AU306 MANUFACTURING PROCESS - I: PART – A

Introduction

Production, Manufacturing and Assembly processes, Classification of production processes, and Selection of a manufacturing process.

Manufacturing, in its broadest sense, is the process of converting raw materials into products. It
encompasses

1. The design of the product,

2. The selection of raw materials and

3. The sequences through which the product will be manufactured

ƒ Manufacturing also involves activities in which the manufactured product is itself used to make
other products.

Examples: Large presses to shape sheet metal for car bodies, machinery to make bolts and
nuts, sewing machines for making clothing, etc.

ƒ An equally important aspect of manufacturing activities is the servicing and maintenance of this
machinery during its useful life.

Production or manufacturing can be simply defined as “value addition processes by which raw
materials of low utility and value due to its inadequate material properties and poor or irregular
size, shape and finish are converted into high utility and valued products with definite
dimensions, forms and finish imparting some functional ability”.

ƒ The word manufacturing is derived from the Latin manu factus, meaning made by hand. The
word manufacture appeared in 1567, and the word manufacturing appeared in 1683.

ƒ In the modern sense, manufacturing involves making products from raw materials by means of
various processes, machinery, and operations, through a well organized plan for each activity
required.

ƒ The word product means something that is produced, and the words product and production
first appeared sometime during the 15th century.

ƒ The word production is often used interchangeably with the word manufacturing.

ƒ Whereas manufacturing engineering is the term used widely in the United States to describe
this area of industrial activity, the equivalent term in other countries is production engineering.

ƒ Since a manufactured item has undergone a number of processes in which pieces of raw
material have been turned into a useful product, it has a value – defined as monetary worth or
marketable piece.

ƒ For example, as the raw material for ceramics, clay has certain value as mined. When the clay
is used to make ceramic cutting tool or electrical insulator, value is added to the clay.

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ƒ Similarly, a wire coat hanger or a nail has a value over and above the cost of the piece of wire
from which it is made. Thus manufacturing has the important function of adding value.

ƒ Manufacturing may produce discrete products, meaning individual parts, or continuous

products.

ƒ Nails, gears, balls for bearings, beverage cans, and engine blocks are examples of discrete
parts, even though they are mass produced at high production rates.

ƒ A spool of wire, a sheet of metal or plastic, and lengths of tubing, hose and pipe are
continuous products, which may be cut into individual pieces and thus become discrete parts.

Manufacturing is generally a complex activity involving a wide variety of resources and activities, such
as the following:

ƒ Product design

ƒ Machinery and tooling

ƒ Process planning

ƒ Materials

ƒ Purchasing

ƒ Manufacturing

ƒ Production control

ƒ Support services

ƒ Marketing Sales

ƒ Shipping

ƒ Customer service

Manufacturing activities must be responsive to several demands and trends:

1. A product must fully meet design requirements and product specifications and standards.

2. A product must be manufactured by the most environmentally friendly and economical

methods.

3. Quality must be built into the product at each stage, from design to assembly, rather than
tested in after the product is made. Furthermore, the level of quality should be appropriate to
the product’s use.

4. In a highly competitive environment, production methods must be flexible enough to respond to

changes in market demands, types of products, production rates, production quantities, and
on-time delivery requirements.

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5. New developments in materials, production methods and computer integration of both
technological and managerial activities in a manufacturing organization must constantly be
evaluated with a view to their appropriate, timely, and economical implementation.

6. Manufacturing activities must be viewed as a large system, the parts of which are interrelated.
Such systems can now be modeled, in order to study the effect of factors such as changes in
market demands, product design, and materials. Various other factors and production methods
affect product quality and cost.

7. A manufacturing organization must constantly strive for higher levels of quality and productivity
(defined as the optimum use of all its resources: materials, machines, energy, capital, labor
and technology)/ Output per employee per hour in all phases must be maximized. Zero-based
part rejection (and consequent reduction of waste) are also an integral aspect of productivity.

A typical example of manufacturing is schematically shown in Fig. 1.1.

A lump of mild steel of irregular shape, dimensions and surface, which had almost no use and value,
has been converted into a useful and valuable product like bolt by a manufacturing process which
imparted suitable features, dimensional accuracy and surface finish, required for fulfilling some
functional requirements.

Fig. 1.1 Value addition by manufacturing Value added

A brief history of manufacturing:

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Manufacturing of products for various uses began with the production of articles made of wood,
ceramic, stone and metal.

The materials and processes first used to shape products by casting and hammering have been
gradually developed over the centuries using new materials and more complex operations, at
increasing rates of production and at higher levels of quality.

Historical development of Materials and Manufacturing processes:

Period Casting processes

Before 4000 B.C Gold, copper, meteoritic iron
Roman Empire: ~ 500 B.C to ~

Renaissance: 14th to 16th centuries

Greece: ~ 1100 B.C to ~ 146 B.C
Egypt: ~ 3100 B.C to ~ 300 B.C

4000 – 3000 B.C Copper casting, stone and metal molds, lost wax process, silver lead, tin, bronze
Middle ages: ~ 476 to 1492

3000 – 2000 B.C Bronze casting

2000 – 1000 B.C Wrought iron, brass

1000 – 1 B.C Cast iron, cast steel

1 – 1000 A.D Zinc, steel

146 A.D

1000 – 1500 Blast furnace, type metals, casting of bells, pewter

1500 – 1600 Cast iron cannon, tinplate

1600 – 1700 Permanent mold castings, brass from copper and metallic zinc
~ 1750 to 1850
revolution:
Industrial

1700 – 1800 Malleable cast iron, crucible steel

1800 – 1900 Centrifugal casting, Bessemer process, electrolytic aluminium, nickel steels,
Babbitt, galvanised steel, powder metallurgy, tungsten steel, open hearth steel

1900 – 1920
WW I

1920 – 1940 Die casting

1940 – 1950 Lost wax for engineering parts

WW II

1950 – 1960 Ceramic mold, nodular iron, semiconductors, continuous casting

1960 – 1970 Squeeze casting, single crystal turbine blades

Space age

1970 – 2000 Compacted graphite, vaccum casting, organically bonded sand, automation of
molding and pouring, rapid solidification technology, metal matrix composites,
semisolid, metalworking, rheocasting

ƒ The first materials used for making household utensils and ornamental objects included metals
such as gold, copper, and iron, followed by silver, lead, tin, bronze and brass.

