Solution for International Youth Math Challenge Solver: Bassel Hamada Ibrahim

International Youth Math Challenge

Solver: Bassel Hamada Ibrahim

Problem A.1
You are given the function f : R → R and the family of functions gn (x) : R → R:
x
f (x) = x and gn (x) = + 2n .
n
Determine the distances from the points of intersection between f and gn to the origin.

Solution
To find the points of intersection between f (x) and gn (x), we solve the equation:
f (x) = gn (x),
which means:
x
x= + 2n .
n
Rearranging terms:
 
x 1
x − = 2n ⇒ x 1− = 2n .
n n
Simplify the left-hand side:
2n 2n n · 2n
x= = = .
1 − n1 n−1
n
n−1
Thus, the x-coordinate of the intersection point is:
n · 2n
x= .
n−1
Since f (x) = x, the point of intersection is:
n · 2n n · 2n
 
, .
n−1 n−1
The distance from this point to the origin is calculated using the Euclidean distance
formula: p
d = x2 + y 2 .
n·2n
Substituting x = y = n−1
:
s 2  2
n · 2n n · 2n
d= + .
n−1 n−1
Simplify: s 2
n · 2n √

n · 2n
d= 2· = · 2.
n−1 n−1
Solution for International Youth Math Challenge Solver: Bassel Hamada Ibrahim

Conclusion
Final Answer
The distance from the points of intersection to the origin is:
n · 2n √
d= · 2.
n−1
This formula is valid for n > 1.

Problem A.2
Find the derivative f ′ (x) of the following function with respect to x:
r q p
f (x) = sin(x) + cos(x) + tan(x).

Solution
We want to differentiate
r q p
f (x) = sin(x) + cos(x) + tan(x) .

Define p p
h1 (x) = cos(x) + tan(x), and h2 (x) = sin(x) + h1 (x).
p 1
Then f (x) = h2 (x) = (h2 (x)) 2 .

Step 1: Differentiate the outer square root

By the chain rule,
1
f ′ (x) = p h′2 (x).
2 h2 (x)

Step 2: Differentiate h2 (x)

p
h2 (x) = sin(x) + h1 (x) ,
so
d hp i
h′2 (x) = cos(x) + h1 (x) .
dx
Solution for International Youth Math Challenge Solver: Bassel Hamada Ibrahim

p
2a. Derivative of h1 (x)

d 1
(h1 (x))1/2 = p h′1 (x).

dx 2 h1 (x)

Now, p
h1 (x) = cos(x) + tan(x),
hence
d p sec2 (x)
h′1 (x) = − sin(x) +

tan(x) = − sin(x) + p .
dx 2 tan(x)
Thus,

d 1 sec2 (x) 
q p 

cos(x) + tan(x) = q − sin(x) + p .
dx p 2 tan(x)
2 cos(x) + tan(x)

2b. Combine into h′2 (x)

1 sec2 (x) 

h′2 (x) = cos(x) + q − sin(x) + p .
p
2 cos(x) + tan(x) 2 tan(x)

Step 3: Combine to get f ′ (x)

Since
1
q p
′
f (x) = p h′2 (x), where h2 (x) = sin(x) + cos(x) + tan(x).
2 h2 (x)

we substitute:
sec (x) 2
− sin(x) + √
1 h 2 tan(x)
i
f ′ (x) = r q × cos(x) + q p .
p
2 sin(x) + cos(x) + tan(x) 2 cos(x) + tan(x)

Final Answer

sec (x) 2
− sin(x) + √
1 h2 tan(x)
i
f ′ (x) = r q · cos(x) + q p .
p
2 sin(x) + cos(x) + tan(x) 2 cos(x) + tan(x)
Solution for International Youth Math Challenge Solver: Bassel Hamada Ibrahim

Problem B.1
(a) Determine the probability for a short sequence of k digits1 to occur in a longer
sequence of n randomly selected digits.
(b) The digits of π appear to be randomly distributed. How many digits of π are needed
to expect the sequence 9876543210 with 50% probability?
(c) The sequence of digits 9876543210 first appears in π starting at the 21,981,157,633rd
decimal place. Is this finding expected?

