ing to FPcav, FPglass, and FPcom, respectively, formed by both, sequentially from low frequency
in Figure 4b. As the cavity length increased, the free spectral range (FSR) of the FP cavity
to high frequency. Illustrations (i) and (ii) show the independent interference spectrum cor-
decreased, leading to a reduction in the period and an increase in frequency. Consequently,
responding to FPcav and FPglass after bandpass filtering, respectively.
all three frequency peaks shifted to the right.

(a) (b)
120
DC signal 0.3
100 0.1 (i) FPcav 2.158526
21.825092
47.727399
Intensity (a.u.)

0.0

80 0.2
Amplitude 2.158515
Amplitude

−0.1 21.824990
47.727175
60 1520 1540 1560 1580
Wavelength (nm)
0.1
0.05
(ii) FPglass
2.158513
40 FPcav 21.824969
Intensity (a.u.)

47.727130
0.00
FPglass
20 0
−0.05
2.158499
FPcom 21.824823
1520 1540 1560
Wavelength (nm)
1580
47.726810
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Frequency (1×106 Hz) Frequency(1×106 Hz)

Figure4.4.(a)(a)FFT
Figure FFT spectrum
spectrum (spectra
(spectra ofFP
of (i) (i)cavFP andFP(ii)
cav (ii)
and FPglassbandpass
glass after
after bandpass
filteringfiltering and
and IFFT). (b)IFFT).
FFT
(b) FFT spectra with 0.3 µm increase in the FP cav and FP glass
spectra with 0.3 μm increase in the FPcav and FPglass cavity lengths. cavity lengths.

3. Fabrication
In the simulation, the cavity lengths of both FPcav and FPglass were set to increase by 0.3
μm withThisa study employed
step size of 0.1 μm,MEMS
and thetechnology
FFT spectratoprocessed
fabricate the pressure
by the sensors,
algorithm prepare
are shown in
the FP cavities on SOI wafer using etching techniques, and bond the SOI to the
Figure 4b. As the cavity length increased, the free spectral range (FSR) of the FP cavity de- glass
wafer toleading
creased, form sensing diaphragms.
to a reduction in theFinally,
period the
anddiaphragm
an increasewas adhesivelyConsequently,
in frequency. fixed to the fiber
all
collimator, and the entire assembly was
three frequency peaks shifted to the right. sealed within the package to form a complete sensor.

3.1. Sensor Diaphragm Fabrication

3. Fabrication
A 4-inch SOI wafer (with a substrate silicon thickness of approximately 380 µm and a
This study
thickness of theemployed MEMSand
top layer silicon technology to fabricate
silicon dioxide the pressure
of about 100 µm in sensors,
total) wasprepare the
selected
FP cavities on SOI wafer using etching techniques, and bond the SOI to the
as the sensitive diaphragm for the sensor. The processing of SOI wafers primarily involves glass wafer to
form sensing diaphragms.
the following steps, as shownFinally, the diaphragm
in Figure was adhesively
5a–f: (a) Cleaning: fixed to
the surface of the
the fiber collima-
SOI wafers is
tor, and the entire assembly was sealed within the package to form a complete
thoroughly cleaned using RCA cleaning technology to remove impurities and contaminants; sensor.
(b) Spin coating: a uniform layer of photoresist is applied to the wafer; (c) Patterning: after
3.1. Sensor Diaphragm Fabrication
exposure and development, transfer the pattern on the mask to the SOI wafer; (d) Etching:
A 4-inchtechnology
ICP etching SOI wafer is (with
useda tosubstrate
etch thesilicon thickness
top silicon layer,ofand
approximately
the SiO2 layer 380isμm and a
removed
thickness
through wetof the top layer
etching, siliconforming
thereby and silicon dioxide
a circular of about
cavity on the100SOI;
μm in(e)total) was selected
Deposition: SiO2 -
as the sensitive diaphragm for the sensor. The processing of SOI wafers
Ta2 O5 optical interference film is prepared by HiPIMS (high power impulse magnetron primarily involves
the following
sputtering) steps, as
reactive shown intoFigure
sputtering enhance5a–f:
the(a) Cleaning:
reflection the surface of
performance of the
theFPSOIcavity;
wafers andis
thoroughly cleaned using RCA cleaning technology to remove impurities
(f) Photoresist removal: an acetone solution is used to remove the photoresist, followed by and contami-
nants; (b) and
cleaning Spindrying
coating:toaobtain
uniformthelayer of photoresist
processed is applied to the wafer; (c) Patterning:
SOI wafers.
after exposure and development, transfer the pattern on the mask to the SOI wafer; (d) Etch-
ing: ICP etching technology is used to etch the top silicon layer, and the SiO2 layer is re-
moved through wet etching, thereby forming a circular cavity on the SOI; (e) Deposition:
SiO2-Ta2O5 optical interference film is prepared by HiPIMS (high power impulse magnetron
 wafer bonding, where the processed silicon and glass wafers are bonded using anodic bond
ing under high temperature and pressure conditions, with a temperature range of 350–400
Photonics 2025, 12, 258 °C and a pressure of approximately 1–3 MPa. An annealing treatment was then applied to
9 of 18
the bonded wafer interface to remove residual stress and enhance the interface quality.

