The Involute Helicoid

and
The Universal Gear
Leonard J. Smith
tnvincible Gear Co., Livonia, MI.

lntroduction
A universal gear is one generated. by eliminate backlash by axial adjustment. Applying a taper to cylindrical spur
a common ra.ck on a cylindrical, con- In marine engine prop drives a tapered involute gears provides an additional
ical, or planar surface, and whose teeth gear is meshed witha. cylindrical spur or degree of freedom and results in a com-
can be oriented parallel or skewed. helical pinion to provide an angular plex, involute helicoid surface on the
centered. or offset with r1!Speet to its takeoff and/or to enable an optimum tooth flanks. Opposite flanks will have
axes. Mating gear axes can he parallel or placement for the engine . The taper gear equal, but opposite hands of helix. and
crossed. non-intersecting or i.ntersect- also allows several unusual gear meshes a common lead. (See Fig. 6.) The 'cylinw
in.g, skewed or parallel. and can have inthe mechanism of a well-known air- drical spur gear thus may be oonsidered
any angular orientation .. (See fig. 1.) craft gun and provides a lightweight a. special case of the involute helicoid
The tape!!'gear is a universal gear. It pro- reliable design in a minimum envelope. with zero taper. just as the cylindrical
vides unique geometric properties and Taper gears have found. a niche in spur gear may be considered a special
a range of applications unmatched by many commercial, and military applic.a- case of the involute helicoid with zero
any other motion transmission element. tions, but have not been widely em- helix; i.e., infinite Iead,
(See Fig. 2.) The tapergearcan be pro- braced by the general gear industry, Applying a taper to a cylindrical hel-
duced by any rack-type too] generator because of a requirement for special ical gear also provides an additional
or hobbing machine which has a means machines, and because of lack of infor- degree of freedom to a gear which is In-
of tilting the cutter or work axis and I or mation inthe literature. itiaUya simple involute helicoid with
c~rdinating simultaneous traverse and The taper gear concept providesa equal and parallel helices of the same
infeed motions. powerful tool to the geometer. and it is hand and common lead, and results in
Traditionally this has entailed the U~ hoped this article will encourage the ex- a. complex involute helicoid of com-
of proprietary or special machines - pansion of fundamental gear theory to, pound structure.
however, with the advent of numerical include this versatile machineelement in. The helix resultant of the taper is add-
control for axis synchronization, con- the basic gearing literature for wide- itive to the original helix. on one flank
ventional machines can be employed, spreadevaluaticn, and is reductive to the helix on the op-
These are the same machines used tor posite flank. There are: thus two, ,entirely
spur and helical gear generation. The lnvolute Heliooid different helix angles and differing leads
The taper gear provides features not The involute helicoid which is con- on opposite flanks. Relative magnitudes
attainable with any other type of gear. jugate to a straight-sided rack, when of helix andtaper determine whether
It raeritseensideration for what it can converted Ito a complex involute heli-
do, and it may well be the answer to a coid by the addition of a.taper, provides AUTHOR:
problem which heretofore has eluded the basis of a universal gear system.
satisfactory resolution. . The spur gear is the simplest form lEONARD J. SMITH is 'Vic~president of
embodying involute tooth surfaces. the lrJ'oindble Gear Co. With over a half-
century 0/ experience in precision
Application (See Fig. 4.) The helical gear adds ill hel- metrology and metalworking, he has
The tapa-gear has many familiar ap- ical twist to the surface which results in pioneered developments il1 mach ine design,
plications; for example, the gear shaper a simple involute helicoid ..(See Fig. 5.) numerical control, adaptive control, ser-
cutter. where the taper is employed to The involute helicoid has three major vomechanisms, electricaI discharge
machining, abrasive machining, engineer.
provide a relieved cutting edge. (See Fig characteristics: the involute in any
ing reprographics and archiving, and com·
3.) Another familiar application is the transverse section,a helix in any cylin- puter integratio1'!. He .Ms been active in
rack-and-pinion automotive steering drical section, and anaxvolute in any AGMA, ASME, SME, ASME-GRI, and
mechanism where a taper is used to axial section. other t.echnica.lassociations.
1B Gear Technology
 PARALLEL
Spur-
Hel ileal
Taper

