Metal forming process

Classification of Metal working based on

temperature

Based on temperature
Hot working

Cold working

Warm working
Hot working

• In hot working process is carried out above re crystallization

temperature with or with out actual heating.
Cold Working

• When the material is deformed below recrystallization temperature.

The Grains are distorted

and elongated

• Warm Working
It is defined as the mechanical working of metal at a temperature between that
of Hot working and Cold Working. Ingot is the starting raw metal for all metal
working process.
general Classifications of metal forming

Rolling

Forging
Bulk
deformation Extrusion

wire drawing
Metal forming
Bending
operation
Sheet metal Deep drawing
working
Shearing
process
Miscellaneous
process
 What is metal forming?
Forming is the process in which the desired size and shape are obtained through the plastic
deformation of a material. The stresses induced during the process are greater than the
yield strength, but less than the fracture strength.

External force
Punch
Sheet metal
Dies
Bulk forming
• It is a severe deformation process resulting in massive shape change. The surface
area-to-volume of the work is relatively small. Mostly done in hot working
conditions.

Forging
Rolling
Extrusion
Drawing
 Bulk Deformation Manufacturing Processes
What is Bulk Deformation?
• Metal forming operations which cause
significant shape change by plastic deformation
in metallic parts are referred to bulk
deformation processes.
• In most of the cases cylindrical bars and billets,
rectangular billets and slabs, and similar shapes
are the initial shapes which are plastically
deformed in cold, warm or hot conditions into a
desired shape.
Bulk Deformation Manufacturing Processes
What is Bulk Deformation?
• Complex shapes with good mechanical properties can be produced by
bulk deformation processes. Following metal forming operations are
commonly referred to as bulk deformation processes.
1. Forging – The initial shape is squeezed and shaped between two
opposing dies.
2. Rolling – A slab or plate is squeezed between two rotating rolls to
reduce the height so as to produce thinner shapes like sheets
3. Extrusion – The initial shape is squeezed through a shaped die such that
the cross-section of the deformed part becomes similar to that of the die
opening.
4. Wire and bar drawing – The diameter of typical cylindrical bars or wires
is reduced by pulling it through a shaped die.
 Forging

The work piece is compressed between two dies containing shaped contours.
The die shapes are imparted into the final part.
Upper Die
Load

Billet

Lower Die
Types of forging

• Smith forging
• Drop forging
• Press forging
• Machine forging
Smith forging

• This is the traditional forging operation done openly or in open dies by the village
blacksmith or modern shop floor by manual hammering or by power hammers.
Drop forging

• This is the operation done in closed impression by means of drop hammers. Here
the force for shaping the component is applied in a series of blows
Press forging

Similar to drop forging , press forging is also done in closed impression dies with the
exception that the force is continuous squeezing type applied in a series of blows.
Machine forging

• Unlike the drop or machine forging where the material is drawn out, in machine
forging, the material is only upset to get the desired shape.
 Forging Defects
Though the forging process generally gives superior quality products compared to other manufacturing processes, still there are

some defects that are likely to come if proper care is not taken in the forging-process design. A brief description of such defects

and their remedial methods is given below:

• Unfilled Sections In this, some sections of the die cavity are not completely filled by the flowing metal. The causes of this

defect are improper design of forging die or using faulty forging techniques.

• Cold Shut This appears as a small crack at the corners of the forging. This is caused mainly by the improper design of the die

wherein the corner and fillet radii are small as a result of which the metal do not flow properly into the corner and ends up as

a cold shut.

• Improper Grain Flow This is caused by the improper design of the die, which makes the flow of metal not following the final

intended directions.
 Forging Defects
• Die Shift This is caused by the misalignment of the two die halves, making the two halves of the
forging to be of improper shape.

• Scale Pits This is seen as irregular depressions on the surface of the forging. This is primarily caused
because of the improper cleaning of the stock used for forging. The oxide and scale present on the
stock surface gets embedded into the finished forging surface.