Silicon wafer fabrication process

Glass wafer fabrication process

Figure5.5.Schematic
Figure Schematicdiagram of of
diagram thethe
manufacturing process
manufacturing of theofsensing
process diaphragm.
the sensing diaphragm.

Borosilicate glass (BF33) wafers with a low coefficient of thermal expansion as well
Figure 6a,b shows the bonded wafer and the single sensing film obtained after slicing
as high transparency and stability were selected as the substrate and optical transmission
respectively. The cross-sectional morphology of the diaphragm, observed using SEM (Scan
material for the sensing diaphragm. The processing of glass wafers included the following
ning Electron
steps, as shownMicroscopy, Carl(g)Zeiss
in Figure 5g–l: AG, Oberkochen,
cleaning; (h) spin coatingGermany), are (i)
photoresist; shown in Figure 6c,d
patterning;
The
(j) SEM image
deposition, revealed
where the sizea of
flatthe
surface ofon
coating thethe
sensing film be
glass must and the interface
slightly smaller between
than the the SO
and glass bonding, with no apparent defects. Additionally, the deposited
SOI etching cavity to ensure proper bonding between the two; (k) photoresist removal; film layer ap
peared
and dense,
(l) wafer with a clearly
bonding, where thedefined separation
processed siliconbetween
and glasslayers.
wafers are bonded using
anodic bonding under high temperature and pressure conditions, with a temperature range
of 350–400 ◦ C and a pressure of approximately 1–3 MPa. An annealing treatment was
then applied to the bonded wafer interface to remove residual stress and enhance the
interface quality.
Figure 6a,b shows the bonded wafer and the single sensing film obtained after slicing,
respectively. The cross-sectional morphology of the diaphragm, observed using SEM
(Scanning Electron Microscopy, Carl Zeiss AG, Oberkochen, Germany), are shown in
Figure 6c,d. The SEM image revealed a flat surface of the sensing film and the interface
between the SOI and glass bonding, with no apparent defects. Additionally, the deposited
film layer appeared dense, with a clearly defined separation between layers.
otonics 2025, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW

Photonics 2025, 12, 258 10 of 18

(a) (b)

4 cm 1 cm

(c) (d)