INITERSECT ING
Bevel
T,apeol'

NON-~NTE:RSECTING
HVpoid
Worm
Taper

Fig. 1-Axes Orientation Fig. 4 - Spur Gear Toath - Zero Hel ieoid

'" I
,..,
..
,
/ I ,
I I \
I \
I

F"1I.2- Taper Gear Tooth fig. 5 - Helical Gear Tooth - Simple Helicoid

AXVOLUTE

INVOLUTE

Fig . .}- Shaper Cutter :Fig.6-SpurTaperGearTOOlh - Com pi x Helicold

Novem'berjDecem'berl,990 19
 the flank hands are the same or oppo-
sUe.
Myriad possibilities are available for
unlike profiles and leads for each flank,
including providing a spur flank on one
side and a helix on the other. Buttress
profiles and one way ratcheting as well
as back stopping are possible.
The axvolute is the key to the univer~
sality of the taper gear, since it provides
a three-dimensional cam or crowned
surface allowing complete freedom of
mesh conditions.
Comparison rig. 7 - Base Cone
The superficial resemblanceof the
taper gear toa bevel gear is misleading.
They are two distinct entities.
BEVEL GEAR. The bevel gear isgen-
erated from a conical surface. Its tooth
surfaces converge to a common .apex.
Each transverse section represents a
geometric reduction in a. progression
from back to front. Each section repre-
sents a diHe.rent diametral pitCh, and by
custom is referenced at the back cone.
(See Fig. 7 ..)The face 'Width is restricted
by the parameters of number of teeth
and cone angie •.since the width ,of the
rutting tool tip at IthefrQnt face becomes Fig. 8-Complementary Cones
a limit factor .. Conjugate bevel gears
must have the same diametral pitch at
their back cones, must be flush
matched, have complementarycone
angles equal to the sum of the :shaft
angle, and have a common apex. Tooth
elements in all sections have a common
angclardimension. (See .Fig..8.)
TAPER GEAR. The taper gear is
generated from a.cylindrical surface, the
base cylinder. All straight line gener~
atrices converge to a oommon origin on
a base plane tangent to this cylinder.
(See Fig. 9.)1 Angular symmetry of the
tooth does not exist, as each cross see- fig. 9-Base Cylinder
Han is a different angular value. since
each tooth section is smallerthaa its
predecessor, and its tooth space is cor-
respondingly larger. The taper ge.ar is
controlled by a tool traveling a constant
path parallel. tothe cone and produces
a. pitch. point at the center of equal
velocity which corresponds to the pitch
of the cutting teol, This is generally
referenced at the center of the face
width. (See Fig. 101.)
like all involute gears, the pitch and
pressure angle vary according to the di-
ameter ratio to the base circle. Each
cr'QSS section may be considered as a fig. 10 - Independent Cones
prome shift or addendu~ correction,
201 Gear Technology
Anoltlhe'r TOICCIO advantage":

Gra ien rofile Har _-ning

,(,alnadvanllceld IPlroce'ss for ge,ar h,ardening)
Substantial depth and ,extra IHigh hardness and residual
Cool Tips
hardeninga.t pi!tchline compressive stress

