MECHANICAL WORKING OF MATERIAL:

• Fundamentals of metal working

• Forging
• Rolling of metals
• Extrusion
• Drawing of Rods, wires and Tubes
• Sheet metal forming.

Fundamentals of Metal Forming

1. Classification of forming processes:- Useful shapes in metals may be generated in two
basic wags.
1. By “plastic deformation processes” in which the volume and mass of metal are
conserved and the metal is displaced from one location to another,
2. By “Metal removal or machining processes” in which material is removed in order to
give it the required shape.
Hundreds of processes have been developed for specific metal working applications.
However, these processes may be classified into only a few categories on the basis of
the type of forces.
Applied to the work piece as it is formed into shape.
These categories are :
1. Direct compression type processes :
In direct compression type processes the force is applied to the surface of the work
piece and the metal flows at right angles to the direction of the compression.
Eg : Forging and rolling.
2. Indirect compression processes :
Indirect compression include wire drawing and tube drawing, extrusion and the deep
drawing of a cup. The primary applied forces are frequently tensile, but the indirect
compressive forces developed by the reaction of the work piece with the die reach
 high values. Therefore the metal flows under the action of a combined stress state
which includes high compressive forces in atleast one of the principal directions.
3. Tension type processes :
The best example of a tension type forming process is stretch forming, where a metal
sheet is wrapped to the contour of a die under the application of tensile forces.
4. Bending processes :
Bending involves the application of bending moments to the sheet.
5. Shearing processes :
Shearing involves the application of shearing forces of sufficient magnitude to rupture
the metal in the plane of shear.
 Typical forming operation
The flow stress of the material will be the strong function of “strain, strain rate and
temperature.”

1. Mechanics of metal working : If a block of initial height h0 is compressed to h1 the

axial compressive strain will be

True strain :
h1
dh h h

h0
h
= ln 1 = − ln 0
h0 h1
h0  h1

Conventional strain :
h1 − h0 h1
e= = −1
h0 h0

The calculated strains will be negative, indicating compressive strain. However in

metal working problems it is common practice to reverse the convention so that
compressive stresses and strains are defined as “positive”. When using his convection
 we shall use the subscript C. Thus, the strain described above would be calculated
from
h0 h −h h
c = ln , ec = 0 1 = 1 − 1
h1 h0 h0

Metal working deformations frequently are expressed as reduction in cross-sectional

area. The fractional reductions is given by
A0 − A1
=
A0

From the constancy of volume relation,

A1L1 = A0 L0

A1 A
 = 1− or 1 = 1 − 
A0 A0

L1 A 1
 = ln = ln 0 = ln
L0 A1 1− 

2. Temperature in metal working :

→ Forming processes are commonly classified into “hot-working” and “cold-working”
operational.
→ “Hot-working” is defined as deformation under conditions of temperature and strain
rate such that recovery processes take place simultaneously with the deformation.
→ Cold working is deformation carried out under conditions where recovery processes
are not effective.
→ In hot-working the strain hardening and distorted grain structure produced by
deformation are very rapidly eliminated by the formation of new strain free grains as
the result of recrystallization.
→ Very large deformations are possible in hot working because the recovery processes
keep pace with the deformation.
→ Hot-working occurs at an essentially constant flow stress and because the flow stress
decreases with increasing temperature, the energy required for deformation is
 generally much less for hot -working than for cold-working. Since strain hardening is
not relieved in cold-working, the flow stress increases with deformation. Therefore,
the total deformation that is possible without causing fracture is less for cold-working
than for hot-working, unless the effects of cold-working are relieved by annealing.
→ The temperature of the work piece in metal working depends on
1. The initial temperature of the tools and the material.
2. Heat generated due to plastic deformation.
3. Heat generated by friction at the die / material interface and
4. Heat transfer between the deformation material and the dies and surrounding
environment.

(A) Hot-working :
→ Hot-working usually is carried out at temperature above recrystallization temperature
and at high strain rates in the range 0.5 to 500 s −1 .
→ The “hot torsion test” is a convenient laboratory method for studying metallurgical
changes in hot-working.