500 μm 500 nm

Figure 6. (a) Bonded wafers. (b) Individual sensing diaphragm after scribing. SEM images of the
Figure 6. (a) Bonded wafers. (b) Individual sensing diaphragm after scribing.
diaphragm (c) cross-section and (d) coatings.
S
phragm (c) cross-section and (d) coatings.
3.2. Sensor Packaging
To ensure efficient optical signal transmission, it is essential that the incident light
3.2. Sensor
enters Packaging
the FP cavity vertically. We completed the alignment operation on the specialized
optical fiber-processing platform (3SAE Large Diameter Splicer, 3SAE Technologies Inc.,
To ensure efficient optical signal transmission, it is essential that t
Franklin, TN, USA, LDS 2.5), secured the diaphragm on the micro displacement stage using
ters the
vacuum FP cavity
adsorption, vertically.
and fixed We completed
the fiber collimator the end.
at the opposite alignment
Through theoperation
built-in on
program, fine adjustments could be made in ten dimensions to ensure precise alignment
cal fiber-processing platform (3SAE Large Diameter Splicer, 3SAE Tech
between the fiber collimator and the center of the sensing diaphragm as well as vertical
lin, TN,ofUSA,
incidence LDS 2.5),the
light. Meanwhile, secured
demodulatorthe was
diaphragm on the
used to monitor microsignal.
the spectral displacem
uum
The adsorption,
precision and fixed
alignment platform the fiber
constructed is showncollimator at After
in Figure 7a,b. the opposite
alignment, a end. T
UV adhesive was applied and cured at the interface between the diaphragm and the fiber
program, fine adjustments could be made in ten dimensions to ensur
collimator to finalize the fixation, resulting in the structure shown in Figure 7c.
between the fiber
The package collimator
structure was designed and the316-steel
using centerfor ofpressure
the sensing diaphragm
testing of the di- a
aphragm. During the encapsulation process, a small amount of optical fiber adhesive
cidence of light. Meanwhile, the demodulator was used to monitor the
353ND (EPO-TEK, Billerica, MA, USA) was evenly applied around the bottom of the re-
precision
served grooves alignment platform
in the structure to preventconstructed is shown
glue from overflowing in Figure the
and contaminating 7a,b. Af
center of the diaphragm
adhesive was applied after placing
and curedit. After
atthe
theglue solidified,between
interface a layer of vulcanized
the diaphragm
rubber was applied to the outer surface of the diaphragm to seal it, ensuring that there was
mator to finalize the fixation, resulting in the structure shown in Figure
no leakage during the testing process, as shown in Figure 8c,d.
Photonics 2025, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Photonics 2025, 12, 258
11 of 18
11 of 18

Figure 7. (a) Experimental setup for the diaphragm packaging. Photography of the (b) alignment be-
tween the diaphragm and fiber collimator, and (c) the sensor chip coupled with the fiber collimator.

The package structure was designed using 316-steel for pressure testing of the dia-
phragm. During the encapsulation process, a small amount of optical fiber adhesive 353ND
(EPO-TEK, Billerica, USA) was evenly applied around the bottom of the reserved grooves
in the structure to prevent glue from overflowing and contaminating the center of the dia-
phragm after placing it. After the glue solidified, a layer of vulcanized rubber was applied
to the 7.
Figure
outer
Figure 7. (a)
surface of the
(a)Experimental
Experimental setup
diaphragm to sealpackaging.
it, ensuring
setup for the diaphragm packaging.
that thereofwas
Photography of
Photography the (b)
the
noalignment
leakage be-
(b) alignment
during
the
tween
testing
between
thethe
process,and
diaphragm
diaphragm
as shown
andfiber
in Figure
fibercollimator,
collimator, and8c,d.
and (c) the
(c) the sensor
sensorchip
chipcoupled
coupledwith
withthe
thefiber
fibercollimator.
collimator.

(a)The package structure was designed

(b) using 316-steel for pressure testing of the dia-
phragm. During the encapsulation process, a small amount of optical fiber adhesive 353ND
(EPO-TEK, Billerica, USA) was evenly applied around the bottom of the reserved grooves
in the structure to prevent glue from overflowing and contaminating the center of the dia-
phragm after placing it. After the glue solidified, a layer of vulcanized rubber was applied
to the outer surface of the diaphragm to seal it, ensuring that there was no leakage during
the testing process, as shown in Figure 8c,d. 1 cm

(a)
(c) (b)
(d)

150 μm 1 150
cm μm

(c) 8. (a)
Figure 8.
Figure (a) Schematic
Schematicdiagram
diagramofof
thethe (d)
packaging structure
packaging of the
structure of sensing diaphragm.
the sensing Photography
diaphragm. Photography of
of the (b) packaged sensor, (c) 353ND, and (d) vulcanized rubber under high magnification.
the (b) packaged sensor, (c) 353ND, and (d) vulcanized rubber under high magnification.
4. Setup and Experimental Results
4.1. Setup
The pressure testing platform was constructed as shown in Figure 9a, consisting of the
150 μm 150 μm
following components: a desktop high-pressure pump (pressure range 0–280 MPa, accuracy
0.1 Pa), a digital pressure gauge (pressure range 0–250 MPa, accuracy 0.05), an MOI fiber
Figure 8. (a) Schematic diagram of the packaging structure of the sensing diaphragm. Photography of
the (b) packaged sensor, (c) 353ND, and (d) vulcanized rubber under high magnification.
 4.1. Setup
The pressure testing platform was constructed as shown in Figure 9a, consisting o
Photonics 2025, 12, 258
following components: a desktop high-pressure pump (pressure range 0–280 12 ofMPa,
18 accu
0.1 Pa), a digital pressure gauge (pressure range 0–250 MPa, accuracy 0.05), an MOI
gratingdemodulator
grating demodulator (wavelength
(wavelength rangerange 1500–1600
1500–1600 nm, wavelength
nm, wavelength accuracy 1 accuracy
pm), and 1 pm)
thesealed
the sealedsensor,
sensor, which
which waswas fixed
fixed to the
to the M20M20 × 1.5
× 1.5 fastfast interface
interface ofhigh-pressure
of the the high-pressure p
via anvia
pump adapter.
an adapter.