Solution
(a) Probability of a k-digit sequence in n digits
We assume each digit among n is chosen uniformly at random from {0, 1, 2, . . . , 9}. Let
S be the specific k-digit sequence. There are (n − k + 1) possible starting positions in an
n-digit string (assuming n ≥ k), and each has probability 10−k of matching S. Thus, the
expected number of occurrences of S is

λ = (n − k + 1) 10−k .

Under the Poisson approximation for rare events,

P (at least one occurrence) ≈ 1 − e−λ .

Hence, the approximate probability that S appears at least once is

h i
P ≈ 1 − exp −(n − k + 1) 10−k .

(b) Number of digits of π needed for a 50% chance

Now let k = 10, with the sequence S = “9876543210”. Suppose we examine N digits of
π. The expected number of occurrences is

λ = (N − 10 + 1) × 10−10 .

We want a 50% probability of at least one occurrence, i.e. 1−e−λ = 0.5. Solving e−λ = 0.5
gives λ = ln(2). Thus,

(N − 9) 10−10 = ln(2) =⇒ N = 9 + ln(2) × 1010 .

Since ln(2) ≈ 0.693, we get

N ≈ 9 + 0.693 × 1010 ≈ 6.93 × 109 .

Therefore, we need about 6.93 billion digits of π to have a 50% chance of seeing the
sequence “9876543210.”
Solution for International Youth Math Challenge Solver: Bassel Hamada Ibrahim

(c) First actual occurrence in π

The given fact is that “9876543210” first appears at the 21,981,157,633rd digit of π.
Although this is larger than ∼ 6.93 × 109 , it is not implausible due to the high variability
in the waiting time for a rare event. Even if the median is around 7 × 109 , the actual first
occurrence may come much earlier or much later. Observing the sequence at ∼ 2.2 × 1010
is still consistent with a random distribution of digits.

Final Answers
Conclusion
The probability that a k-digit sequence occurs in n random digits is approximately:
h i
P ≈ 1 − exp −(n − k + 1) · 10−k .

For part (b), we found that 6.93·109 digits are needed for 50% probability, and part
(c) confirms that the observed position is within the plausible range for random
behavior.

Problem B.2
Solution for International Youth Math Challenge Solver: Bassel Hamada Ibrahim

Solution
1. Outer Circle Radius and Area
We know the outer circle has circumference
C
C = 2πR =⇒ R = .
2π
Hence, the area of the outer circle is
2
C2

2 C
πR = π = .
2π 4π

2. Smaller Circles: Radius and Sum of Areas

Each smaller circle has radius 12 R. Therefore:
 2
R πR2
(Area of one small circle) = π = .
2 4
Since there are three identical small circles, their total area is
πR2 3πR2
3× = .
4 4

3. Distance Between Centers and Pairwise Overlaps

The centers of the three small circles lie on a circle of radius R2 around the big circle’s
center, equally spaced 120◦ apart. The distance d between the centers of any two small
circles is given by the chord formula
√
120◦ 
  
R R 3
d = 2 sin = .
2 2 2
R
Each small circle has radius r = 2
.

Pairwise Overlap Area. When two circles of radius r have center–center distance d,
their pairwise “lens” overlap area is given by
d d√ 2
A∩ = 2r2 cos−1 − 4r − d2 .
2r 2
(See Circle–Circle Intersection
√
references in the Bibliography.)
R R 3
Substitute r = 2 and d = 2 . Then
√
R 3
√ √  π
d 3
= 2
R
= , cos−1 23 = .
2r 2× 2 2 6

A straightforward evaluation shows

√ !2 √ 2
v
 2 √ u  2
R 3
R π 2
u R R 3 πR2 3R
A∩ = 2 · − t4 − = − .
2 6 2 2 2 12 8
Solution for International Youth Math Challenge Solver: Bassel Hamada Ibrahim

Since there are three pairs of small circles, the total pairwise overlap (summed over all
pairs) is
√ 2! √
πR2 3R πR2 3 3 R2
3 A∩ = 3 − = − .
12 8 4 8

4. No Triple Overlap Area

All three small circles pass through the center of the big circle, and that point is exactly
on each small circle’s boundary. Consequently, the triple intersection is just one point,
which has zero area.