ƒ The production of steel in about 600 – 800 A.D was a major development. Since then, a wide
variety of ferrous and nonferrous metals have been developed.

ƒ Today, the materials used in advanced products such as computers and supersonic aircraft
include engineered or tailor-made materials with unique properties, such as ceramics,
reinforced plastics, composite materials, and specially alloyed metals.

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Period Forming processes

Before 4000 B.C Hammering

Roman Empire: ~ 500 B.C to ~

Renaissance: 14th to 16th centuries

Greece: ~ 1100 B.C to ~ 146 B.C
Egypt: ~ 3100 B.C to ~ 300 B.C

4000 – 3000 B.C Stamping jewelry

Middle ages: ~ 476 to 1492

3000 – 2000 B.C Wire by cutting sheet

2000 – 1000 B.C

1000 – 1 B.C Stamping of coins

1 – 1000 A.D Armor, coining, forging, steel swords

146 A.D

1000 – 1500 Wire drawing, gold and silver smith work

1500 – 1600 Water power for metal working, rolling mill for coinage strips

1600 – 1700 Rolling (lead, gold, silver), shape rolling (lead)

~ 1750 to 1850
revolution:
Industrial

1700 – 1800 Extrusion (lead pipe), deep drawing, rolling (iron bars and rods)

1800 – 1900 Steam hammer, steel rolling, seamless tube piercing, steel rail rolling,
continuous rolling, electroplating

1900 – 1920 Tube rolling, hot extrusion

WW I

1920 – 1940 Tungsten wire from powder

1940 – 1950 Extrusion (steel), swaging, powder metals for engineering parts
WW II

1950 – 1960 Cold extrusion (steel), explosive forming, thermomechanical treatment

1960 – 1970 Hydrostatic extrusion; electroforming

Space age

1970 – 2000 Precision forging, isothermal forging, superplastic forming, dies made by
computer-aided design and manufacturing, rapid prototyping, net-shape forming

ƒ Until the industrial revolution, which began in England in the 1750s, goods had been produced
in batches, with much reliance on manual labour in all aspects of production.

ƒ Modern mechanisation began in England and Europe with the development of textile
machinery and of machine tools for cutting metals.

ƒ This technology soon moved to the United States, where it was developed further, including
the important advance of designing, making and using interchangeable parts.

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Period Joining processes

Roman Empire: ~ 500 B.C to ~ Before 4000 B.C

Renaissance: 14th to 16th centuries

Greece: ~ 1100 B.C to ~ 146 B.C
Egypt: ~ 3100 B.C to ~ 300 B.C

Middle ages: ~ 476 to 1492 4000 – 3000 B.C Soldering (Cu-Au, Cu-Pb, Pb-Sn)

3000 – 2000 B.C Riveting and brazing

2000 – 1000 B.C

1000 – 1 B.C Forge welding of iron and steel, gluing

1 – 1000 A.D
146 A.D

1000 – 1500

1500 – 1600

1600 – 1700
revolution:
~ 1750 to
Industrial

1850

1700 – 1800

1800 – 1900

1900 – 1920 Oxyacetylene; arc, electrical resistance, and thermit welding

WW I

1920 – 1940 Coated electrodes

1940 – 1950 Submerged arc welding

WW II

1950 – 1960 Gas metal – arc gas tungsten – arc, and electroslag welding; explosive welding

1960 – 1970 Plasma arc and electron beam, adhesive bonding

Space age

1970 – 2000 Laser beam, diffusion bonding (also combined with superplastic forming)

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Period Tools, machining, and manufacturing systems

Before 4000 B.C Tools of stone, flint, wood bone, ivory, composite tools

Roman Empire: ~ 500 B.C to ~

Renaissance: 14th to 16th centuries

Greece: ~ 1100 B.C to ~ 146 B.C
Egypt: ~ 3100 B.C to ~ 300 B.C

4000 – 3000 B.C Corundum

Middle ages: ~ 476 to 1492

3000 – 2000 B.C Hoe making, hammered axes, tools for ironmaking and carpentry

2000 – 1000 B.C

1000 – 1 B.C Improved chisels, saws, files, woodworking lathes

1 – 1000 A.D
146 A.D

1000 – 1500 Etching of armor

1500 – 1600 Sandpaper, wind mill driven saw

1600 – 1700 Hand lathe (wood)

~ 1750 to 1850
revolution:
Industrial

1700 – 1800 Boring, turning, screw cutting lathe, drill press

1800 – 1900 Shaping, milling, copying lathe for gun stocks; turret lathe; universal milling
machine; vitrified grinding wheel

1900 – 1920 Geared lathe, automatic screw machine, hobbing, high-speed steel tools,
WW I

aluminium oxide and silicon carbide (synthetic)

1920 – 1940 Tungsten carbide, mass production, transfer machines

1940 – 1950
WW II

1950 – 1960 Electrical and chemical machining, automatic control

1960 – 1970 Titanium carbide, synthetic diamond, numerical control

Space age

1970 – 2000 Cubic boron nitride, coated tools, diamond turning, ultraprecision machining,
computer integrated manufacturing, industrial robots, flexible manufacturing
systems, untended factory

Assembly:

Assembly is an important phase of the overall manufacturing operation and requires consideration of
the ease, speed, and cost of putting things together.

Also, many products must be designed so that disassembly is possible, in order to enable the product
to be taken apart for importance, servicing, or recycling of its components.

