Manufacturing processes

1.1 What is manufacturing?

The word manufacture is derived from two Latin words, manus (hand)
and factus (make); the combination means made by hand. The English
word manufacture is several Centuries
accurately described the manual methods.

1.2 manufacturing defined

As a field of study in the modern context, manufacturing can be defined
two ways, one technologic and the other economic. Technologically,
manufacturing is the application of physical and chemical processes to
alter the geometry, properties, and/or appearance of a given starting
material to make parts or products; manufacturing also includes
assembly of multiple parts to make products. The processes to
accomplish manufacturing involve a combination of machinery, tools,
power, and labor, as depicted in Figure 1.1.

Manufacturing is almost always carried out as a sequence of operations.

Each operation brings the material closer to the desired final state.
Economically, manufacturing is the transformation of materials into items
of greater value by means of one or more processing and/or assembly
operations. The key point is that manufacturing adds value to the
material by changing its Shape or properties, or by combining it with
other materials that have been similarly altered. The material has been
made more valuable through the manufacturing operations performed on
it. When iron ore is converted into steel, value is added. When sand is
transformed into glass, value is added. When petroleum is refined into
plastic, value is added. And when plastic is molded into the complex
geometry of a patio chair, it is made even more valuable. The words
manufacturing and production are often used interchangeably. The
s view is that production has a broader meaning than

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manufacturing. To illustrate,
out of place. Yet when
used in the context of products such as metal parts or automobiles,
either word seems okay.

1.3 Importance of manufacturing processes

Manufacturing may produce discrete products, meaning individual parts
or pieces of parts or it may produce continuous products. Nails, gears,
steel balls, beverage cans and engine blocks are example of discrete
products. Metal or plastic sheet, wire, hose and pipe are continuous
products that may be cut into individual pieces and thereby become
discrete products. Because a manufactured item has undergone a
number of changes during which raw material has become a useful
product, it has added value, defined as monetary worth in terms of price.
For example, clay has a certain value when mined. When the clay is
used to make a ceramic dinner plate, cutting tool, or electrical insulator,
value is added to the clay; similarly, a wire coat hanger or a nail has
added value over and above the cost of a piece of wire.

1.4 Classifications of manufacturing processes

Most of the metals used in industry are obtained as ores. These ores are
subjected to a suitable reducing process which gives the metal in a
molten form. This molten metal is poured into moulds to give commercial
casting, called ingots. These ingots are further subjected to one or more
processes to obtain usable metal products of different shapes and sizes.
All the further processes used for changing the ingots into usable
products can be classified as follows:

1.4.1 Primary Shaping Processes

These processes are of two types. Some of these finish product to its
usable form whereas others do not, and require further working to finish
the component to the desired shape and size. Casting needs remelting
of ingots in cupola or some other foundry furnace and then pouring of
this molten metal into metal or sand moulds to obtain the castings. The
products obtained through this process may or may not be required to
undergo further operation; depending upon the function they have to
perform. Same in the case with forging than casting. Many operations
like cold rolling die casting, metal spinning and wire drawing etc., lead to
the production of directly useful articles. The common operations are:
(1) Casting (2) Forging
(3) Rolling (4) Bending (5) Drawing
(6) Shearing (7) Spinning
(8) Electroforming

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1.4.2 Machining Processes
A fairly large number of components are not finished to their usable
shapes and sizes through the primary processes. These components
are further subjected to one or more of the machining operation called
SECONDARY PROCESSES, to obtain the desired shape and
dimensional accuracy. Thus, the components undergoing these
secondary operations are basically the roughly finished products through
primary operation. The secondary operation are mainly necessary when
a very close dimensional accuracy is required or some such shape is
desired to be produced which is not possible through primary operations.
These operations require the use of one or more machine tools, various
types of cutting tools and cutters, marking and measuring instruments,
testing devices and gauges etc. of which a combined application leads
to the desired dimensional control. The common machining performed
for this purpose are the following:
(1) Turning (2) Threading
(3) Drilling (4) Shaping
(5) Sawing (6) Grinding

1.4.3 Joining Processes

These processes are used for joining metal parts and in general
fabrication work. Such requirement usually occurs when larger lengths of
standard section are required. In such cases, smaller lengths are joined
together to give the desired length. These processes also enable
temporary or permanent type of fastening. Most of the processes are
require heat for joining of metal pieces. The common processes falling in
this category are:
(1) Welding (2) Soldering
(3) Brazing (4) Riveting
(5) Screwing (6) Pressing