5. Union of the Three Smaller Circles: Inclusion–Exclusion

Denote the three small circles by S1 , S2 , and S3 . By the Inclusion–Exclusion Principle,
3
X X
|S1 ∪ S2 ∪ S3 | = |Si | − |Si ∩ Sj | + |S1 ∩ S2 ∩ S3 |.
i=1 1≤i<j≤3

Hence:
√ ! √
πR2 πR2 3 3 R2 πR2 3 3 R2
|S1 ∪ S2 ∪ S3 | = 3 − − + 0 = + .
4 4 8 2 8

6. Subtract to Find the “White” (Uncovered) Area

The entire area of the large circle is πR2 . Therefore, the uncovered region is
2
√ 2! √
2 πR 3 3R πR2 3 3 R2
πR − + = − .
2 8 2 8

C
Since R = 2π
, we have
2
C2

2 C
R = = .
2π 4π 2
Thus, multiplying out,
√
πR2 3 3 R2 C2  π √ 
3 3 C2 √

Uncovered (White) Area = − = − = 4π − 3 3 .
2 8 4π 2 2 8
32π 2

Final Answer:
√
πR2 3 3 R2 C2 √

Uncovered Area = − = 4π − 3 3 .
2 8 32π 2
Solution for International Youth Math Challenge Solver: Bassel Hamada Ibrahim

Numerical Check
For confidence, set R = 2. Then the outer circle’s area is 4π ≈ 12.5664. Each smaller
√ has radius 1 and area π ≈ 3.1416. The distance between each pair of smaller
circle √ centers
is 3 ≈ 1.732. By the standard lens formula, two unit circles separated by d = 3 overlap
in area
√
√
√ √ π 3
2 −1 3 3
A∩ ≈ 2 × 1 cos 2
− 2 4−3 = − ≈ 1.0472 − 0.8660 = 0.1812.
3 2
Triple that (for three pairs) is 0.5436. So the union of the three small circles is

3 × π − 0.5436 = 3π − 0.5436 ≈ 9.4248 − 0.5436 = 8.8812.

Hence uncovered area in the big circle is 12.5664 − 8.8812 = 3.6852. Our closed-form
formula for R = 2 gives
√ √
π(22 ) 3 3(22 ) 12 3
− = 2π − ≈ 6.2832 − 2.598 = 3.6852,
2 8 8
which exactly matches.

Conclusion
By placing three smaller circles of radius R2 at 120◦ intervals around the center of
the outer circle (radius R), the total area of these smaller circles can be obtained
using the Inclusion–Exclusion Principle and the standard circle–circle intersection
formula. The uncovered (white) region in the large circle turns out to be:
√
πR2 3 3 R2 C2 √

White Area = − = 4π − 3 3 ,
2 8 32π 2
C
where R = 2π
is determined by the given circumference C.

Problem C.1
You are given three “diagonal” sequences of numbers (left, middle, and right). They are
arranged so that each row shows three values, forming partial diagonals rather than a
simple rectangle. The numbers proceed as follows:

Left Middle Right

1 1 2
2 3 4
5 7 10
12 17 24
29 41 58
··· ··· ···

The problem states:

Solution for International Youth Math Challenge Solver: Bassel Hamada Ibrahim

(a) For each sequence (left, middle, right):

(i) Find a recursive relation using numbers from the row above.
(ii) Find a recursive relation within that same sequence alone.

(b) Write a direct (nonrecursive) formula for the n-th term of each sequence.

(c) Let an and bn be the n-th terms of the left and middle sequences. Which number
does bn /an approach as n grows large? Explain.

Solution
(a)(i) Using the Row Above. If we label each row n as (an , bn , cn ), we notice:

an+1 = an + bn , bn+1 = bn + cn , cn+1 = bn+1 + bn .

For example, to get a3 = 5, we add a2 = 2 and b2 = 3.