Cold Core

Pliog~almmedlPreheat (AF) Gradlen,t Plioflle Halidening IPaUelin

At last, .. there's a 'gear hardenlngprccess that The proprtstary TOCCO GPHI process employs reasonably
provides extra hardness/strengtih at the pitchline. and sized 200-300 IKW power supplies (AF & RF), 1m'this
,optimum strength gradient at the root linet - without advanced process. So'. you don't need to install an ,expen-
excessive hardening and brittleness at the tooth tip. sive substat,ion. as r,equired by older ,d'esign contour
'Gradient Profile Hardening, a new, hig!hly automated and hardening systems.
field proven process devel'o,ped by TOCCO. merges 3 GIPH also, Iprovides:
distinctive technologies: Programmed Preheat (AF -low
frequency), High Iintensity (RF - high frequency] and • Consistent reduced distortion
• Improved Metallurgy
Iincremental Hardening. This combination also results in
high residual compressive stress at the root fillet for • Higher Quali,ty
imprevad tooth bendingl fatigue strength. Finally. an • Lower instaJl'alion costs
• R.educed operatingl costs per part
induction temperingl operation assures proper level's of
hardness and toughness. All can be comprised lin a single, Tables shown indicate tooth" root and pitch line shear
compact, totalliy integrated manufacturing cell. str,engths with the 'GPHllprocess ..Wouldn't you'd likie'to see

_ -
these mechanicals for your gears?
Contact your TOCCO representative for detailed informa-
..........
nau:I U!iN.OJIi UI---'AII,."" ~
IftMI!IlJOO"TW '",",'T
,1I.IIiD,...,..yo
.~nI
1ITI'IR'Qi, IJItADlDn'
tion on 'GPH ... the most advanced, select!ive or surface
gear hardening/temperingl system availa'b'le ... anywhere ..
TOCCO, lne., Sales, Service and T,ec'hnology Center,
30100 Stephenson Highway, Madison Hts. IMI48071.
Phone 1-800-488-4932. In IMjchig~an313-399-8601. IFAX
31i3-399-.8603

....... - -~~~ .. -." . ,

CIRCLE A-21 ON READER REPLYCARD

 since each section employs a different
portion of the same involute.

r-tl
.As in all involute gears, this provides
the relationship of a. whole family of
racks capable of generating the profile
or of operational mesh at any diameter.

Machining Methods
--~~-f-~~hF*~ ~
CONVENTIONAL HOBBING. In
the conventional hobbing process, the I
basic rack, represented by the hob, tra-
verses the gear blank in a plane parallel
to the gear axis and at a fixed center
I.

Fig. 11- Spur Gear Hobblng

distance from the gear axis, and gener-
ates a spur gear in the simplest embodi-
ment. (See Fi~. 11.)
A helical gear can be generated by
skewing 'the ~o.rlto. the helix angle and
traversing along the axis of the rack
tooth. This is frequently 'termed oblique
hobbing and has the unique character-
istic of shifting the contact across the
rack. (See Fig. 12.)
The more common approach skews
the rack to the helix angle and requires
an additive rotational timing to produce
the helix, while traversing along the gear
axis. This method employs at fixed por-
tion of the rack for full generation. (See Fig. U - Helical Oblique Hobbing
fig. 13.)
These methods provide a constant
tooth thickness in any transverse plane,
Tooth thickness increase or decrease is
obtained through radial. infeed of the
rack or hob; i.e., a change in. their center
distance. Additional compensatory de-
vices could be employed to impart non-
uniform helix control ..
TAPER HOBBING. In tapered gear-
ing an. additional degree of freedom is
required: an angular relationship be-
tween the axis of the rack and work,
which provides a uniform rate of
change of center distance in relation to. Fig. 13 - Helical Skew Hobbing
the 'traverse of the face width. The radial
distance of the raek from the center line
of the work .is not constant, out dlmin-
ishes from the back face to the front
face. As aeonsequence, the tooth thick-
ness gradually decreases, (See Figs.
14-15.)
A tapered gear which is generated in
this manner has the superficialappear-
ance of a bevel gear, which it is not.
Each 'transverse section represents a
spur gearo] differing tooth thickness. In
digitally controlled machines it is possi-
ble to synchronize the traverse and in-
feeds as a step function to produce the Fig. 14 - Taper Hobbing - Till Work Axis
angular effect without requiring the
22 GearTeennolOQV
 added degree of freedom in the macmn ~
tool. The helix may be obtained byobli-
que orientation or by supplemental
timing.
TAPER SHAPING. By employing a
circular gear type cutter in place of the
rack for generation, the sam require-
ments and relations as in habbing ap-
ply. However, the resultant taper gear
>>>>> - wiU be substantially, but nctexactlv,
the same as its hobbed equjvalent.