Figure9.9.Experimental
Figure Experimentalsetup for the
setup for(a)
thepressure test andtest
(a) pressure (b)and
temperature test.
(b) temperature test.

The temperature testing platform was constructed as shown in Figure 9b, consist-
The temperature testing platform was constructed as shown in Figure 9b, consisti
ing of the following components: an intelligent precision temperature block (temper-
the following
ature components:
range −40–160 an intelligent
◦ C, accuracy ±1 ◦ C), an precision
intelligent temperature block (temperature
standard thermometer (accu- r
−40–160
racy °C,◦ Caccuracy
±0.025 ±1and
@ 160 ◦ C), °C),an
anMOI
intelligent standard
fiber grating thermometer
demodulator (accuracy
(wavelength ±0.025 °C @
range
°C), and nm,
1500–1600 an MOI fiber grating
wavelength accuracydemodulator
1 pm). (wavelength range 1500–1600 nm, wavele
accuracy 1 pm).
4.2. Pressure Test
pressure test was performed at room temperature (25 ◦ C), and the pressure test
4.2. The
Pressure Test
range was increased from 0 MPa to 100 MPa and then decreased back to 0 MPa, with a step
size ofThe pressure
10 MPa. test increase,
After each was performed
the pressureat room temperature
was gradually raised (25
and °C), and the
maintained forpressure
range
10 min towas increased
ensure spectralfrom 0 MPa
stability beforetocollecting
100 MPathe and then decreased
spectral data. The rawback to 0 were
spectra MPa, with a
then processed using the designed filtering algorithm.
size of 10 MPa. After each increase, the pressure was FP is insensitive to pressure, so
glass gradually raised and maintaine
only the FP
10 min tocav needs spectral
ensure to be demodulated. The interference
stability before collectingspectra are shown
the spectral in Figure
data. The raw10a.spectra
As the pressure increased, the sensor diaphragm deformed, leading to a reduction in the
then processed using the designed filtering algorithm. FPglass is insensitive to pressur
cavity length of the FP cavity and a blue shift in the spectrum. The pressure sensitivity
only the FPcav needs to be demodulated. The interference spectra are shown in Figure
of the sensor was fitted as shown in Figure 10b. The sensitivity during the pressure rise
As thewas
process pressure
0.56044increased,
nm/MPa, with the asensor diaphragm
linear fitting degree deformed, leading
of R2 of 0.99995. to a reduction in
The sensitivity
cavity length of the FP cavity and a blue shift in the spectrum. The pressure sensitivi
Photonics 2025, 12, 258 the sensor was fitted as shown in Figure 10b. The sensitivity during the pressure rise 13 process
of 18
was 0.56044 nm/MPa, with a linear fitting degree of R of 0.99995. The sensitivity during the
2

pressure drop process was 0.56089 nm/MPa, with an R2 of 0.99996,2 indicating high linearity.
during the pressure drop process was 0.56089 nm/MPa, with an R of 0.99996, indicating
Moreover, fitting both together resulted in a sensitivity of 0.56067 nm/MPa and an R2 of
high linearity. Moreover, fitting both together resulted in a sensitivity of 0.56067 nm/MPa
0.99996, which is consistent with the simulation data. In the experiment, we observed that
and an R2 of 0.99996, which is consistent with the simulation data. In the experiment, we
when the pressure reached 30 MPa, the spectral shift had already crossed one FSR. There-
observed that when the pressure reached 30 MPa, the spectral shift had already crossed one
fore, we supplemented the pressure rise experiment with a step size of 5 MPa from 0 to 25
FSR. Therefore, we supplemented the pressure rise experiment with a step size of 5 MPa
MPa.
from The fitting
0 to 25 MPa.ofThe
the spectral
fitting ofshift and sensitivity
the spectral is sensitivity
shift and shown in Figure 10c,d,
is shown with a10c,d,
in Figure linearity
of 0.99998
with and aof
a linearity sensitivity
0.99998 andof 0.56006 nm/MPa,
a sensitivity whichnm/MPa,
of 0.56006 is consistent
whichwith the pressure
is consistent withrange
of 0 to 100 MPa.
the pressure range of 0 to 100 MPa.