(a)(ii) Within Each Sequence Alone. Surprisingly, each column (the left, middle,
or right diagonal) follows the same rule:

xn+2 = 2 xn+1 + xn .

Checking real values:

5 = 2 · 2 + 1, 7 = 2 · 3 + 1, 10 = 2 · 4 + 2, . . .

(b) A Direct (Nonrecursive) Formula. We solve xn+2 = 2 xn+1 + xn by finding

that each term can be written using the numbers
√ √
(1 + 2)n and (1 − 2)n .

The final forms (using different initial conditions) turn out to be:
√ √ √ √ √ 
(1 + 2)n − (1 − 2)n (1 + 2)n + (1 − 2)n 2 √ n √ n
an = √ , bn = , cn = (1+ 2) −(1− 2) .
2 2 2 2

Each sequence just has its own coefficients based on the first two terms.
√ √
(c) The Ratio bn /an . Notice that |1 − 2| < 1, so √ ( 1 − 2 )n becomes very small
when n is large. Both an and bn are dominated by (1 + 2)n . The exact ratio settles to

bn √
lim = 2.
n→∞ an

√
“grow like” (1 + 2)n , so their fraction is a constant in the
Intuitively, bn and an both √
limit, and that constant is 2.
Solution for International Youth Math Challenge Solver: Bassel Hamada Ibrahim

Conclusion
Key Results

• Recurrence (within each diagonal): xn+2 = 2xn+1 + xn .

√ √ √ √
2)n −(1− 2)n (1+ 2)n +(1− 2)n
• Nonrecursive forms: an = (1+ √
2 2
, bn = 2
, cn =
√ 
2
√ √ 
2
(1 + 2)n − (1 − 2)n .
√
• Ratio limit: limn→∞ abnn = 2.

Problem C.2
Given Article: On the Distribution of φ(σ(n)), Dixit, A. B., Bhattacharjee, S. Elec-
tronic Journal of Combinatorial Number Theory (2024).

(a) Compute the numerical values of φ(8), σ(12), and φ(σ(18)).

(i) Computing φ(8). Recall that the Euler totient function φ(n) is defined as
Y 1
φ(n) = n 1− ,
p
p|n

where the product is taken over all prime divisors p of n. For n = 8, we note that

8 = 23 ,

hence the only prime divisor is p = 2. Therefore,

 
1 1
φ(8) = 8 1 − = 8 × = 4.
2 2

Thus, φ(8) = 4.

(ii) Computing σ(12). The sum-of-divisors function σ(n) is defined by summing

all positive divisors d of n. That is,
X
σ(n) = d.
d|n

For n = 12, its positive divisors are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12. Consequently,

σ(12) = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 6 + 12 = 28.

Hence, σ(12) = 28.

Solution for International Youth Math Challenge Solver: Bassel Hamada Ibrahim

(iii) Computing φ(σ(18)). First we determine σ(18). Its positive divisors are
1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18. Summing these gives

σ(18) = 1 + 2 + 3 + 6 + 9 + 18 = 39.

We next apply the Euler totient function to σ(18) = 39. Note that

39 = 3 × 13,

so its prime divisors are 3 and 13. Using

  
1 1
φ(n) = n 1 − 1− ...
p1 p2

for its distinct prime divisors pi , we obtain

  
1 1 2 12 2 12
φ(39) = 39 1 − 1− = 39 × × = 39 × × = 24.
3 13 3 13 3 13

Thus, φ(σ(18)) = φ(39) = 24.

(b) Explain in your own words the statement of Theorem 1 in the article.

Overview. Theorem 1 examines how large the quantity φ(σ(n)) can be relative to n,
for n up to some bound x. In other words, it counts how often φ(σ(n)) reaches a certain
fraction of n and shows that such cases are scarce.

1. Setting the stage with a constant c > 0.

We fix any positive constant c and look at integers n for which

φ(σ(n)) ≥ c n.

The theorem focuses on how many such n ≤ x can exist, as x grows large.

2. Bounding the number of “large” values.

In symbolic form, define the set

Sc (x) = { n ≤ x | φ(σ(n)) ≥ c n}.