Pig. 15 - Taper Hobbing - Taper Gear Geometry

Till Cutter Axis
BASK (SPUR) GEOMETRY. The
basic geometry of the spur taper gear
results ina complex involut,e helic~i.d.
The tilt of the cutting tool path. produces
a reduced transverse pressu~ angle
symmetrical on both sides of the tooth
and a symmetrical base circle for both
flanks. The tool traverse provides
reduced tooth thickness in each cross
section.
This uniform reduction is along a
constant helix and resullts in a constant
lead of the helicoid surface. It is evi-
dent that equal and opposite hand helix
angles are produced. (See fig. 16.)
Hg. 16-Spur Taper Gear BASIC (HELICAL) GEOMETRY.
The basic geometry of the helical taper
gear results ina. compound involute hel-
icoid. The tilt of the cutting tool path in
addition to the helix generation pro-
duces non-symmetricali Hanks 'on the
teeth and results in different base circles
for each side.
The opposing geometric influenoes.,
the conventional helix generation with
symmelricaJ parallel flanks and parallel
leads, and the action resu,lting from the
taper produces non~symmetry, the re-
sult of which is the compound helicoid,
On one flank the action of th taper
Fig. 17 - Helical Taper Gear produces an increased he1Jxangle and
reduced lead, and on the other fI~_k it
decreases the hel:ix..angle and increases
lne lead. (See Fig. 17.)'
UMIT ,GEOMETRY. The limit of a
taper gear is identical to ,that of any in-
volute of a circle constrained by an op-
posing involute ofopposi~e directionaJ
orientation. The involute becomes
pointed where the profile paths cross ..
(See Fig. IS,)'
for the spur taper gear this crossover
is ,equiangular from. the center line of the
tooth, In. the case 'ofa helical taper gear,.
there is no tooth symmetry, and the
Fia. 18 - Umil Geometry center of the tooth apex is the intersec-
tion of two opposing involutes struck
November/December 1990 2'.3
 from. two different base circles. The in- It would not take a great deal of im- the contact lines are indined to each
volute angles are obviously different foraginationto' envision automatic means other .. These linesare straight line
each flank. of takeup from thermaJ variations or elements representing contact with the
The other limit occurs at the base cir- even adjustment based en the load rack, but provide theoretical limited
de of the gear where generatien origi- envil'onment. contact at their intersection ..In eHect the
nates. If the generating too] operates in The minimum secondary benefit of tooth profile is crowned in both the pro--
at zone not defined by the involute, it the taper gear is that it provides for file and lead directions.
produces a degeneration of the desired manufacturing variation without com- Judicious use of mismatch in crown-
profile. This is the familiar undercut of promising the mesh or, conversely, ing can provide all the desirable
involute gears with low tooth number allows greater latitude in tolerancing characteristics of controlled crowning
and standard tooth proportions, both gears and housings. for dellection, mismatch, or load com-
TAPER ANGLE. For intersecting CONTACT. Each spur section of the pensation, enabling smooth transition
drives, the taper angle mayor may not taper gear is conjugate to the generating from no-load to load and avoiding 'the
be related to the ratio of the mesh .. rack. and contacts the rack continuously harmful effects of heavy end bearing.
They operateas lapelled cylindrical during its rotation. Henoe, the taper
gears and are independent of cone tooth is conjugate to the generating Taper Gear features
angles. (See Fig. 19.) rack. Contact between the taper gear COrvtMONAUTY. All gears gener-
For example, a 2:1 ratio set could tooth and the basic rack occurs along a ated hom the same basic rack have a
consist of both gears with 45" cone straight line common to the rack and common normal base pitch and are,
angles, or one could be 30 and its mate the taper tooth, and this contact line is
Q
therefore, conjugate to each other no
,60,0, or any other combination deemed inclined. against the pitch plane of the matter what the 'taper inclinalion or
suitable. There are, of course, some rack. (See Figs. 21-22.) helix angle of an. individual gear.
preferred approaches, but anything is If two taper gears are meshed at a. UNIVERSAUTY. With unlimited