1600
0 MPa 30 MPa
(a) 10 MPa 40 MPa (b) step-up
step-down
2 20 MPa 50 MPa 1590
R2=0.99995 Linear fitting
1580

Wavelength (nm)
Intensity (a.u.)

1 1560.0

1570 R2=0.99996 1559.8

1559.6

0 1560 49.99 50.00 50.01

1550
−1 Slope = 0.56067 nm/MPa
1540 R 2 = 0.99996

−2 1530

1535 1540 1545 1550 1555 1560 1565 0 20 40 60 80 100

Wavelength (nm) Pressure (MPa)
1566
0 MPa 15 MPa
(c) 5 MPa 20 MPa 1564
(d) Experimental data
2 10 MPa 25 MPa Linear fitting
1562
Wavelength (nm)

1560
Intensity (a.u.)

1
1558

0 1556

1554
Slope = 0.56006 nm/MPa
−1 1552
R 2 = 0.99998
1550
−2
1548
1539 1542 1545 1548 1551 0 5 10 15 20 25
Wavelength (nm) Pressure (MPa)

Figure 10.
Figure (a) Left
10. (a) Left shift
shiftof
ofthe
theFP
FPinterference spectrum
interference with
spectrum increasing
with pressure.
increasing (b) Linear
pressure. fitting
(b) Linear fitting
curves for sensor sensitivity with step-up and step-down. (c) Spectral shift induced by pressurization
curves for sensor sensitivity with step-up and step-down. (c) Spectral shift induced by pressurization
within a FSR range (0–25 MPa). (d) Pressure point fitting curve for the 0–25 MPa range.
within a FSR range (0–25 MPa). (d) Pressure point fitting curve for the 0–25 MPa range.
When the spectral shift exceeds one FSR range, it may cause difficulty in distinguishing
When the spectral
the interference shift
order of exceeds
spectral one FSR
fringes. To range,
addressit this,
may wecause
useddifficulty
the FFTinspectrum
distinguishing
to
the interference
obtain the roughorder of path
optical spectral fringes.[30]
difference To and
address this, the
calculate we interference
used the FFTorderspectrum to ob-
m corre-
tain the rough
sponding optical
to the valleypath difference
wavelength λm[30] andindependent
in the calculate theFPinterference order 𝑚spectrum
cavity interference correspond-
ing to the
using valley(2).
Equation wavelength 𝜆𝑚 in
At this point, the independent
changes FP cavity
in the external interference
environmental spectrumcan
parameters using
Equation (2). At this point, changes in the external environmental parameters can be de-
be demodulated by tracking the movement of the valleys at specific interference orders.
Taking 0 and
modulated by30 MPa asthe
tracking examples,
movement at 0 of
MPa,
thethe optical
valleys path difference
at specific (∆) obtained
interference from 0
orders. Taking
and 30 MPa as examples, at 0 MPa, the optical path difference (Δ) obtained from theatFFT
the FFT spectrum was approximately 201 µm, resulting in an interference order (m) of 129
a wavelength
spectrum of 1563.2 nm. At
was approximately 20130μm,
MPa, ∆ was about
resulting 199 µm, withorder
in an interference an interference
(m) of 129 atorder
a wave-
of 128 at 1558.7 nm and 129 at 1546.8 nm. This approach resolves
length of 1563.2 nm. At 30 MPa, Δ was about 199 μm, with an interference the issue of interference
order of 128 at
order ambiguity
1558.7 nm and 129 and
at enables demodulation
1546.8 nm. This approachover resolves
a wide dynamic
the issuerange.
of interference order am-
Meanwhile, the error of the sensor was analyzed, with the nonlinear error defined as
biguity and enables demodulation over a wide dynamic range.
the deviation between the actual measured value and the ideal value, and the hysteresis
Meanwhile, the error of the sensor was analyzed, with the nonlinear error defined as
error was defined as the degree to which the output–input curves of the sensor did not
the deviation between the actual measured value and the ideal value, and the hysteresis
Photonics 2025, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 18