Theorem 1 provides an upper bound for |Sc (x)|, stating something like

π2 x
|Sc (x)| ≤ + (an error term with iterated logs),
6 c log4 (x)

where log4 (x) refers to applying the logarithm multiple times.

3. Interpretation:
Because dividing by log4 (x) (and further iterated logarithms) grows very slowly, this
shows that only a relatively small proportion of integers up to x satisfy φ(σ(n)) ≥
c n. In other words, most n ≤ x do not get that high.
Solution for International Youth Math Challenge Solver: Bassel Hamada Ibrahim

4. Consequence for most integers:

Except for a set of integers of size around
 
O log logx log x ,

every n ≤ x fulfills φ(σ(n)) < c n. Because c was arbitrary, this effectively says
that φ(σ(n)) hardly ever comes close to n itself.

5. Conclusion:
Theorem 1 characterizes the distribution of φ(σ(n)) relative to n. While φ(σ(n))
can occasionally be a sizable fraction of n, those cases are rare, and for the vast
majority of integers, φ(σ(n)) remains well below n.

Solution to (c)
Statement to Prove: Show that the number of integers n ≤ x for which σ(n) is odd is

log log x
#{ n ≤ x : σ(n) is odd} ≤ α · for some α > 0 and x > 9.
log x1/x
1
Note that log x1/x = x
log x, so

log log x log log x x log log x

1/x
= 1 = .
log x ( x ) log x log x

Therefore, we wish to show

x log log x
#{ n ≤ x : σ(n) is odd} ≤ α · , for some constant α > 0.
log x

1. Characterization of When σ(n) is Odd

A well-known fact is:

σ(n) is odd ⇐⇒ n can be written as n = 2a m2 (for nonnegative integers a and integer m ≥ 1).

Reasoning: If n = pα1 1 pα2 2 · · · pαk k is the prime-factorization of n, then

k
Y
1 + pi + p2i + · · · + pαi i .


σ(n) =
i=1

For σ(n) to be odd, each factor in the product must be odd. If pi is odd, then (1 +
pi + p2i + · · · + pαi i ) is odd precisely when αi is even. Meanwhile, if pi = 2, the sum
1 + 2 + · · · + 2αi = 2αi +1 − 1 is always odd for any αi ≥ 0. Hence, every odd prime in
the factorization must appear to an even exponent. That means the odd-part of n is a
perfect square, while the power of 2 is unrestricted. Hence, n = 2a m2 .
Solution for International Youth Math Challenge Solver: Bassel Hamada Ibrahim

2. Counting Such n ≤ x
We need to count how many integers of the form 2a m2 lie below or equal to x. That is,

2a m2 ≤ x.

For a fixed a, this implies

r
x
2 x
m ≤ a =⇒ m ≤ .
2 2a
a
p each nonnegative integer a such that 2 ≤ x, the integer m can range from 1
Hence for
up to ⌊ x/2a ⌋.

Summation Over Possible a

Denote A = ⌊log2 x⌋, the largest exponent a such that 2a ≤ x. Then
A
X p
#{n ≤ x : n = 2a m2 } =

x/2a .
a=0

A crude upper bound is

A r ∞ ∞  a
X x √ X 1 √ X 1 √ 1 √
a
≤ x a/2
= x √ = x · 1 = C x,
a=0
2 a=0
2 a=0
2 1 − √
2

where C > 0 is some fixed constant (independent of x).

√ x log log x
Comparing x to log x

We claim that for sufficiently large x (e.g. x > 9),

√ x log log x
x ≤ α
log x
for a suitable constant α > 0. Indeed, rearranging yields
√ √
x x log x log x
= = √ → 0 as x → ∞.
x / log x x x
√
So for large enough x, one can choose α such that x ≤ α x log log x
log x
. Hence
√ x log log x
#{ n ≤ x : σ(n) is odd} ≤ C x ≤ (C α) .
log x
Putting α′ = C α (still just a constant), we establish the required inequality:
x log log x log log x
#{ n ≤ x : σ(n) is odd} ≤ α′ = α′ , for some α′ > 0.
log x log x1/x