1.4.4 Surface Finishing Processes

These processes should not be misunderstood as metal removing
processes, in any case as they are primarily intended to provide a good
surface finish to the metal surface, although a very negligible amount of
metal removal or addition does take place. Thus, these processes will
not affect any appreciable variation in dimensions. The common
processes are as following:
(1) Buffing (2) Polishing
(3) Sanding (4) Electroplating

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1.5 Selecting Manufacturing Processes:
As example for processing methods for materials:
1. Casting
2. Forming and shaping
3. Machining
4. Joining
5. Micromanufacturing and nanomanufacturing
6. Finishing

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1.5.1 Part Size and Dimensional Accuracy
Size, thickness and shape complexity of a part have a major
bearing on the process selected
The size and shape of manufactured products also vary widely

1.5.2 Manufacturing and Operational Costs

Lead time required to begin production and the tool and die life are
of major importance.
Quantity of parts and production rates determine the processes
that are used and the economics of production.

1.5.3 Net-Shape Manufacturing

Additional finishing operations might be needed for finished parts
or products to desired specifications.

1.6 The main responsibilities of the manufacturing engineers:

a) Plane the manufacturing of the product and the processes to be
utilized, this function requires a through knowledge of product, its
expected performance and specification.
b) Identify machines, requirement, and tools to carry out the plan.
c) Interact with design and materials engineers to optimize
productivity and minimize product costs.
d) Cooperate with industrial engineers for machine arrangements,
material-
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 Classification Of Engineering Materials, And Their
Properties:
1] Material classification:
There are different ways of classifying materials. One way is to describe
five groups or families (Table 1-1):

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1. Metals and alloys;
2. Ceramics, glasses, and glass-ceramics;
3. Polymers (plastics);
4. Semiconductors
5. Composite materials

1- Metals and Alloys:

Metals and alloys include steels, aluminum, magnesium, zinc, cast iron,
titanium, copper, and nickel. An alloy is a metal that contains additions of
one or more metals or non-metals. In general, metals have good electrical
and thermal conductivity. Metals and alloys have relatively high strength,
high stiffness, ductility or formability, and shock resistance. They are
particularly useful for structural or load-bearing applications. Although pure
metals are occasionally used, alloys provide improvement in a particular
desirable property or permit better combinations of properties.

2- Ceramics:
Ceramics can be defined as inorganic crystalline materials. Beach sand
and rocks are examples of naturally occurring ceramics. Advanced
ceramics are materials made by refining naturally occurring ceramics and
other special processes. Advanced ceramics are used in substrates that
house computer chips, sensors and capacitors, wireless communications,
inductors, and electrical insulation. Some ceramics are used as barrier
coatings to protect metallic substrates in turbine engines. Ceramics are
also used in such consumer products as paints, and tires, and for industrial
applications such as the tiles for the space shuttle.
Traditional ceramics are used to make bricks, tableware, toilets, bathroom
sinks, refractories (heat-resistant material), and abrasives. In general, due
to the presence of porosity (small holes), ceramics do not conduct heat
well; they must be heated to very high temperatures before melting.
Ceramics are strong and hard, but also very brittle. We normally prepare
fine powders of ceramics and convert these into different shapes. New
processing techniques make ceramics sufficiently resistant to fracture that
they can be used in load-bearing applications, such as impellers in turbine
engines. Ceramics have exceptional strength under compression.
Can you believe that an entire fire truck can be supported using four
ceramic coffee cups?

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 3- Glasses and Glass-Ceramics:
Glass is an amorphous material, often, but not always, derived from a

regular, periodic arrangement of atoms. The fiber optics industry is founded

on optical fibers based on high purity silica glass. Glasses are also used in
houses, cars, computer and television screens, and hundreds of other
applications. Glasses can be thermally treated (tempered) to make them
stronger. Forming glasses and nucleating (forming) small crystals within
them by a special thermal process creates materials that are known as
glass- of a glass-ceramic material that is
used to make the mirror substrates for large telescopes (e.g., the Chandra
and Hubble telescopes). Glasses and glass-ceramics are usually
processed by melting and casting.