Broad classification of Engineering Manufacturing Processes:

It is extremely difficult to tell the exact number of various manufacturing processes existing and is
being practiced presently because a spectacularly large number of processes have been developed
till now and the number is still increasing exponentially with the growing demands and rapid progress
in science and technology. However, all such manufacturing processes can be broadly classified in
four major groups as follows:

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a) Shaping or forming: Manufacturing a solid product of definite size and shape from a given
material taken in three possible states:

9 In solid state – e.g., forging, rolling, extrusion, drawing etc.

9 In liquid or semi-liquid state – e.g., casting, injection molding etc.

9 In powder form – e.g., powder metallurgical process.

b) Joining process: Welding, brazing, soldering etc.

c) Removal process: Machining (Traditional or Non-traditional), Grinding etc.

d) Regenerative manufacturing: Production of solid products in layer by layer from raw materials in
different form:

9 Liquid – e.g., stereo lithography

9 Powder – e.g., selective sintering

9 Sheet – e.g., LOM (laminated object manufacturing)

9 Wire – e.g., FDM. (Fused Deposition Modelling)

Out of the aforesaid groups, Regenerative Manufacturing is the latest one which is generally
accomplished very rapidly and quite accurately using CAD and CAM for Rapid prototyping and tooling.

Selecting Manufacturing processes:

Many processes are used to produce parts and shapes and there is more than one method of
manufacturing a part from a given material.

a) Casting: Expendable mold and permanent mold

b) Forming and shaping: Rolling, forging, extrusion, drawing, sheet forming, powder
metallurgy, and molding

c) Machining: Turning, boring, drilling, milling, planning, shaping, broaching, and grinding,
ultrasonic machining; chemical, electrical, and electrochemical machining; and high-
energy beam machining

d) Joining: Welding, brazing, soldering, diffusion bonding, adhesive bonding, and

mechanical joining.

e) Finishing: Honing, lapping, polishing, burnishing, deburring, surface treating, coating,

and plating.

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Illustration of a casting operation

Illustrations of various forming processes

a) Rolling b) Rod or wire drawing

c) Extrusion d) Deep drawing

Machining

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1. Selection of a particular manufacturing process, or of a sequence of processes, depends not only

on the shape to be produced but also on many other factors pertaining to material properties.

For example, Brittle and hard materials cannot be shaped easily, whereas they can be cast or
machined readily by several methods. The manufacturing process usually alters the properties of
materials.

2. Dimensional accuracy and surface finish:

ƒ Size, thickness, and shape complexity of the part have a major bearing on the manufacturing
process selected to produce it.

ƒ Flat parts with thin cross-sections, for example cannot be cast properly.

ƒ Complex parts cannot be formed easily and economically, whereas they may be cast or else
fabricated from individual pieces.

ƒ Tolerances and surface finish obtained in hot-working operations cannot be as good as those
obtained in cold-working (room temperature) operations because dimensional changes,
warpage, and surface oxidation occur during processing at elevated temperatures.

ƒ Some casting processes produce a better surface finish than others, because of the different
types of mold materials used and their surface finishes.

3. Operational and manufacturing costs: The major considerations are

ƒ The design and cost of tooling,

ƒ The lead time required to begin production, and

ƒ The effect of workpiece material on tool life and die life

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General manufacturing characteristics of various alloys:

Alloy Castability Weldability Machinability

Aluminum E F G-E
Copper F-G F F-G
Gray cast iron E D G
White cast iron G VP VP
Nickel F F F
Steels F E F
Zinc E D E
Note: E – excellent; G – good; F – fair; D – difficult; VP – very poor

Depending on a product’s size, shape, and expected life, the cost of tooling can be substantial. For
example, a set of steel dies for stamping sheet-metal fenders for automobiles may cost about $2
million.

Shapes and Some Common Methods of Production:

Shape or feature Production method

Flat surface Rolling, planning, broaching, milling, shaping, grinding
Parts with cavities End milling, electrical-discharge machining, electrochemical machining,
ultrasonic machining, casting
Parts with sharp features Permanent-mold casting, machining, grinding, fabricating, powder
metallurgy
Thin hollow shapes Slush casting, electroforming, fabricating
Tubular shapes Extrusion, drawing, roll forming, spinning, centrifugal casting
Tubular parts Rubber forming, expanding with hydraulic pressure, explosive forming,
spinning
Curvature on thin sheets Stretch forming, peen forming, fabricating, assembly
Openings in thin sheets Blanking, chemical blanking, photochemical blanking
Cross-sections Drawing, extruding, shaving, grinding, belt grinding, shot blasting
Square edges Fine blanking, machining, shaving, belt grinding
Small holes Laser, electrical-discharge machining, electrochemical machining
Surface textures Knurling, wire brushing, grinding, belt grinding, shot blasting, etching,
deposition
Detailed surface features Coining, investment casting, permanent-mold casting, machining
Threaded parts Thread cutting, thread rolling, thread grinding, chasing
Very large parts Casting, forging, fabricating, assembly
Very small parts Investment casting, machining, etching, powder metallurgy, nano
fabrication, micromachining

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Consequences of Improper Selection of Materials and processes:

Numerous examples of product failure can be traced to improper selection of material or of

manufacturing processes or to improper control of process variables. A component or a product is
generally considered to have failed when:

ƒ It stops functioning (e.g., broken shaft, gear, bolt, cable, or turbine blade).

ƒ It does not function properly or perform within required specification limits (e.g., worn bearings,
gears, tools, and dies).

ƒ It becomes unreliable or unsafe for further use (e.g., frayed cable in a winch, crack in a shaft,
poor connection in a printed circuit board, or delamination of reinforced plastic component).

Cast parts in a typical automobile:

Involved manufacturing processes: Casting, Forging, Rolling, Extrusion, Sheet Metal Working,
Machining, Non-traditional Machining, Polymer Processing, Powder Metallurgy/Sintering, Processing
of Ceramics and Composites, Joining, …

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2. Metal-Casting processes:

Introduction: Steps involved in casting, Advantages and limitations

ƒ Several different methods such as casting, molding, forming, powder metallurgy, and
machining are available to shape metals into useful products.