Conclusion
√

Thus we have shown that the count of n ≤ x with σ(n) odd is O x , and this is indeed
bounded above by a term of the form α log log x
log x1/x
for any x > 9. This completes the proof.
Solution for International Youth Math Challenge Solver: Bassel Hamada Ibrahim

Solution to Part (d)

Given Statement. Let k > 0 be fixed. Suppose
Y
p σ(n).
√
p≤ k n
√
That is, every prime p with p ≤ k
n divides σ(n). We want to show

σ(n)
φ σ(n) < k · .
log n
√
Proof Idea. Since all the primes p ≤ k n appear
Y in the
factorization of σ(n), the Euler
totient formula forces a product of the form 1 − p1 to appear within φ(σ(n)). By
√
k
p≤ n
classical estimates (e.g. Mertens’ formula), p ≤ x (1 − p1 ) is on the order of ln1x . Taking
Q
√
x = k n yields ln x = k1 ln n. Hence the product is about lnkn . Multiplying by σ(n)
gives φ(σ(n)) ≈ σ(n) lnkn , which proves the required inequality up to a constant. We can
σ(n)
absorb that constant into k (since k is fixed), giving φ(σ(n)) < k log n
.

Step-by-Step:
1. Euler’s Totient Formula.
For any integer m > 1, Y 
1
φ(m) = m 1− p
.
p|m

Hence Y 
1 − p1 .


φ σ(n) = σ(n)
p|σ(n)

2. All small primes divide σ(n).

By hypothesis, Y
p σ(n).
√
k
p≤ n
√
That means each
√ prime p with p ≤ k
n actually divides σ(n). So every factor
1


1 − p for p ≤ n must appear in the product for φ(σ(n)). Therefore,
k

Y   Y  
1 − p1 ≤ 1 − p1 .
√
p | σ(n) p≤ k n

3. Bounding that product.

From Mertens-type estimates, we know
Y   
1 − p1 = O ln1x .
p≤x
√
Putting x = k
n, we get ln x = k1 ln n. Hence
Y    k 
1 − p1 = O ln( 1√


k n) = O .
√
k
ln n
p≤ n
Solution for International Youth Math Challenge Solver: Bassel Hamada Ibrahim

4. Conclude the Totient Bound.

Putting it all together,
Y   Y   k
1 − p1 ≤ σ(n) 1 − p1 ≪ σ(n)


φ σ(n) = σ(n) .
√ ln n
p | σ(n) k p≤ n

This shows there is some absolute constant C > 0 such that

σ(n)
φ(σ(n)) ≤ C k .
log n
Since k is fixed, we can absorb C into k if we wish, obtaining
σ(n)
φ(σ(n)) < k ,
log n
which completes the proof.

(e) Explanation of How Equation (1) is Derived

Context. In the authors’ paper, Equation (1) asserts that for any fixed δ > 0,
   2 
π2
#{ n ≤ x : σ(n) < δ n} ≥ x 1 − 6 δ + O logδ x .

1. Bounding the Set Where σ(n) ≥ δn

Consider the set
Sδ (x) = { n ≤ x : σ(n) ≥ δ n}.
We aim to show Sδ (x) cannot be too large. First, note the basic inequality:
σ(n)
1{σ(n) ≥ δn} ≤ .
δn
Hence,
X X σ(n) 1 X σ(n)
#{ n ≤ x : σ(n) ≥ δn} = 1{σ(n)≥δn} ≤ = . (*)
n≤x n≤x
δn δ n≤x n

P σ(n)
2. Using the Known Asymptotic for n
From standard divisor-sum estimates we have the asymptotic expansion:
X σ(n) π2
x + O log2 x .