4- Polymers:
Polymers are typically organic materials. They are produced using a
process known as polymerization. Polymeric materials include rubber
(elastomers) and many types of adhesives. Polymers typically are good
electrical and thermal insulators although there are exceptions such as the
semiconducting polymers. Although they have lower strength, polymers
have a very good strength-to-weight ratio. They are typically not suitable
for use at high temperatures. Many polymers have very good resistance to
corrosive chemicals. Polymers have thousands of applications ranging from
bulletproof vests, compact disks (CDs), ropes, and liquid crystal displays
(LCDs) to clothes and coffee cups. Thermoplastic polymers, in which the
long molecular chains are not rigidly connected, have good ductility and
formability; thermosetting polymers are stronger but more brittle because
the molecular chains are tightly linked (Figure 2-1). Polymers are used in
many applications, including electronic devices. Thermoplastics are made
by shaping their molten form. Thermosets are typically cast into molds.
Plastics contain additives that enhance the properties of polymers.
Figure 2-1 Polymerization occurs when small
molecules, represented by the circles, combine to
produce larger molecules, or polymers. The polymer
molecules can have a structure that consists of many
chains that are entangled but not connected
(thermoplastics) or can form three-dimensional
networks in which chains are cross-linked
(thermosets)

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 5- Semiconductors:
Silicon, germanium, and gallium arsenide-based semiconductors such as
those used in computers and electronics are part of a broader class of
materials known as electronic materials. The electrical conductivity of
semiconducting materials is between that of ceramic insulators and metallic
conductors. In some semiconductors, the level of conductivity can be
controlled to enable electronic devices such as transistors, diodes, etc.,
that are used to build integrated circuits. In many applications, we need
large single crystals of semiconductors. These are grown from molten
materials. Often, thin films of semiconducting materials are also made
using specialized processes.

6- Composite Materials:
The main idea in developing composites is to blend the properties of
different materials. These are formed from two or more materials,
producing properties not found in any single material. Concrete, plywood,
and fiberglass are examples of composite materials. Fiberglass is made by
dispersing glass fibers in a polymer matrix. The glass fibers make the
polymer stiffer, without significantly increasing its density. With composites,
we can produce lightweight, strong, ductile, temperature-resistant materials
or we can produce hard, yet shock-resistant, cutting tools that would
otherwise shatter. Advanced aircraft and aerospace vehicles rely heavily on
composites such as carbon fiber-reinforced polymers (Figure 2-2). Sports
equipment such as bicycles, golf clubs, tennis rackets, and the like also
make use of different kinds of composite materials that are light and stiff.

Figure 2-2 The X-wing for advanced helicopters relies on a material

composed of a carbon fiber reinforced polymer. (Courtesy of Sikorsky
Aircraft Division United Technologies Corporation.)

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2] Material properties:
So what are these properties? Some, like density (mass per unit volume)
and price (the cost per unit volume or weight) are familiar enough, but
others are not, and getting them straight is essential. Think first of those
that have to do with carrying load safely the mechanical properties.

1- Mechanical properties
A steel ruler is easy to bend elastically
when released. Its elastic stiffness (here, resistance to bending) is set
partly by its shape thin strips are easy to bend and partly by a property
of the steel itself: their elastic moduli, E. Materials with high E, like steel,
are intrinsically stiff; those with low E, like
polyethylene, are not. The steel ruler bends
elastically, but if it is a good one, it is hard to
give it a permanent bend. Permanent
deformation has to do with strength, not
stiffness. The ease with which a ruler can be
permanently bent depends, again, on its
shape and on a different property of the
steel its yield strength, y. Materials with
large y, like titanium alloys, are hard to
deform permanently even though their
stiffness, coming from E, may not be high;
those with low y, like lead, can be deformed
with ease. When metals deform, they

ultimate limit, called the tensile strength, ts, beyond which the material
fails (the amount it stretches before it breaks is called the ductility). So far
so good. One more. If the ruler were made not of steel but of glass or of
PMMA (Plexiglas, Perspex), as transparent rulers are, it is not possible to
bend it permanently at all. The ruler will fracture suddenly, without warning,
before it acquires a permanent bend. We think of materials that break in
this way as brittle, and materials that do not as tough. There is no
operty. The resistance
of materials to cracking and fracture is measured instead by the fracture
toughness, K1c. Steels are tough well, most are (steels can be made
brittle) they have a high K1c. Glass epitomizes brittleness; it has a very
low K1c. Figure 1.2(d) suggests consequences of inadequate fracture and
toughness. We started with the material property density, mass per unit

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that moves, weight carries a fuel penalty, modest for automobiles, greater
for trucks and trains, greater still for aircraft, and enormous in space
vehicles. Minimizing weight has much to do with clever design is equally to
choice of material. Aluminum has a low density, lead a high one. If our little
aircraft were made of lead, it would never get off the ground at all (Figure
1.2(e)).These is not the only mechanical properties, but they are the most
important ones.