Photonics 2025, 12, 258 14 of 18

error was defined as the degree to which the output–input curves of the sensor did not co-
incide
coincideduring
duringpositive (increasing
positive (increasinginput) and
input) andnegative
negative(decreasing
(decreasinginput)
input)strokes.
strokes.AsAsillus-
trated in Figure 11, the sensor reached a maximum nonlinear error of about 0.34%
illustrated in Figure 11, the sensor reached a maximum nonlinear error of about 0.34% at 0 MPa
during
at 0 MPathe step-down
during process, while
the step-down thewhile
process, maximum hysteresishysteresis
the maximum error waserror
about was0.149%
aboutat 10
MPa.
0.149% at 10 MPa.

0.4 0.6
step-up
0.3 0.28 0.30 0.30 step-down
0.4
0.21
0.2

Hysteresis Error (%)

Nonlinear Error (%)
0.13 0.14
0.149 0.11 0.12 0.12 0.2
0.1
0.01
0.0 0.0
0.01 0.02
0.06
0.1
0.12 0.2
0.15 0.16 0.14
0.2
0.25 0.26 0.4
0.3
0.34
hysteresis error
0.4 0.6
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Pressure (MPa)
Figure 11.
Figure Nonlinear and
11. Nonlinear and hysteresis
hysteresiserrors
errorsofofthe
thesensors.
sensors.
4.3. Temperature Test
4.3. Temperature Test
The temperature test was performed at normal pressure, with a temperature range of
The
0 ◦ C to temperature
160 ◦ C and a step test was
size of performed
10 ◦ C. Afterat normal
the spectrumpressure, withwe
stabilized, a temperature
recorded the data range of
0and
°C used
to 160 the°Cdesigned
and a step size ofalgorithm
filtering 10 °C. After the spectrum
to process stabilized,
the original we recorded
spectrum. Since boththe FPdata
and used
cavities the sensitive
were designedtofiltering algorithm
temperature, theirto process the
sensitivities original
were spectrum.
calculated Since The
separately. both FP
cavities
experimental results showed that as the temperature increased, the spectral wavelengthsThe
were sensitive to temperature, their sensitivities were calculated separately. of ex-
perimental
both FPglass and results
FPcavshowed
underwentthataas redthe temperature
shift, as shown inincreased, theseparately,
Figure 12a,b, spectral wavelengths
which was of
both FPglass with
consistent and FP underwent
thecavtheoretical a red shift, as
expectations. shown
The in Figure
temperature 12a,b, separately,
sensitivity which
fitting curves of was
FPglass are shown in Figure 12c. FP exhibited a temperature sensitivity of 0.0139 nm/ ◦C
consistent with the theoretical expectations.
glass The temperature sensitivity fitting curves of
and a are
linearity ofin 2
R Figure
= 0.99905.
FP glass shown 12c. FPglass exhibited a temperature sensitivity of 0.0139 nm/°C and
a linearity of R = 0.99905. cav cavity length with temperature was nonlinear, as shown
The variation
2 of the FP
in Figure 12d, and of
The variation in the
orderFPto verify its repeatability, we conducted three heating and
cav cavity length with temperature was nonlinear, as shown in
cooling experiments in the temperature range of 0–160 ◦ C under identical experimental
Figure 12d, and in order to verify its repeatability, we conducted three heating and cooling
conditions. Fitting the experimental data, it was found
experiments in the temperature range of 0–160 °C under identical experimental that the relationship between the
conditions.
sensor output and temperature could be described by an exponential model. The coefficient
Fitting the experimental data, it was found that the relationship between the sensor output
of determination R2 of the fitting result was 0.999. This nonlinearity may have originated
and temperature could be described by an exponential model. The coefficient of determina-
from the different thermal expansion coefficients of the glass and silicon materials, resulting
tion R2 of the fitting result was 0.999. This nonlinearity may have originated from the differ-
in thermal stress, residual air and residual stress generated during the bonding process, etc.
ent thermal expansion coefficients of the glass and silicon materials, resulting in thermal
These factors may lead to complex changes in the shape and size of the membrane, which
stress, residual air and residual stress generated during the bonding process, etc. These fac-
often do not follow a simple linear relationship, resulting in a nonlinear response of the
tors
cavitymay lead to complex changes in the shape and size of the membrane, which often do
length.
not follow a simple
For a given linear relationship,
temperature point, the resulting
temperature in asensitivity
nonlinear of response
FPcav is of
thethe cavity
slope length.
of the
For a given temperature point, the temperature sensitivity of FP
tangent line at that point, which corresponds to the value of the derivative at that point:of thecav is the slope
tangent line at that point, which corresponds to the value of the derivative at that point:
dy
ST ( T0 ) = dy , (14)
S T (T0 )=
dT T = T0 , (14)
dT T =T0
therefore, by improving Equation (9), the sensitivity matrix obtained for the sensor is
therefore,
as follows:by improving Equation (9), the sensitivity matrix obtained for the sensor is as fol-
" # " #" #
lows: ∆T 1 36.13 0 ∆L glass
= , (15)
∆P
 Δ T  210.64 ( T0 ) −5.83 0 ∆L
 −T36.13  cav
 Δ Lglass 
1 Scav
 =   , (15)
210.64  S cav −T (T0 ) −5.83   ΔLcav 
 ΔP 
Photonics 2025,
Photonics 2025,12,
12,258
x FOR PEER REVIEW 15
15 of 18
of 18