(B) Cold Working :

→ Cold working of a metal results in an increase in strength or hardness and a decrease
in ductility.
→ When cold working is excessive, the metal will fracture before reaching the desired
size and shape.
Therefore, in order to avoid such difficulties, cold working operations are usually
carried out in several steps, with intermediate annealing operations introduces to
soften the cold worked metal and restore the ductility. This sequence of repeated cold
working and annealing is frequently called the cold – work – anneal cycle.
 Typical variation of strength and ductility in the cold work anneal cycle
(C) Warm Working :
→ Warm working is the plastic deformation of a metal at temperature below the
temperature range for recrystallization and above room temperature.
→ If attempts to combine the advantages of both hot and cold working into the operation.
→ When compared hot working it offers the advantages of improved dimensional
control, higher quality surfaces and low energy costs.
Forging
→ Forging is the working of metals into a useful steps by hammering or pressing.
→ Two major classes or equipment are used for forging operations.
1. The forging hammer or drop hammer, deliver rapid impact blows to the surface
of the metal.
2. Forging press subjects the metal to a slow-speed compressive force.
→ The two broad categories of forging processes are “open-die forging” and “closed-die
forging”.
→ Open-die forging is carried out between flat dies or dies of very simple shape. The
process is used mostly for large objects or when the null of parts produced is small
often open-die forging is used to pre form the work piece for closed-die forging.
→ In closed die forging the work piece deformation between two die halves which carry
be impression of the desired final shape. The work piece is deformed under high
pressure in a closed cavity and thus precision forgings with close dimensional
tolerances can be produced.
It is important to use enough metal in the forging billet so that die cavity is
completely filled. Because it is difficult to put just right amount of metal in the correct
 place during fullering and edging, it is customary to use a slight excess of metal. When
dies come together to a finishing step, the excess metal squirts out the cavity as a thin
ribbon of metal called “flash”.

In order to prevent very large (wide) flash, a ridge, known as “flash gutter” is usually
provided.
→ The flash serves two purposes.
1. It acts as a “safety valve” for excess method in closed-die cavity.
2. The flash regulates he escape of metal and thus thin flash greatly increases the flow
resistance of the system so that pressure builds up to high values to ensure that
metal sills all recesses of the die cavity.
Forging pressure increases with decreasing flash thickness and increasing flash land
width.
22. Forging in plane strain :

Taking the equilibrium of forces in the x-direction

x h − ( x + d x ) h − 2xy dx = 0

d  x −2 xy
=
dx h

The von mises yield criterion for a condition of plane strain is given by
 2
1 − 3 = 0 = 0 '
3

Q 0 ' does not change with x1

dp d  x
=
dx dx

dp −2 xy
Then =
dx h

From coulomb’s low of sliding friction

 xy = p

dp −2p
=
dx h
dp −2
= dx
p h

Integrating both sides

−2x
ln p = + ln c
h

At x = a;  x = 0 then p = 10

 2 
 p = 0 'exp  (a − x) 
 h 

As the ratio of length to thickness   increases the resistance to compressive

L
→
h

deformation increases rapidly.

Distribution of normal stress and longitudinal stress for compression between plates.
Defects
Metal working
→ Forging defects :
1. Cold shut or fold
A cold shut is a discontinuity produced when two surfaces of metal fold against each other
without welding completely.
2. Flow lines or fiber structure
The deformation produced by forging results in a certain degree of directionality to the
micro structure in which second phases and inclusions are oriented parallel to the
direction of greatest deformation.
→ Rolling:

∆𝒉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝝁𝟐 𝑹

∆𝒉
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜶 = √ 𝑹

1. Waviness (lack of flatness), wavy edge or edge crack

2. Zipper breaks (cracks in the center of the sheet.)
3. Edge cracking, center split

4. Barreled edges
5. Alligatoring

→ Extrusion :
1. Lamination in the product.
2. Internal oxide stringers or internal pipe.
3. Fir – tree cracking (repetitive transverse cracking)
 4. Center burst, chevron cracking occur at low extrusion ratios.
→ Drawing of rods, wires and tubes :
1. The most common type of drawing defect is center burst or chevron cracking. This is
also called cupping.
Defects in formed parts :
1. Orange peeling (occurs in sheet metals of relatively large grain size)
2. Stretches strains or worms (low carbon sheet steel)
3. Earing (directionality)

NDT:
The most common types of non-destructive testing or inspection are :
(i) Radiography
(ii) Magnetic-particle inspection
(iii)Fluorescent-penetrant inspection
(iv) Ultrasonic inspection
(v) Eddy current inspection
(vi) Acoustic emission testing

(i) Radiography of metals :