Figure 2-3

2- Thermal properties
The properties of a material change with temperature, usually for the
and it
may oxidize, degrade or decompose (Figure 2.4). This means that there is
a limiting temperature called the maximum service temperature, Tmax,
above which its use is impractical. Stainless steel has a high Tmax it can
be used up to 800°C; most polymers have a low Tmax and are seldom
used above 150°C.

Figure 2-4

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Most materials expand when they are heated, but by differing amounts
depending on their thermal expansion coefficient, . The expansion is
small, but its consequences can be large. If, for instance, a rod is
constrained, as in Figure 2.4(b), and then heated, expansion forces the rod
against the constraints, causing it to buckle. Railroad track buckles in this
way if provision is not made to cope with it. Some materials metals, for
instance feel cold; others like woods feel warm. This feel has to do
with two thermal properties of the material: thermal conductivity and heat
capacity. The first, thermal conductivity, , measures the rate at which heat
flows through the material when one side is hot and the other cold.
Materials with high are what you want if you wish to conduct heat from
one place to another, as in cooking pans, radiators and heat exchangers;
Figure 2.4(c) suggests consequences of high and low for the cooking
vessel. But low is useful too low materials insulate homes, reduce the
energy consumption of refrigerators and freezers, and enable space
vehicles to re-enter These applications have to do
with long-time, steady, heat flow. When time is limited, that other
property heat capacity, Cp matters. It measures the Amount of heat that
it takes to make the temperature of material rise by a given amount. High
heat capacity materials copper, for instance require a lot of heat to
change their temperature; low heat capacity materials, like polymer foams,
take much less

3- Electrical, magnetic and optical properties

We start with electrical conduction and insulation (Figure 2.5(a)). Without
electrical conduction we would lack the easy access to light, heat, power,
control and communication that today we take for granted. Metals
conduct well copper and aluminum are the best of those that are
affordable. But conduction is not always a good thing. Fuse boxes, switch
casings, all require insulators. Here the property we want is resistivity, e,
the inverse of electrical conductivity e. Most plastics and glass have high
resistivity (Figure 2.5(a)) they are used as insulators though, by special
treatment, they can be made to conduct a little. Electricity and magnetism
are closely linked. Electric currents induce magnetic fields; a moving
magnet induces, in any nearby conductor, an electric current. The
response of most materials to magnetic fields is too small to be of practical
value. But a few called ferromagnets have the capacity to trap a magnetic

once magnetized, they are hard to demagnetize. They are used as

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permanent magnets in headphones, motors and dynamos. Here the key
property is the remanence, a measure of the intensity of the retained
magnetism.

Figure 2-5

A few others Magnet materials are easy to magnetize and

demagnetize. They are the materials of transformer cores. They have the
capacity to conduct a magnetic field, but not retain it permanently (Figure
2.5(b)). For these a key property is the saturation magnetization, which
measures how large a field the material can conduct. Materials respond to
light as well as to electricity and magnetism hardly surprising, since light
itself is an electromagnetic wave. Materials that are opaque reflect light;
those that are transparent refract it, and some have the ability to absorb
some wavelengths (colors) while allowing others to pass freely (Figure
2.5(c)).

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 4- Chemical properties
Products often have to function in hostile environments, exposed to
corrosive fluids, to hot gases or to radiation. Damp air is corrosive, so is
water; the sweat of your hand is particularly corrosive, and of course there
are far more aggressive environments than these. If the product is to
survive for its design life it must be made of materials or at least coated
with materials that can tolerate the surroundings in which they operate.
Figure 2.6 illustrates some of the commonest of these: fresh and salt water,
acids and alkalis, organic solvents, oxidizing flames and ultraviolet
radiation. We regard the intrinsic resistance of a material to each of these
as material properties, measured on a scale of 1 (very poor) to 5 (very
good).

Figure 2-6

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 Metal Casting processes
3.1 Introduction of casting process:
Casting process is one of the earliest metal shaping techniques. A metal casting
may be defined as a metal object produced by pouring molten metal into mold
containing a cavity which has the desired shape of casting, allowing the molten
metal to solidify in the cavity, and then removing the casting. The solidified object is
called casting and the process is called founding or casting process. (Fig.1)
Simplified flow diagram of the basic operations for producing a steel casting

Fig. 1

The important factors in casting process are:

1. The flow of molten metal into mold cavity.
2. Solidification of metal from its molten state
3. Heat transfer during solidification and cooling of the metal in the mold
4. Influence of type of the mold