ƒ Casting is one of the oldest processes, which basically involves

9 Pouring molten metal into a mold patterned after the part to be manufactured,

9 Allowing to cool, and

9 Removing the metal from the mold

ƒ Casting was first used around 4000 B.C to make ornaments, copper arrow heads, and various
other objects.

ƒ The casting process is capable of producing intricate shapes in one piece, including those with
internal cavities, such as engine blocks.

ƒ The metal casting industry plays a key role in all the major sectors of our economy.

ƒ There are castings in locomotives, cars trucks, aircraft, office buildings, factories, schools, and
homes. Figure 2.1 shows some metal cast parts.

Figure 2.1 Metal cast parts

Many casting processes have been developed over many years. As in all manufacturing, each
process has its own characteristics, applications, advantages, limitations and costs. Casting
processes are most often selected over other manufacturing methods for the following reasons:

9 Casting can produce complex shapes with internal cavities or hollow sections;

9 It can produce very large parts;

9 It can utilise workpiece materials that are difficult or uneconomical to process by other means;

9 Casting is competitive with other processes.

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Advantages
The metal casting process is extensively used in manufacturing because of its many advantages.

1. Molten material can flow into very small sections so that intricate shapes can be made by
this process. As a result, many other operations, such as machining, forging, and welding,
can be minimized or eliminated.

2. It is possible to cast practically any material that is ferrous or non-ferrous.

3. As the metal can be placed exactly where it is required, large saving in weight can be
achieved.

4. The necessary tools required for casting molds are very simple and inexpensive. As a result,
for production of a small lot, it is the ideal process.

5. There are certain parts made from metals and alloys that can only be processed this way.

6. Size and weight of the product is not a limitation for the casting process.

Limitations

1. Dimensional accuracy and surface finish of the castings made by sand casting processes
are a limitation to this technique. Many new casting processes have been developed which
can take into consideration the aspects of dimensional accuracy and surface finish. Some of
these processes are die casting process, investment casting process, vacuum-sealed
molding process, and shell molding process.

2. The metal casting process is a labor intensive process

History

Casting technology, according to biblical records, reaches back almost 5,000 years BC. Gold, pure in
nature, most likely caught Prehistoric man's fancy…as he probably hammered gold ornaments out of
the gold nuggets he found. Silver would have been treated similarly. Mankind next found copper,
because it appeared in the ash of his camp fires from copper-bearing ore that he lined his fire pits
with. Man soon found that copper was harder than gold or silver. Copper did not bend up when used.
So copper, found a ‘nitch' in man's early tools, and then marched it's way into Weaponry. But, long
before all this…man found clay. So he made pottery – something to eat from. Then he thought,
"now…what else can I do with this mud…" . Early man thought about it, "they used this pottery stuff, (
the first patterns ), to shape metal into bowls ".

3200 B.C. A copper frog, the oldest known casting in existence, is cast in Mesopotamia.
233 B.C. Cast iron plowshares are poured in China.

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500 A.D. Cast crucible steel is first produced in India, but the process is lost until 1750, when
Benjamin Huntsman reinvents it in England.

1455 Dillenburg Castle in Germany is the first to use cast iron pipe to transport water.
1480 Birth of Vannoccio Biringuccio (1480-1539), the "father of the foundry industry," in Italy. He is the
first man to document the foundry process in writing.

1709 Englishman Abraham Darby creates the first true foundry flask for sand and loam molding.

1750 Benjamin Huntsman reinvents the process of cast crucible steel in England. This process is the
first in which the steel is completely melted, producing a uniform composition within the melt. Since
the metal is completely molten, it also allows for alloy steel production, as the additional
elements in the alloy can be added to the crucible during melting. Prior steel production was
accomplished by a combination of forging and tempering, and the metal never reached a molten state.

1809 Centrifugal casting is developed by A. G. Eckhardt of Soho, England.

1896 American Foundrymen's Association (renamed American Foundrymen's Society in 1948 and
now called the American Foundry Society) is formed.

1897 Investment casting is rediscovered by B.F. Philbrook of Iowa. He uses it to cast dental inlays.

1947 The Shell process, invented by J. Croning of Germany during WWII, is discovered by U.S.
officials and made public.

1953 The Hotbox system of making and curing cores in one operation is developed, eliminating the
need for dielectric drying ovens.

1958 H.F. Shroyer is granted a patent for the full mold process, the forerunner of the expendable
pattern (lost foam) casting process.

1968 The Coldbox process is introduced by L. Toriello and J. Robins for high production core making.

1971 The Japanese develop V-Process molding. This method uses unbonded sand and a vacuum.
1971 Rheocasting is developed at Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
1996 Cast metal matrix composites are first used in a production model automobile in the brake rotors
for the Lotus Elise.

Metal Casting History (India)

3000 BC Earliest castings include the 11 cm high bronze dancing girl found at Mohen-jo-daro.

2000 BC Iron pillars, arrows, hooks, nails, bowls and daggers or earlier have been found in Delhi,
Roopar, Nashik and other places.

500 BC Large scale state-owned mints and jewelry units, and processes of metal extraction and
alloying have been mentioned in Kautilya's Arthashastra

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500 A.D. Cast crucible steel is first produced in India, but the process is lost until 1750, when
Benjamin Huntsman reinvents it in England

Casting Terms:

1. Flask: A metal or wood frame, without fixed top or bottom, in which the mold is formed.
Depending upon the position of the flask in the molding structure, it is referred to by various
names such as drag – lower molding flask, cope – upper molding flask, cheek – intermediate
molding flask used in three piece molding.

2. Pattern: It is the replica of the final object to be made. The mold cavity is made with the help of
pattern.

3. Parting line: This is the dividing line between the two molding flasks that makes up the mold.

4. Molding sand: Sand, which binds strongly without losing its permeability to air or gases. It is a
mixture of silica sand, clay, and moisture in appropriate proportions.