By
By measuring
measuring the thetemperature
temperaturecoefficient
coefficientofofthe
the
FPFP cavity,
cavity,
glassglass self-temperature
self-temperature com-
compen-
pensation of the structure was achieved, thereby reducing the temperature–pressure
sation of the structure was achieved, thereby reducing the temperature–pressure cross-sen- cross-
sensitivity ofcavFP
sitivity of FP . cav .

1.2
40 ℃ 100 ℃
(a) 60 ℃ 120 ℃ (b)
80 ℃ 140 ℃ −1.0
0.8

Intensity (a.u.)

Intensity (a.u.)
0.4

−1.5 0℃
0.0 20 ℃
40 ℃
60 ℃
−0.4 80 ℃
100 ℃
−2.0 120 ℃
−0.8
1522.4 1522.8 1523.2 1523.6 1524.0 1524.4 1550 1552 1554 1556
Wavelength (nm) Wavelength (nm)

1522.5
(c) heating
1
cooling
1
1554.0 (d)
heating
1
cooling
1
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
1553.5
Wavelength (nm)

Wavelength (nm)
1522.0

Slope = 0.0139 nm/℃ 1553.0

1521.5
R 2 = 0.99905 1553.25

1552.5 1553.24

1521.0 1521.42 1553.23

1553.22
1521.40
1552.0 R 2 = 0.999
49 50 51
1520.5 1521.38

69 70 71

1551.5
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 −20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Temperature (℃) Temperature (℃)

Figure 12. Interference

Figure 12. Interference spectrum
spectrum shift
shiftof
of(a)
(a)FP glass and (b)
FPglass (b) FP cav at different temperatures. (c) Linear
FPcav Linear
fitting results of the FP
fitting results of the FPglass wavelength with temperature variation. (d) Nonlinear curve fitting
glass wavelength with temperature variation. (d) Nonlinear curve fitting resultsresults
of
of the
the FP
FPcav wavelength variation with temperature.
cav wavelength variation with temperature.