The radiography of metals may be carried out by using X-rays or gamma-rays (short-
wavelength electromagnetic rays) capable of going through relatively large thicknesses of
metal.
A radiograph is a shadow picture of a material more or less transparent to radiation. The
X-rays darken the film so that regions of lower density which readily permit penetration
appear dark on the negative as compared with regions of higher density which absorb more
of the radiation.
While the radiography of metals has been used primarily for the inspection of
castings and welded products, it may also be used to measure the thickness of
materials.
(ii) Magnetic particle inspection :
This is a method of detecting the presence of cracks, laps, tears, seams, inclusions and
similar discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials such as iron and steel. The method will
detect surface discontinuities too fine to be seen by the naked eye and will also detect
discontinuities which lie slightly below the surface. It is not applicable to non-magnetic
materials.
Proper use of magnetizing methods is necessary to ensure that the magnetic field
set up will be perpendicular to the discontinuity and give the clearest indication.
The sensitivity of magnetic particle inspection is affected by many factors, including
(a) Strength of the indicating suspension.
(b) Time in contact with suspension
(c) Time allowed for indications to form
(d) Time subjected to magnetizing current and
(e) Strength of the magnetizing current.
(iii)Penetrant inspection :
This is a sensitive non-destructive method of detecting minute discontinuities such as
cracks, shrinkage and porosity that are open to the surface. While this method may be
applied to both magnetic and non-magnetic materials, its primary application is for non-
magnetic materials.
Penetrant techniques can be used for inspecting any homogeneous material that is not
porous, such as metals, glass, plastic and some ceramic materials.
(iv) Ultrasonic inspection : Ultrasonic is a fast, reliable non-destructive testing method
which employs electronically produced high frequency sound waves that will penetrate
metals, liquids and many other materials at speeds of several thousand feet per second.
Ultrasonic waves for non-destructive testing are usually produced by piezoelectric
materials.
Ultrasonic inspection is used to detect and locate such defects as shrinkage
cavities, internal bursts or cracks, porosity and large non-metallic inclusions. Wall
thickness can be measured in closed vessels or in cases where such measurement
cannot otherwise be made.
(v) Eddy current inspection : Eddy current techniques are used to inspect electrically
conducting materials for defects, irregularities in structure and variation in
composition.
In eddy current testing, a varying magnetic field is produced if a source of alternating
current is connected to a coil. When this field is placed near the test specimen capable
of conducting an electric current, eddy currents will be induced in the specimen. The
eddy currents, in turn, will produce a magnetic field of their own. The detection unit will
measure this new magnetic field and converts the signal into a voltage that can be read
on a meter or a cathode-ray tube. * Properties such as hardness, alloy composition,
chemical parity and heat treat condition influence, the magnetic field and may be
measured directly by a single coil.
An important use for eddy current testing is sorting material for heat treat variations or
composition mix-ups.
Eddy current testing may be used to defect surface and sub-surface defects, plate and
tubing thickness, and coating thickness.

Inspection When to use Where to use Advantages Limitations

method
Eddy Measuring Tubing and bar High speed, False indications
current variations in stock parts of non-cost act, result from
wall thickness uniform automatic many variables;
of thin metals or geometry, flat only good for
coatings; stock, or sheets conductive
detecting and wire. materials;
longitudinal limited depth of
seams or cracks penetration
in tubing;
determining
 heat treatments
and metal
compositions
for sorting.

Radiography Detecting Assemblies of Provides One energy

x-rays internal flaws electronic parts, permanent level per source;
and defects; casting, welded record on film; radiation hazard;
finding welding vessels; field works well on trained
flaws, cracks, testing of welds; thin sections; technician
seams, porosity, corrosion high sensitivity; needed; source
holes, surveys; fluoroscopy losses strength
inclusions, lack components of techniques continuously.
of fusion, nonmetallic available:
measuring materials adjustable
variations in energy level;
thickness.
Gamma Detecting Forgings, Defects variety High initial loss,
x-rays internal flaws, castings, of flaws, power source
cracks, seams, tubing’s, welded provides a required
holes, vessels, field permanent radiation hazard,
inclusions, weld testing welded, record, portable, trained
defects, pipe corrosion low initial cost, technicians
measuring serveys. source is small. needed.
thickness
variations.
Magnetic Detecting Only for Economical, Materials must
particle surface or ferromagnetic simple in be magnetic;
shalow materials, parts principle, easy demagnetizing
subsurface of any size, to perform, after testing is
flaws, cracks, shape portable, fast for required; power
 porosity, non- composition or production source needed;
metallic heat treatment. testing. parts must be
inclusions, and cleaned before
weld defects finishing.
Inspection When to use Where to use Advantages Limitations
method
Penetrant Locating surface All metals, Simple to apply, Limited to
cracks, porosity, glasses, and portable, fast, surface defects;
laps, cold shuts, ceramics, low in cost, surface must be
lack of weld castings, results easy to clean.
bond, fatigue , forgings, interpret no
and grinding machined part elaborate setup
cracks and cutting tools required.
field
inspections.
Ultrasonic Finding internal All metals and Fast, Requires contact
Pulse echo defects, cracks, hard non- dependable, or immersion of
lack of bond, metallic easy to operate, parts,
laminations, materials; lends Itself to interpretation of
inclusions, sheets; tubing automation, readings
porosity, rods, forgings, results of test requires
determing grain casting’s, field immediately training.
structure and and production known,
thicknesses. testing, in- relatively
service part portable, highly
testing brazed accurate,
and adhesive sensitive.
bonded joints