5. Facing sand: The small amount of carbonaceous material sprinkled on the inner surface of the
mold cavity to give a better surface finish to the castings.

6. Core: A separate part of the mold, made of sand and generally baked, which is used to create
openings and various shaped cavities in the castings.

7. Pouring basin: A small funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mold into which the molten metal
is poured.

8. Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal, from the pouring basin, reaches the mold
cavity. In many cases it controls the flow of metal into the mold.

9. Runner: The channel through which the molten metal is carried from the sprue to the gate.

10. Gate: A channel through which the molten metal enters the mold cavity.

11. Chaplets: Chaplets are used to support the cores inside the mold cavity to take care of its own
weight and overcome the metallostatic force.

12. Riser: A column of molten metal placed in the mold to feed the castings as it shrinks and
solidifies. Also known as “feed head”.

13. Vent: Small opening in the mold to facilitate escape of air and gases.

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Figure 2.2 Mold section showing some casting terms

Steps in Making Sand Castings

There are five basic steps in making sand castings:

1. Patternmaking

2. Core making

3. Molding

4. Melting and pouring

5. Cleaning

Molding

Sand Mold

Melting Pouring Heat Cleaning and

Casting Inspection
of metal into mold treatment finishing

Shakeout Defects
Furnaces Solidification Additional heat
Removal of Pressure tightness
treatment
risers and gates Dimensions
1. Pattern making:

ƒ The pattern is a physical model of the casting used to make the mold.

ƒ The mold is made by packing some readily formed aggregate material, such as molding sand,
around the pattern.

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ƒ When the pattern is withdrawn, its imprint provides the mold cavity, which is ultimately filled
with metal to become the casting.

ƒ If the casting is to be hollow, as in the case of pipe fittings, additional patterns, referred to as
cores, and are used to form these cavities.

2. Core making:

ƒ Cores are forms, usually made of sand, which are placed into a mold cavity to form the interior
surfaces of castings.

ƒ Thus the void space between the core and mold-cavity surface is what eventually becomes the
casting.

3. Molding:

ƒ Molding consists of all operations necessary to prepare a mold for receiving molten metal.

ƒ Molding usually involves

9 Placing a molding aggregate around a pattern held with a supporting frame,

9 Withdrawing the pattern to leave the mold cavity,

9 Setting the cores in the mold cavity and

9 Finishing and closing the mold.

4. Melting and Pouring:

ƒ The preparation of molten metal for casting is referred to simply as melting.

ƒ Melting is usually done in a specifically designated area of the foundry, and the molten metal is
transferred to the pouring area where the molds are filled.

5. Cleaning:

ƒ Cleaning refers to all operations necessary to the removal of sand, scale, and excess metal
from the casting.

ƒ Burned-on sand and scale are removed to improve the surface appearance of the casting.

ƒ Excess metal, in the form of fins, wires, parting line fins, and gates, is removed.

ƒ Inspection of the casting for defects and general quality is performed.

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3. Pattern making

Patterns, Pattern allowances, Core prints, Pattern materials, Types of Patterns, BIS Color coding for patterns.

3.1 Pattern:

ƒ The pattern is the principal tool during the casting process.

ƒ It is the replica of the object to be made by the casting process, with some modifications.

ƒ The main modifications are the addition of pattern allowances, and the provision of core prints.

ƒ If the casting is to be hollow, additional patterns called cores are used to create these cavities
in the finished product.

ƒ The quality of the casting produced depends upon the material of the pattern, its design, and
construction.

ƒ The costs of the pattern and the related equipment are reflected in the cost of the casting.

ƒ The use of an expensive pattern is justified when the quantity of castings required is
substantial.

Figure 3.1 A typical pattern attached with gating and risering system

Functions of the Pattern

1. A pattern prepares a mold cavity for the purpose of making a casting.

2. A pattern may contain projections known as core prints if the casting requires a core and need to
be made hollow.

3. Runner, gates, and risers used for feeding molten metal in the mold cavity may form a part of the
pattern.

4. Patterns properly made and having finished and smooth surfaces reduce casting defects.

5. A properly constructed pattern minimizes the overall cost of the castings.

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3.2 Pattern Material

ƒ Patterns may be constructed from the following materials: wood, metals and alloys, plastic,
plaster of Paris, plastic and rubbers, wax, and resins.

ƒ Each material has its own advantages, limitations, and field of application.

To be suitable for use, the pattern material should be:

1. Easily worked, shaped and joined

2. Light in weight

3. Strong, hard and durable

4. Resistant to wear and abrasion

5. Resistant to corrosion, and to chemical reactions

6. Dimensionally stable and unaffected by variations in temperature and humidity

7. Available at low cost

ƒ The usual pattern materials are wood, metal, and plastics.

ƒ The most commonly used pattern material is wood, since it is readily available and of low weight.

ƒ Also, it can be easily shaped and is relatively cheap.

ƒ The main disadvantage of wood is its absorption of moisture, which can cause distortion and
dimensional changes. Hence, proper seasoning and upkeep of wood is almost a pre-requisite for
large-scale use of wood as a pattern material.

3.3 Pattern Allowances:

ƒ Pattern allowance is a vital feature as it affects the dimensional characteristics of the casting.

ƒ Thus, when the pattern is produced, certain allowances must be given on the sizes specified in
the finished component drawing so that a casting with the particular specification can be made.

ƒ The selection of correct allowances greatly helps to reduce machining costs and avoid
rejections.

The allowances usually considered on patterns and core boxes are as follows:

1. Shrinkage or contraction allowance

2. Draft or taper allowance

3. Machining or finish allowance

4. Distortion or camber allowance

5. Rapping allowance

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3.3.1. Shrinkage or Contraction Allowance

All most all cast metals shrink or contract volumetrically on cooling. The metal shrinkage is of two
types:

a) Liquid Shrinkage:

9 It refers to the reduction in volume when the metal changes from liquid state to solid state at
the solidus temperature.