5. Discussion
5. Discussion
This article presented a FP-OFPS based on multi-beam interference, capable of accu-
This article presented a FP-OFPS based on multi-beam interference, capable of accurate
rate pressure measurements in high-pressure environments ranging from 0 to 100 MPa,
pressure measurements in high-pressure environments ranging from 0 to 100 MPa, with
with self-temperature compensation across a temperature range of 0 to 160 ◦ C. While most
self-temperature compensation across a temperature range of 0 to 160 °C. While most exist-
existing OFPSs rely on external temperature sensors, such as FBGs [31–33], for temper-
ing OFPSs rely on external temperature sensors, such as FBGs [31–33], for temperature com-
ature compensation, this study utilized the FPglass within the structure for independent
pensation, this study utilized the FPglass within the structure for independent temperature
temperature measurement, enabling self-compensation. This approach reduces the system
measurement, enabling self-compensation. This approach reduces the system complexity,
complexity, enhances the system stability and sensor accuracy, and is better suited for
enhances the system stability and sensor accuracy, and is better suited for miniaturization
miniaturization and integrated design. Table 3 presents a concise comparison between the
and integrated design. Table 3 presents a concise comparison between the proposed sensor
proposed sensor and other FP schemes reported in the recent literature.
and other FP schemes reported in the recent literature.
Table 3. Performance of some representative FP pressure sensors.
Table 3. Performance of some representative FP pressure sensors.
Sensitivity Range Sensitivity
Scheme Sensitivity Range Sensitivity
◦ C) Range (◦ C)
Range Ref.
Scheme (nm/MPa) (MPa) (pm/ Ref.
(nm/MPa) (MPa) (pm/°C) (°C)
Microbubble cavity 0.315 0–40 1.55 0–600 [15]
Microbubble cavity
Capillary splicing 0.315
216 0–69 0–40 / 1.55 /0–600 [15]
[16]
Capillary
MEMS splicing
silicon-glass 216
46.94 0–30 0–69 / / / / [16]
[22]
MEMS embedded
MEMS structure
silicon-glass 1.071 rad/MPa
46.94 2–1200–30 2.665 × 10−3 rad/
/ ◦C 0–60 / [23]
[22]
This work
MEMS embedded structure 36.13
1.071 rad/MPa 0–1002–120 13.9 (temperature compensation)
2.665 × 10 rad/°C
−3 0–160
0–60 [23]
This work 36.13 0–100 13.9 (temperature compensation) 0–160
Photonics 2025, 12, 258 16 of 18

The hysteresis phenomenon observed in pressure measurements has been reported in

other MEMS OFPS studies [23], often linked to the material properties of the diaphragm and
its mechanical behavior. To mitigate the hysteresis effect caused by material or structural
factors, pressure cycling tests are commonly employed [34]. In these tests, the pressure is
varied repeatedly over multiple cycles, allowing the sensor to experience sufficient loads
within a specific range, thereby reducing measurement errors and drift.
This study demonstrated through theoretical analysis that temperature compensation
for pressure sensing can be achieved via the temperature sensitivity of the glass cavity.
However, due to limitations in the experimental conditions, pressure testing was not carried
out under variable temperature conditions. In future research, we plan to design pressure
control equipment capable of withstanding high temperatures to conduct experiments
under both variable temperature and pressure conditions, thereby validating the effec-
tiveness of self-temperature compensation. Additionally, further research can focus on
integrating high-temperature-resistant materials, improving the temperature compensation
mechanisms, and optimizing sensor structures to expand their operating temperature and
pressure ranges, thereby enhancing sensor performance in more challenging environments.

6. Conclusions
In summary, we proposed an OFPS based on MEMS technology, utilizing a composite
structure of SOI and glass along with the principle of FP cavity interference for accurate
high-pressure measurements. The sensor employed FFT-based spectral extraction and
filtering algorithms to process the spectra from composite FP cavities, enabling independent
demodulation of the two cavities. Changes in external pressure and temperature can lead
to variations in the length of the air FP cavity. However, the FP cavity formed by glass is
solely sensitive to temperature, and can act as a temperature compensation mechanism to
mitigate the cross-sensitivity effect between the air FP cavity’s temperature and pressure.
The experimental results demonstrated that the sensor exhibited a good linear response
within the pressure range of 0–100 MPa, with a cavity length sensitivity of 0.56 nm/MPa,
a nonlinear error of 0.34% F.S, and a hysteresis error of 0.149% F.S. In the temperature
range of 0–160 ◦ C, the glass cavity showed a temperature sensitivity of 0.0139 nm/◦ C, and
the nonlinear fitting correlation coefficient of the air FP cavity to temperature was greater
than 0.999, indicating that the model can accurately describe the variation in sensor output
with temperature. This sensor offers advantages such as compact size, high accuracy,
and excellent consistency, making it suitable for wide-ranging applications in pressure
and temperature measurements, particularly in fields such as deep earth exploration and
resource development.

Author Contributions: Methodology and writing, K.L.; Conceptualization and validation, G.L.;
Supervision, F.L. and X.Y.; Project administration, Y.L. and Z.X.; Funding acquisition, A.S. and Y.W.
All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding: This research was funded by the National Key R&D Program of China (grant number
2022YFB3205300), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant number 42276194), and
the National Key R&D Program of China (grant number 2023YFC3010700).

Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement: Data are contained within the article.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Photonics 2025, 12, 258 17 of 18

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