• Flakes These are basically internal ruptures caused by the improper cooling of the large forging.
Rapid cooling causes the exteriors to cool quickly causing internal fractures. This can be remedied
by following proper cooling practice.
Design for Forging
1. Parting Plane

• A parting plane is the plane in which the two die halves of the forging meet.

• It could be a simple plane or irregularly bent, depending on the shape of the forging.

• The choice of a proper parting plane greatly influences the cost of the die as well as the grain flow in the

forging.

• In any forging, the parting plane should be the largest cross-sectional area of the forging, since it is easier

to spread the metal than to force it into deep pockets.

• A flat parting plane is more economical. Also the parting plane should be chosen in such a way that equal

amount of material is located in each of the two die halves, so that no deep die cavities are required.
Design for Forging

Depth of Impression
Figure. indicates two different orientations
of the same product for forging operation.
The preferred orientation of the part
would avoid deep impression that would
require high forging pressure for the
complete filling and might lead to die
breakages.
 Design for Forging
• Complex shapes with inclined
parting plane causes a sideward
thrust (towards the left) as shown
with an arrow.

• This sideward thrust may cause

misalignment of the two die halves.

• To take care of this, the counter

locking of the die is to be done.
 Design for Forging
• Whenever the counter lock is provided, care should be taken to see that enough resisting area is
provided, so that the sideward thrust generated is properly counter balanced.

• The thickness of counter lock should at least be 1.5 times the height for providing enough
strength.

• The height of the counter locking portion should at least be the same height as the forging detail
which causes the sideward thrust.

• The counter locked portions cannot be adequately lubricated and hence they wear out quickly,
and call for reworking of the dies.

• Therefore, it is necessary that counter locking of dies should be eliminated as far as possible.
 Design for Forging
• The elimination of counter locking can be done to a great extent by properly orienting the
forging in the die.

• The web in the example shown in Fig. (a) causes the sideward thrust for the chosen parting
plane. A slightly redesigned component as shown in Fig. (b) cannot be produced with a flat
parting line but calls for a counter locking as shown. But orienting the component (as shown in
Fig. (c)) so that the 90 degree angle is inclined to the parting line, makes for an easier forging of
the angle as well as reduces the counter locking completely.
 Design for Forging
2. Draft

• Similar to castings, it is necessary to provide draft on forging surfaces, which are at right angles to
the die movement.

• Internal surfaces require more draft than external surfaces.

• During cooling, forging tend to shrink towards its centre and as a result, the external surfaces are
likely to be separated, whereas the internal surfaces tend to cling to the die more strongly.

• The recommended draft angles are given as per the empirical relationships.
 Design for Forging
3. Fillet and Corner radii

• Forging involves the flow of metal in an orderly manner.

• Therefore, it is necessary to provide a streamlined path for the flow of metal so

that defect free forging is produced.

• When two or more surfaces meet, a corner is formed that restricts the flow of
metal.

• Therefore, these corners are to be rounded off to improve the flow of the metal.

• Fillets are for rounding off the internal angles, whereas corner is that of the
external angle.
 Design for Forging
3. Fillet and Corner radii

• For example, consider the flow of metal over a corner as shown in Fig. (a). Because of the large
corner radius provided, metal is allowed to flow smoothly into the pocket.

• But when the corner radius is small, or not provided, as in Fig. (b), the metal flow is first
hindered and when it enters finally the cavity, the metal would fold back against itself forming a
defect called lap or cold shut.
 Design for Forging
4. Shrinkage Allowance

• The forgings are generally made at a temperature of 1150 to 1300°C.

• At this temperature, the material gets expanded and when it is cooled to the atmospheric
temperature, its dimensions would be reduced.

• It is very difficult to control the temperature at which forging process would be complete,
therefore we need to precisely control the dimensions.

• Hence a shrinkage allowance is added on all the linear dimensions.

 Design for Forging
5. Die Wear Allowance

• The die-wear allowance is added to account for the gradual wear of the die which takes place with the use
of the die.

6. Finish Allowance

• Machining allowance is to be provided on the various forged surfaces, which need to be further
machined.

• The amount of allowance to be provided should account for, besides the accuracy, the depth of the
decarburized layer.