9 To account for this shrinkage; riser, which feed the liquid metal to the casting, are provided in
the mold.

b) Solid Shrinkage:

9 It refers to the reduction in volume caused when metal loses temperature in solid state.

9 To account for this, shrinkage allowance is provided on the patterns.

ƒ The rate of contraction with temperature is dependent on the material.

ƒ For example steel contracts to a higher degree compared to aluminum.

ƒ To compensate the solid shrinkage, a shrink rule must be used in laying out the measurements for
the pattern.

ƒ A shrink rule for cast iron is 1/8 inch longer per foot than a standard rule.

ƒ If a gear blank of 4 inch in diameter was planned to produce out of cast iron, the shrink rule in
measuring it 4 inch would actually measure 4 -1/24 inch, thus compensating for the shrinkage. The
various rate of contraction of various materials are given in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1 Rate of Contraction of Various Metals

Material Dimension Shrinkage allowance (inch/ft)

Grey Cast Iron Up to 2 feet 0.125

2 feet to 4 feet 0.105
over 4 feet 0.083

Cast Steel Up to 2 feet 0.251

2 feet to 6 feet 0.191
over 6 feet 0.155

Aluminum Up to 4 feet 0.155

4 feet to 6 feet 0.143
over 6 feet 0.125

Magnesium Up to 4 feet 0.173

Over 4 feet 0.155

Typical shrinkage allowances are:

Cast iron : 1% or 10 mm / m
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Brass : 1.4% or 14 mm / m

Steel : 2% or 20 mm / m

Aluminum and Magnesium alloys : 1.8% or 18 mm / m

3.3.2. Draft or Taper Allowance

ƒ By draft is meant the taper provided by the pattern maker on all vertical surfaces of the pattern
so that it can be removed from the sand without tearing away the sides of the sand mold and
without excessive rapping by the molder.
ƒ Figure 3.2 (a) shows a pattern having no draft allowance being removed from the pattern. In this
case, till the pattern is completely lifted out, its sides will remain in contact with the walls of the
mold, thus tending to break it.
ƒ Figure 3.2 (b) is an illustration of a pattern having proper draft allowance. Here, the moment the
pattern lifting commences, all of its surfaces are well away from the sand surface. Thus the
pattern can be removed without damaging the mold cavity.
ƒ Draft allowance varies with the complexity of the sand job. But in general inner details of the
pattern require higher draft than outer surfaces.

Figure 3.2 (a) Pattern Having No Draft on Vertical Edges Figure 3.2 (b) Pattern Having Draft on Vertical Edges

The amount of draft depends upon

9 The length of the vertical side of the pattern to be extracted;

9 The intricacy of the pattern;

9 The method of molding; and

9 Pattern material

A taper of 3 mm / m to 6 mm / m is common for vertical walls on pattern drawn by hands, while

machine drawn patterns require about, 1 degree taper.

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Table 3.2 provides a general guide lines for the draft allowance.

Table 3.2 Draft Allowances of Various Metals

Pattern material Height of the given Draft angle (External Draft angle (Internal
surface (inch) surface) surface)

1 3.00 3.00
1 to 2 1.50 2.50
Wood 2 to 4 1.00 1.50
4 to 8 0.75 1.00
8 to 32 0.50 1.00

1 1.50 3.00
1 to 2 1.00 2.00
Metal and plastic 2 to 4 0.75 1.00
4 to 8 0.50 1.00
8 to 32 0.50 0.75

3.3.3 Machining or Finish Allowance

ƒ The finish and accuracy achieved in sand casting are generally poor and therefore when the
casting is functionally required to be of good surface finish or dimensionally accurate, it is
generally achieved by subsequent machining.

ƒ Machining or finish allowances are therefore added in the pattern dimension.

ƒ The amount of machining allowance to be provided for is affected by the method of molding and
casting used viz.

9 hand molding or machine molding,

9 sand casting or metal mold casting.

ƒ The amount of machining allowance is also affected by

9 The size and shape of the casting;

9 The casting orientation;

9 The metal; and

9 The degree of accuracy and finish required.

The machining allowances recommended for different metal is given in Table 3.3.

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Table 3.3 : Machining Allowances of Various Metals

Metal Dimension (inch) Allowance (inch)

Up to 12 0.12
Cast iron 12 to 20 0.20
20 to 40 0.25

Up to 6 0.12
Cast steel 6 to 20 0.25
20 to 40 0.30

Up to 8 0.09
Non ferrous 8 to 12 0.12
12 to 40 0.16

3.3.4 Distortion or Camber Allowance

ƒ Sometimes castings get distorted, during solidification, due to their typical shape.

ƒ For example, if the casting has the form of the letter U, V, T, or L etc. it will tend to contract at
the closed end causing the vertical legs to look slightly inclined.

ƒ This can be prevented by making the legs of the U, V, T, or L shaped pattern converge slightly
(inward) so that the casting after distortion will have its sides vertical (Figure 3.3).

ƒ The distortion in casting may occur due to internal stresses. These internal stresses are
caused on account of unequal cooling of different section of the casting and hindered
contraction.

Measures taken to prevent the distortion in casting include:

a) Modification of casting design

b) Providing sufficient machining allowance to cover the distortion affect

c) Providing suitable allowance on the pattern, called camber or distortion allowance

(inverse reflection)

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Figure 3.3 Distortions in Casting

3.3.5 Rapping Allowance

ƒ Before the withdrawal from the sand mold, the pattern is rapped all around the vertical faces to
enlarge the mold cavity slightly, which facilitate its removal.

ƒ Since it enlarges the final casting made, it is desirable that the original pattern dimension should
be reduced to account for this increase.

ƒ There is no sure way of quantifying this allowance, since it is highly dependent on the foundry
personnel practice involved.

ƒ It is a negative allowance and is to be applied only to those dimensions that are parallel to the
parting plane.