=
n≤x
n 6

Substituting this back into inequality (??) gives

1  π2  π2  2 
#{n ≤ x : σ(n) ≥ δn} ≤ x + O(log2 x) = x + O logδ x .
δ 6 6δ
That is the main upper bound on how many n satisfy σ(n) ≥ δ n.
Solution for International Youth Math Challenge Solver: Bassel Hamada Ibrahim

3. Complementary Counting to Derive Equation (1)

The set {1, 2, . . . , x} naturally splits into the portion where σ(n) ≥ δn and where σ(n) <
δn. Hence,
#{ n ≤ x : σ(n) < δn} = x − #{ n ≤ x : σ(n) ≥ δn}.
Substitute the bound from above:
 π2
    2 
log2 x π2
x − x+O δ
= x 1− 6δ
+ O logδ x .
6δ
Thus we conclude precisely that
   2 
π2
#{ n ≤ x : σ(n) < δn} ≥ x 1 − 6δ
+ O logδ x ,

which is Equation (1) in the paper.

Summary. Equation (1) follows by counting how many n ≤ x can possibly satisfy σ(n) ≥
δn, using the inequality σ(n)/n and known asymptotics on its summatory function. The
complementary subset—those n with σ(n) < δn—then constitutes at least the claimed
lower bound. This establishes the distribution result for the condition σ(n) < δn.

Problem C.2(f*) Formal Answer

Question (f*): Use a computer program to check how many integers n ≤ x satisfy
φ(σ(n)) ≤ c n for various c > 0 and x.

Approach
We employed a direct, naive algorithm that:

• Computes σ(n) by enumerating divisors of n.

• Computes φ(σ(n)) via prime factorization.

• Counts integers n ≤ x satisfying φ(σ(n)) ≤ c n.

We wrote the implementation in the Python 3 language, using no additional libraries

beyond the standard library.
Solution for International Youth Math Challenge Solver: Bassel Hamada Ibrahim

Implementation (Split Across Multiple Pages)

Python Code - Part 1

def sum_of_divisors ( n ) :
"""
Returns sigma ( n ) : the sum of all positive divisors of n .
Naive approach for illustration .
"""
total = 0
for d in range (1 , n +1) :
if n % d == 0:
total += d
return total

def euler_phi ( m ) :
"""
Computes Euler ’s totient phi ( m ) by prime factorization .
"""
if m < 2:
return 1
phi_val = m
temp = m
p = 2
while p * p <= temp :
if temp % p == 0:
while temp % p == 0:
temp //= p
phi_val -= phi_val // p
p = p + 1 if p == 2 else p + 2
if temp > 1:
phi_val -= phi_val // temp
return phi_val
Solution for International Youth Math Challenge Solver: Bassel Hamada Ibrahim

Python Code - Part 2

def check_phi_sigma (x , c ) :
"""
Counts how many integers n <= x satisfy phi ( sigma ( n ) ) <=
c * n.
"""
count = 0
for n in range (1 , x +1) :
s = sum_of_divisors ( n )
phi_s = euler_phi ( s )
if phi_s <= c * n :
count += 1
return count

# Example demonstration :
if __name__ == " __main__ " :
import sys
# If arguments are provided , parse them , else use small
defaults .
if len ( sys . argv ) >= 3:
X = int ( sys . argv [1])
C = float ( sys . argv [2])
else :
X = 30
C = 2.0

result = check_phi_sigma (X , C )
print ( f " For x ={ X } and c ={ C } , count is { result }. " )
print ( f " Proportion = { result / X :.3 f } " )
Solution for International Youth Math Challenge Solver: Bassel Hamada Ibrahim

Conclusion for C.2 (All Parts)

Key Results

• (a) We have evaluated φ(8) = 4, σ(12) = 28, and φ(σ(18)) = 24 .

• (b) We restated Theorem 1 in simpler terms regarding the distribution of

φ(σ(n)).

• (c) We proved the desired counting bound for those n ≤ x with σ(n) odd.

• (d) We showed that φ(σ(n)) < k · σ(n)

log n
when all primes up to n1/k divide
σ(n).

• (e) We explained how the authors derive Equation (1) from previous sum-
mations and complementary counting.

• (f*) We provided the above Python code to check numerically how often
φ(σ(n)) ≤ c n holds for given c and x, thus offering empirical support for the
theoretical results.
“A person who never made a mistake
never tried anything new.”
– Albert Einstein

Thank you for reviewing my solutions!

I hope these answers reflect my efforts and curiosity in
exploring mathematics.

Mathematics is a journey of discovery, and every mistake is a step closer to

understanding.