possible. There is no requirement that shaft angle equal to. the sum of the angIe selection for prOViding motion
cone angles intersect at a common apex. generating angles, a hypothetical rack control between any two places in space
This allows multiple takeoffs from a surface .of zero thickness may be as- at any ratio, these gears have the most
common gear at various angles. (See sumedas existing between the meshing universal application of any motion
Fig. 20.)' gears. This hypothetieal rack surface 'transmission device extant. In. parallel
Taper gears operate on pitch meshes with both component parts applications optimized involute length
cylinders not pitch cones ..It is obvious which are contacted along two strnight, and helical overlap provide E·oI' max-
that as cone angles.increase, the relative non-parellel lirtes on opposite sides of imized power in a given face width.
face width usable must decrease for a the rack surface. At the point of inter- lNTERCHANGEABIUTY. Taper
given number of teeth, since the limit section of the two contact lines, simul- gears are interchangeablewithout re-
conditions of apex and undercut are met taneous contact exists between each quirement for matching or provision for
ata faster rateof change. taper gear and the rack. and, therefor~, pairs or sets. Because of variation insen-
HELIX ANGLE. Infinite selection of also' between the two taper gears. sitivity, the only moults of mismatch are
helix. angles is also permissible in cross If the rack surfaceis ignored, it may slight bacldash differences whi.ch can. be
axes ,orientation so long as the sum is be concluded that mating gears of this compensated for by axial shift ..Off-the-
correct. For parallel axis operation the character which mesh at non-parallel shelf gear replacement is possible even
taper provides a third variable for max- axes are conjugate to each other, but in the most demanding application.
imizing contact ratio and allows reduc- contact only at a point which travels, as Taper gears are subject to the same in-
tion in face width for equivalent loading the gears rotate, on the tooth surfaces spection procedures used for spur and
toa conventional helical gear. and through space. If thecone angle is helical gears. They can be inspected for
The combinafion of high cone angle small, the tapered gears approach spur all elements, such as involute, lead,
and high helix angle provides a unique gears,a~dthe contact approaches line spacing, runout, and pitch, as weD as
design opportunity, since the high helix contact. (See Fig..23.) for composite operation with single or
increases the virtual number of teeth Contact may range from line contact double flank inspection ..
and allows increased cone angle with- with a rack or parallel axis mounting to, NOISE REDUCIBIliTY. In parallel
out exceeding limits of apex and point contact on cross axes similar to so- gears all the parameters for successful
undercut. called spiral gears ..Separation of pitch reduction of dynamic variations are
CENTER DISTANCE MATCH. The planes is possible, providing all the lee- available for optimizing. High profile
ta.per gear has the conventional advan- way for matching centers and ratios in- contact ratio, helical overlap, and
tage of ,employing slight changes in helix herent in those gears, with theaddi- variable addendum with progression
angles to provide a given.center distance tional feature of backlash takeup, from all-recess to all-approach action,
while employing standard tools and CROWNING. lneommen with ell pmvide the tools from pursuing mini-
tooth proportions. involute heliceids, the line of contact is mum noise design. Cross-axis .applica-
Taper gears provide even greater ad- inclined across the face of the rack. Full tion tends to be naturally quieter as a
vantage by allowing ax,ial change of face contact is obtained by parallel consequence of less dynamic variation
position to accomodate variations in mounting in an anti-backlash mode. due to the natura] crowning effect.
center' distance or for adiustmeru of Angular mesh provides a meshing angle MESH lNSENSlTIVITY. The three-
backlash in over- or undersize centers. equal to the sum of the taper angles, and dimensional curvature of the taper gear
24 Gear Technology
Hg.l'9-Cone/Taper Independence