• Also, the scale pits that are likely to form on the component should also be removed during machining.
 Design for Forging
7. Cavities

• The cavities and ribs including holes can be produced up to a certain depth
only in drop forging.

• The main reason for the limitation is that the punch needs to have the
necessary strength to withstand the forging load.

• Thin, long punches are likely to wear out quickly and need reconditioning
of the die.
Rolling
Rolling is a metal forming process in which the thickness of the work is reduced by
compressive forces exerted by two rolls rotating in opposite direction. Flat rolling is
shown in figure. Similarly shape rolling is also possible like a square cross section is
formed into a shape such as an I-beam, L-beam

Flat rolling
Various flat –rolling and shapes of rolling process
Blooms are rolled into structural shapes like rails for
railroad tracks. It has a square cross section 150 mm x 150
mm or more.
 Slabs are rolled into plates, sheets, and strips. Hot rolled
plates are generally used in shipbuilding, bridges, boilers,
welded structures for various heavy machines, and many
other products
 It is rolled from an ingot or a bloom and has a rectangular
cross section of 250 mm width or more and thickness 40
mm or more.

 Billets are rolled into bars, rods. They become raw

materials for machining, wire drawing, forging,
extrusion etc.
 It is rolled from a bloom and is square in cross-section
with dimensions 40mm on a side or more
 Rolling of metals
• Rolling is the most rapid method of forming metal into desired shapes by plastic deformation in
between rolls.

Rolling is two types

• Hot rolling
• In hot rolling the metal is heated to plastic state and it is passed in between the
rollers which operated in the opposite direction.
Cold rolling

• In cold rolling the metal is not heated and it retains the shape given by the action
of rolls.
Anti clockwise direction of roller

clockwise direction of
roller
Rolling Defects
• Being a very high production and often automated process, it is
important to understand the likely defects in rolling and design
methods, to reduce or eliminate them.
• In order to understand the causes and remedies of rolling defects,
they may be divided into two classes:
Defects
Surface
Structural
Rolling Defects
These are mainly caused by the improper
preparation of the input material surface such as
Surface scales, rust and dirt. It may also be caused by the
formation of scales during the hot-rolling
operation.
Defects

These are more important and are caused by the

rolling process itself because of the uneven forces
acting on the material.
These are more difficult to eliminate.
Structural
the roll experiences a heavy load at the middle of the
part, while the two bearing supports keep it from
moving. As a result, the roll deflects in a manner as
shown in Fig.
Rolling Defects
These defects are caused
Wavy edges and zipper
due to bending of rolls
cracks
under the rolling pressure
Defects

Edge cracks and centre

split
Structural

Laminations

Alligatoring
 Rolling Defects

Wavy edges and

zipper cracks
These defects are caused
Defects

Edge cracks and due to non-homogeneous

centre split plastic deformation of
Structural metal across the width
Laminations

Alligatoring
 Rolling Defects

Wavy edges and

zipper cracks
Defects

Edge cracks and

centre split
Structural Laminations mean layers. If the ingot is not sound
and has a piping or blow holes and during
Laminations
rolling they do not get completely welded it will
cause a defect called laminations.
Alligatoring
 Rolling Defects

Wavy edges and

zipper cracks
Defects

Edge cracks and

centre split
Structural
Due to friction present between the roll surface and
Laminations the upper or lower workpiece surface, the
elongation on the top and bottom surfaces is less
than the deforming material at the centre of
Alligatoring
thickness. If conditions become severe, it may lead
to opening up at the free end of the rolled
sheet (like the mouth of an alligator) that is referred
to alligatoring
Design for Rolling
• To reduce the possible deformation of the work piece due to the
bending of the rolls, the rolls can be designed with camber as shown
in Fig., such that the rolled product will come out with uniform
thickness throughout, if the designer knows exactly the amount of
deflection for a given operation.
Extrusion

In this, the work piece is compressed or pushed into the die opening to take
the shape of the die hole as its cross section.

Container
Extruded
product
Wire or rod drawing

Similar to extrusion, except that the work piece is pulled through the die
opening to take the cross-section

Direction of
travel