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Business and Administrative

Communication

Course Contents
1. An overview of communication
2. Process of communication
3. Forms of communication
4. Objective of communication
5. Problems (barriers) of communication
6. Principles of communication
7. Types of communication in organizations
8. Types of correspondences
9. Short presentations
10. Career communications
 Chapter One: An overview of Communication

After completing this unit, you should be able to:

▪ Define communication
▪ Explain the characteristics of communication
▪ Explain the forms (types) of communication
▪ Explain the role of verbal communication
▪ Describe the types of non-verbal communications
▪ Describe communication as a process
▪ Identify the roles of senders and receivers in the communication process
▪ Learn the techniques that should be followed at each step in the communication
process

1.1 Meaning of communication

Different scholars define communication differently. The following are some of the definitions
of the term managerial communication forwarded by different scholars.
i. Communication can define as “the process of transferring thoughts and ideas from one
person to another.”

ii. A more accurate definition of communication is found from its original meaning. The Latin
root of communication is “communis”. It means “to make common to many, share”.
Therefore, when people communicate, they express their ideas and feelings in a way that
is understandable (common) to each of them. They share information with each other.
Each person has a direct effect on the other and on subsequent communication.
Therefore, communication is the process of sharing thoughts, ideas, and feelings with each
other in commonly understandable ways.

iii. Communication is “the broad field of human interchange of facts and opinions and not
the technologies of telephone, telegraph, radio and the like.

From the above definitions, you might notice that all of them stress that there should be at
least two people for communication to occur and there should also be some kind of message
that is intended to be transmitted from one party to another. Thus, when people

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communicate, they express their ideas and feelings in a way that is understandable to each
other.

Generally, communication is said to exist when:

✓ There is a person (sender or transmitter) desirous of passing on some information.
✓ There is another person (receiver) to whom the information is to be passed on.
✓ The receiver partly or wholly understands the message passed on to her/him.
✓ The receiver responds to the message received; i.e. there is some kind of feedback.

Communication cannot exist in the absence of any of these four components. Communication
to exist at least two parties and a message (either oral or written) that is intended to be
communicated are desired. Communication further requires that the receiver of the message
understands it and conform this by nodding or by giving some kind of gesture or by verbally
responding.

For example, let’s say that a teacher is writing the answer to a complex mathematical
problem on the blackboard, but offers neither a verbal explanation for how he arrived at the
answer nor the opportunity for questions. In this instance, the teacher has sent a message
(via blackboard); however, there is a high possibility that many students do not fully
understand what the message meant. Thus, complete communication has not taken place.
Therefore, communication is a process of ‘sharing’ rather than simply sending information.

Characteristics/nature of communication

Communication has the following basic attributes/characteristics:

i. Communication has no beginning or ending
Communication is a process that is dynamic, not static. It is something that is in process has
no clearly visible beginning or end, it is a continual happening.

ii. Communication results in mutual influence

As a process, communication is continual cycle of mutual influence. The attitudes, values,
experiences, beliefs, and needs of the senders influence the communicative choices they
make. Their choices regarding with whom to talk and the topics about which they talk are
constrained by this complex set of factors. Once a decision to talk has been made, past
experience, present attitudes, interests, values, and goals combined with features of the
specific communication situation affect choices of what to say and how to say it.

As people communicate, they are each influenced by the interaction, which further affects
what is said and how it is said. Thus the communication cycle continues. Although we all

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depend on our experience for guidance in our communication behavior, no two
communication situations or events are the same. They may only be similar.

iii. Communication takes place using Symbols

Communication is a process in which participants are influenced by assigning meaning to
symbols intentionally and unintentionally exchanged. A symbol is a representation of a thing,
idea, place, event, or person. A company’s logo, for instance, is a symbol because when
people see it, they associate it with that particular company’ product.

Symbols can take many forms. We will focus primarily on two major forms: verbal and non-
verbal symbols.

Verbal symbols: Verbal symbols (words) are arbitrarily accepted within a given culture to
stand for the things they represent. The things they represent are called referents. For
example, the word chair stands for an object (the referent) with which we are familiar.
The Amharic word is ‘Wonber’ for the same object. Words are social conventions which
allow for shared meaning.
Nonverbal symbols: Nonverbal symbols (wordless) are transferable through the use of
body language including eye contact, facial expressions, gestures and more. For example,
smiling, when you meet someone conveys friendliness, acceptance and openness. Everyone
uses nonverbal all the time whether they know it or not.

Iv. Intentionality

A common saying about communication is “one cannot not communicate” when we are in an
interactional situation. This simply means that everything a person does can be interpreted.
When you sit still and say nothing, people can interpret you as thoughtful, apathetic,
confused, or even asleep. As long as you are in contact with other people, what you say and
do and what you do not say and do not do will be interpreted. In essence, then,
communication is a process in which symbols are exchanged, either intentionally or
unintentionally. Regardless of intentionality, however, people assign meaning to those
symbols and, as a result, are influenced by one another.