Casting Defects
 1. Shifts :
This is an external defect in a casting caused due to core misplacement or mismatching
or top and bottom parts of the casting usually at a parting line.
2. Warpage :
Warpage is unintentional and undesirable deformation in a casting that occurs during
or after solidification.
3. Fin : A thin projection of metal, not intended as a part of casting, is called the fin
mould’s and cores incorrectly assembled will cause fins.
4. Swell : A swell is a enlargement of mould cavity by metal pressure, resulting in
localized or overall enlargement of the casting. This is caused by improper and
defective ramming of the mould.
5. Blow holes : Blow holes are smooth, round holes appearing in the form of a cluster of
large number of small holes below the surface of a casting.
26. Blow holes are caused by
(i) Excessive moisture in the sand
(ii) When permeability of sand is low
(iii)Sand grains are too fine
(iv) Sand is rammed too hard and
(v) When venting is insufficient.
6. Drop :
A drop occurs when the upper surface of the mould cracks, and pieces of sand fall into the
molten metal.
7. Dirt :
Particles of sand and dirt are embedded in the casting surface.
8. Honey combing or sponginess :
This is an external defect consists of a null of small cavities in close proximity.
9. Metal penetration and rough surface :
Due to rough external surface of the casting.
10. Sand holes :
 These are caused by loose sand washing into the mould cavity and fusing into the
interior of the casting or rapid pouring of the molten metal.
27. 11. Pin holes :
Pin holes are numerous small holes, usually less than 2 mm.
12. Scabs:
Scabs are a sort of projection of the casting that occur when a portion of the face of the
mould or core lifts and metal flows underneath in a thin layer.
13. Shrinkage cavity :
Shrinkage cavity is a void or depression in the casting caused mainly by uncontrolled
and haphazard solidification of the metal.
14. Hot tears pulls :
They are internal or external cracks having ragged edges occurring immediately after the
metal has solidified.
15. Cold shut or misrun :
A cold shut is an external defect formed due to imperfect fusion of the streams of metal
in the mould cavity or unequal sections or pattern assembled together.
16. Poured short :
When the metal cavity is not completely filled at one pouring, the defect is called poured
short.
17. Internal air pocket :
This appears as small holes inside the casting and is caused by pouring boiling metal or
by rapid pouring of the molten metal in the mould.

𝑽 𝟐
𝒕 = 𝒌( )
𝑨

Defects in welds:
1. Cracks :
Causes :
i. Rigidity of the joint i.e. joint members not free to expand or contrast when subjected to
welding went and subsequent cooling.
ii. Poor ductility of base metal
iii. Hardenability,   and c + of base metal
2. Distortion :
Distortion is the change in shape and diffusion between the positions of the two plates
before welding and after welding.
3. Incomplete penetration :
Penetration is the distance from base plate top surface to the maximum extent of the
weld nugget.
4. Inclusions :
Inclusions may be in the form of slag or any other foreign material, which does not get a
chance to float on the surface of the solidifying weld metal and thus gets entrapped inside
the same.
5. Porosity, blow holes or gas packets :
Porosity is a group of small void’s where as blow hole or gas packets is a comparatively
bigger isolated hole or cavity. They occur mainly due to the entrapped gases.
6. Poor fusion :
Sometimes the molten metal deposited by the electrodes does not fuse properly with
the cold base metal and the two do not unite properly and completely.
7. Spatter :
Spatter are the small metal particles which are thrown out of the arc during welding
and get deposited on the base metal around the weld bead along its length.
8. Under cutting :
In under cutting a groove gets formed in the parent metal along the sides of the weld
bead groove reduces the thickness of the plate and thus the area along the bead, which
in turn weakens the weld.
9. Overlapping:
Overlapping is just reverse to under cutting. An overlap occurs when the molten metal
from the electrode flows over the parent metal surface and remains there without
getting properly fuse and united with the same.