Fig. 22 - Line of Contact - Taper Gear

fig. 2O-Angle Independence

Fig. 21-line of Contact - Spur/Helical Fig. 23 - Line of Contact - Non-parallel Axes

November/December 1990 25
 Al<vgjute

Fig. 24- Angular Insensitivity - Axvolute Mesh Fig. 28 - Parallel

Fig. 25 - Position Insensitivity Fig. 29- Spur

•• U u;a'
'," .020'
r .,. n u2 i1

.,. 25,·
'/
.\t r'\.
ec
...... ,
t-,;]-.,. t....
'I': 1"'-
~
Q
r
.000 001 002 QCli .CIOIi DQI. OCIIII dOf 001 .DOI 010
I ""~ ~III, It"l r '.i I'''' t '. 1.1Jt.i llUt !:tII1 I ;r'"

Fig. 26 - Backlash Insensitivity Fig. 3D-Helical

Hg.17-Rack Fig. 31- Multiple

26 Gear Techno,logy
 tooth results in a remarkable ability Ito
resolve angular misalignment, axis
skew, deflection, twist, and positional
mismatch without affecting conjugate
action. The only requirement for mesh
is a common base pitch. (See Fig. 24.)
Positional mismatch is limited only
by the tight mesh condition, which can
be relieved bya simple axial shift of
either member. (See Fig. 25).
BACKLASH CONTROL. An out-
standing feature of taper gears is their
ability to be set for minimum. backlash
Fig. 32-Skew many mode by axial adjustment of one
member to take up play, without affect-
ingcenter distance or mesh integrity.
For parellel-axis mode, the taper angle
can be selected to provide any d~ of
sensitivity ..(See Fig. 26.)
Precision differentials have been con-
strueted to pr,ovide zero backlash and
essentially zero lost motion transfer be-
tween input and output shafts. (See Fig.
34.)
UNUMJTED ORlENTAHON. Ta~
per gears can be employed on intersect-
ing or non-intersecting axes, parallel or
non-parallel, and any ,angle of orienta-
Fig. 33- Taper Wonn
tion. (See figs ..27-35.)

Conclusi.on
Given 'the remarkable geometric pro-
perties accruing from this simple con-
ceptual change in basic gearing fun-
damentals/combined with the
availability of axis-synchronized
machine tools, the taper gear provides
a new tool to the general gearing
industry.
Note: Taper gears are generally referred to as
"Beveloids" in the literature, however. ,this a
r gistered trademark of Invincible Gear.

Re1erences:
1. BEAM, A.S."Beveloid Gearing."
Fig. 34-Worm Machine Design, Dec. 1954.
2. MAY, l.I, Gear Des.ign for Tapered
Inuolute and RaCKand Pinion Steer~
ing Gears, Ford Motor Co., 1982.
3. MERRITT, H.E. Gears, 3rd edit.,
Isaac Pitman and Sons, Ltd., 1954.
4. VOGEL W.F. - IntJolutometry Qnd
Trigonometry, Michigan Tool Co.,
1945 ..
Acknowledgements: Printed with permissiO'l of
the copyright holder. the American Gear
Mal1ufactuiw5 Association. The opinions,
statements Il1'Idconclusion presented intire paper
are those of the Au thor aJld In 11.0way rep.resent
,the position or opinion .of the AMERlCAN
GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOC1ATION.

Fig. JS - Differential Zero Backlash Our thanks to MR. WlLUAM L. JANNlNC1( for
wilh' the technical editing .of this article.
'l55istll1'l£:e

NovemberIDecember 199027