3.4 Core and Core Prints

ƒ Castings are often required to have holes, recesses, etc. of various sizes and shapes.

ƒ These impressions can be obtained by using cores.

ƒ So where coring is required, provision should be made to support the core inside the mold
cavity.

ƒ Core prints are used to serve this purpose.

ƒ The core print is an added projection on the pattern and it forms a seat in the mold on which the
sand core rests during pouring of the mold.

ƒ The core print must be of adequate size and shape so that it can support the weight of the core
during the casting operation.

ƒ Depending upon the requirement a core can be placed horizontal, vertical and can be hanged
inside the mold cavity.

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A typical job, its pattern and the mold cavity with core and core print is shown in figure 3.4.

Figure 3.4: A Typical Job, its Pattern and the Mold Cavity

Types of Pattern

Patterns are of various types, each satisfying certain casting requirements.

1. Single piece pattern

2. Split or two piece pattern

3. Match plate pattern

4. Cope and drag pattern

5. Gated pattern

6. Loose-piece pattern

7. Sweep pattern

8. Skeleton pattern

9. Follow board pattern

10. Segmental pattern

11. Shell pattern

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12. Built-up pattern

13. Boxed pattern

Solid Pattern Split Pattern Match-plate Pattern

1. Single Piece Pattern

ƒ The one piece or single pattern is the most inexpensive of all types of patterns.

ƒ This type of pattern is used only in cases where the job is very simple and does not create any
withdrawal problems.

ƒ It is also used for application in very small-scale production or in prototype development.

ƒ This type of pattern is expected to be entirely in the drag and one of the surface is expected to
be flat which is used as the parting plane.

ƒ A gating system is made in the mold by cutting sand with the help of sand tools.

ƒ If no such flat surface exists, the molding becomes complicated.

A typical one-piece pattern is shown in figure 3.5,

Figure 3.5: A Typical One Piece Pattern

2. Split or Two Piece Pattern

ƒ Split or two piece pattern is most widely used type of pattern for intricate castings.

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ƒ It is split along the parting surface, the position of which is determined by the shape of the
casting.

ƒ One half of the pattern is molded in drag and the other half in cope.

ƒ The two halves of the pattern must be aligned properly by making use of the dowel pins, which
are fitted, to the cope half of the pattern.

ƒ These dowel pins match with the precisely made holes in the drag half of the pattern.

A typical split pattern of a cast iron wheel figures 3.6 (a) and 3.6 (b).

Figure 3.6(a): The Details of a Cast Iron Figure 3.6 (b): The Split Piece or Two Piece Pattern of a Cast
Wheel Iron Wheel

Figure 3.7
3. Match-plate pattern:

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ƒ Match-plate patterns are popular type of mounted pattern in which two-piece patterns are
constructed by securing each half of one or more split patterns to the opposite sides of a single
plate.

ƒ In these, gating system can be mounted on the drag side of the pattern.

ƒ This type of pattern is used most often in conjunction with molding machines and large
production runs to produce smaller castings.

ƒ This type of pattern increases the dimensional accuracy of the casting.

Figure 3.8 Match plate pattern

4. Cope and drag pattern:

ƒ Consists of the cope and drag parts of the pattern mounted on separate plates.

ƒ The cope and drag halves of the mold may thus be made by workers working on different
molding machines.

ƒ The molding of medium and large castings is greatly facilitated by this type of pattern.

ƒ Even though, this is expensive, is usually necessary for high speed mechanized molding.

5. Gated pattern:

ƒ Here the gating system is actually the part of the pattern and eliminates the hand cutting of
gates.

ƒ More rapid molding can be done.

ƒ The desired patterns are attached to a single runner by means of gates.

ƒ Help in producing small sized casting and many cavities can be made in a single mold.
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Figure 3.9 Gated pattern

6. Loose-piece pattern:

ƒ Used to form projections such as bosses and other configuration which will not draw the main
pattern but which can be easily removed, if drawn separately at an angle to the mold cavity.

Figure 3.10 Loose-piece pattern

7. Sweep pattern:

ƒ Used when large castings are needed in small numbers, it is not worth to use the conventional
patterns, as the cost will be high.

ƒ It consists of a sweep which is a template of wood or metal attached to a spindle, free and
being of the same contour of the desired shape of the mold cavity.

ƒ The mold is prepared in accordance with the contour of the sweep.

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Figure 3.11 Sweep pattern

8. Skeleton pattern:

ƒ It may not be economical to make solid pattern, when large castings are to be made in small
quantities and hence skeleton patterns are used.

ƒ This has a ribbed construction of wood forming the outline of the patterns to be made and the
space in between is filled with molding sand.

ƒ The exact overall shape is obtained by firmly pressing the sand and strickling it using a
strickling board.

ƒ This sand filled skeleton is then used for making molds.

Figure 3.12 Skeleton pattern

9. Follow board pattern:

ƒ Sometimes the castings will have some weak portions and the patterns made for such castings
have a tendency to break under the action of ramming, if it is not supported properly.

ƒ In such cases instead of a simple bottom board, a follow board is used which closely fits the
contour of the weak pattern and thus it will support the pattern during the ramming of the drag.

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ƒ It is not necessary during the ramming of cope, as the rammed sand in drag will support the
fragile pattern.

Figure 3.13 Follow board pattern

10. Segmental pattern or part pattern:

ƒ This is generally applied to circular work such as rings, wheel rims, gears, etc.

ƒ These are so arranged to form a complete mold by being moved to form each section of the
mold.

11. Shell pattern:

ƒ It is used largely for drainage fittings and pipe work.

ƒ It is usually made of metal, mounted on a plate and parted along the centre line, the two
sections being accurately doweled together.

ƒ It is a hollow construction like a shell and the outside shape is used as a pattern to make the
mold, while the inside is used as a core-box for making cores.

12. Built-up pattern or parted patterns:

ƒ As the name implies, built-up patterns are composed of two or more pieces.

ƒ Patterns for special pulleys are built up of segments of wooden strips.

ƒ These segments are made by cutting strips of wood to the curvature required, and the desired
thickness is built up by gluing them in layers.

ƒ Flanges are also made in a similar way.

ƒ This building up is sometimes necessary because it is difficult to make an intricate shape in a

block of wood for constructing a pattern.

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13. Boxed-up pattern:

ƒ In this the planks or strips of wood are so joined together either by glue, nails or screws that a
pattern is made like a box.

ƒ It not only economises wood for large patterns but also makes them lighter in weight.

ƒ It is specially employed for casting having a regular outline and rectangular form.

BIS Color code for Patterns:

It is common practice to paint patterns with contrasting colors such that the mold maker may be able
to understand the functions clearly. The color code used is:

1. Red or orange on surfaces not to be finished and left as cast

2. Yellow on surfaces to be machined

3. Black on core prints for un-machined openings

4. Yellow stripes on black on core prints for machined openings

5. Green on seats of and for loose pieces

6. Diagonal black stripes with clear varnish on to strengthen the weak patterns or to shorten a
casting

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4. Principles of Gating

Element system, types of gates, functions of risers, types of risers – open and blind risers.

Gating System

ƒ The assembly of channels which facilitates the molten metal to enter into the mold cavity is
called the gating system (figure 4.1).

ƒ Alternatively, the gating system refers to all passage ways through which molten metal passes
to enter into the mold cavity.

ƒ The nomenclature of gating system depends upon the function of different channels which they
perform.

1. Down gates or sprue

2. Cross gates or runners

3. Ingates or gates

9 The metal flows down from the pouring basin or pouring cup into the down gate or sprue and

9 Passes through the cross gate or channels and

9 Ingates or gates before entering into the mold cavity

Figure 4.1 Schematic of Gating System

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Goals of Gating System:

The goals for the gating system are

• To minimize turbulence to avoid trapping gasses into the mold

• To get enough metal into the mold cavity before the metal starts to solidify

• To avoid shrinkage

• Establish the best possible temperature gradient in the solidifying casting so that the shrinkage
if occurs must be in the gating system not in the required cast part.

• Incorporates a system for trapping the non-metallic inclusions

Types of Gating Systems: (Figures 4.2 and 4.3)

The gating systems are of two types:

1. Pressurized gating system

2. Un-pressurized gating system

Pressurized Gating System:

• The total cross sectional area decreases towards the mold cavity

• Back pressure is maintained by the restrictions in the metal flow

• Flow of liquid (volume) is almost equal from all gates

• Back pressure helps in reducing the aspiration as the sprue always runs full

• Because of the restrictions the metal flows at high velocity leading to more turbulence and
chances of mold erosion

Un-Pressurized Gating System:

• The total cross sectional area increases towards the mold cavity

• Restriction only at the bottom of sprue

• Flow of liquid (volume) is different from all gates

• Aspiration in the gating system as the system never runs full

• Less turbulence

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Figure 4.2 Pressurized Gating System

Figure 4.3 Un-Pressurized Gating System

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Riser:

ƒ Riser is a source of extra metal which flows from riser to mold cavity to compensate for
shrinkage which takes place in the casting when it starts solidifying.

ƒ Without a riser heavier parts of the casting will have shrinkage defects, either on the surface or
internally.

ƒ Risers are known by different names as metal reservoir, feeders, or headers.

Shrinkage in a mold, from the time of pouring to final casting, occurs in three stages.

1. During the liquid state

2. During the transformation from liquid to solid

3. During the solid state

ƒ Shrinkage during liquid state is being compensated by the feeders or the gating system.

ƒ To compensate for shrinkage during transformation from liquid to solid, risers are required.

ƒ Risers are normally placed at that portion of the casting which is last to freeze.

ƒ A riser must stay in liquid state at least as long as the casting and must be able to feed the
casting during this time.

Functions of Risers:

ƒ Provide extra metal to compensate for the volumetric shrinkage

ƒ Allow mold gases to escape

ƒ Provide extra metal pressure on the solidifying mold to reproduce mold details more exact

Design Requirements of Risers:

1. Riser size:

9 For a sound casting riser must be last to freeze.

9 The ratio of (volume / surface area)2 of the riser must be greater than that of the casting by
about 10 to 15%.

9 However, when this condition does not meet the metal in the riser can be kept in liquid
state by heating it externally or using exothermic materials in the risers.

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2. Riser placement:

9 The spacing of risers in the casting must be considered by effectively calculating the
feeding distance of the risers.

3. Riser shape:

9 Cylindrical risers are recommended for most of the castings as spherical risers, although
considered as best, are difficult to cast.

9 To increase volume / surface area ratio the bottom of the riser can be shaped as
hemisphere.

Types of risers:

ƒ Top or open riser and

ƒ Blind riser

Figure 4.4 Open and Blind riser

Top or Open riser:

ƒ The upper surface is open to the atmosphere

ƒ It is usually placed above the volume to be fed or at the parting surface of the mold.

ƒ Never extend downwards into the drag.

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ƒ The liquid metal in the riser is fed to the solidifying casting under the force of gravity and
atmospheric pressure till the top surface of the riser metal solidifies, thereafter, atmospheric
pressure remains ineffective and gravity is the only feeding force.

Blind riser:

ƒ It is surrounded by mold sand on all sides and

ƒ It is in the form of a rounded cavity in the mold placed at the side or top of the casting.

ƒ It may be located either in the cope or in the drag.

ƒ Since it is closed at its top and atmospheric pressure is ineffective, feeding is done only by
gravity.

ƒ In some improved designs, a vent or permeable core at the top of the riser is provided to have
some exposure to the atmosphere, otherwise the vacuum created between the top of the riser
and the liquid metal level in the riser may not permit proper feeding of the metal to the mold
cavity.

ƒ Sometimes, artificial pressure is created by putting some explosive substance in the riser
cavity.

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