V. Meanings are not transferable

As one communication scholar notes “communication does not consist of the transmission of
meaning. Meanings are not in the message; they are in the message user”

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 The communication process
Dear learners: Whether you are communicating with only one person, with a small group, or
with many people, the same basic process occurs. Understanding the elements of the
communication process and the role that each element plays is essential for effective
communication.
As illustrated in the following figure, the communication process consists of the sender,
encoding, message, communication medium, receiver, recoding and feedback. Each
component is explained briefly in the following section.

Sender Encod Message Communica Message Receiver

ing tion Decoding
Channel

Feedback

Communication Process Model

i. Sender
The communication process begins with a ‘sender’. The sender is a person who initiates the
communication process and transmits messages. The sender is the source of the information.
This source may want to communicate his ideas, needs, intentions or other pieces of
information, which is usually a conscious decision, but you can send messages with or without
intending to do so. Even not sending a message is a message.

Two things must happen before the sender even wants to send a message. First, an internal
or external stimulus prompts you to send a message. This prompt may arrive in the form of
letters, memorandum, penciled note, electronic mail, fax, telex, or even casual conversation
in the hallway. Regardless of the stimulus source, it could be a business transaction, a written
question, a meeting, an interview, or unexpected request for a favor. Whatever the case
might be, you will start thinking of ideas for the message.

It is important to remember, however, that a stimulus alone may not be enough to trigger
communication. The second requirement to send message is sufficient motivation. Think of
times when a manger asks a question, and some of the people present were fairly sure they
knew the answer (were stimulated), but did not respond. Why didn’t they respond? Probably
because they were not sufficiently motivated; i.e. they saw no personal benefit in answering.
Or they saw greater benefit in not answering. In this case there will not be communication
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between the manger and the subordinates. Therefore, motivation is important in order to
initiate communication in addition to the stimulus that force people to initiate
communication.
ii. Encoding
After being stimulated & motivated to communicate, the sender must decide how best to
convey his ideas to the specific receiver. Encoding is the process of choosing symbols (verbal
and non-verbal) that can best represent the sender’s ideas, thoughts, feelings or pieces of
information. Dear students, you have to note that the choice of the symbols depend on your
subject, purpose, audience, and personal style or mood. The words that a speaker chooses to
deliver a message can make tremendous difference in how that message is received.

By the encoding process ideas, thoughts and feelings become a message. The message is the
information or core idea being transmitted. It consists of both verbal (written or spoken)
symbols and nonverbal (unspoken) symbols. Verbal information is the part of the message
that is heard. Nonverbal information entails such things as body language & the surrounding
environment.

Whenever you compose a message, you need to consider what content to include, how the
receiver will interpret it, & how it may affect your relationship. A simple ‘thank-you’ message
will be relatively easy. In contrast, to inform 200 employees of bad news about salaries will
require much more complicated, carefully planned message. To some extent, your choice of
words also depends on your cultural background. When you choose your words, you signal
that you are a member of a particular club and that you know the code. The nature of your
code - your language and vocabulary- imposes its own limits on your message. For example,
the language of a lawyer differs from that of an accountant or a doctor, and the difference in
their vocabularies affects their ability to recognize and express ideas.

iii. Message
Message refers to the ‘physical form’ of the thoughts or ideas which can be experienced and
understood by one or more senses of the receiver. It could be in the form of hearing, reading
or other physical gestures.

A signal is the means the sender uses to transmit the intended meaning. Written words,
spoken words, and non-verbal signs, including sign languages, gestures, facial expressions,
and other physical movements, are all signals. The way we form and transmit messages
(verbally, written, formally, privately, publicly) affects the meaning our recipients will put on
them.

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 iv. Channel of communication
The next step after the sender converts the ideas and thoughts into a message is transmitting
the message across the chosen medium of communication from the sender to the receiver.
Channel of communication is the vehicle or method used for the transmission of the message.
It is a medium/carrier that bridges the gap between the sender and the receiver. You may
choose to put your message in writing as a letter or memo and you can deliver it
electronically via computer link up, like Internet. Or, you can communicate it orally, either
over the phone or in person (face-to-face communication). In other words, internet, letters,
memo, reports, face to face discussion, body movement and telephone an example of
communication medium that you can use to physically transmit your messages.

However, the choice of the transmission channel depends on the message, audience, need
for speed and the situation.

v. The Receiver
The receiver is the individual to whom the message is directed, also knows as ‘decoder’. When
the encoder’s message is picked up, the receiver tries to make sense out of it; i.e. to decode
it. Vi. Decoding is the process the receiver goes through in trying to interpret the exact
meaning of a message. Everyone tries to read between the lines in an effort to interpret what
the sender means by the message. If you send a letter, the recipient has to read it before s/he
can understand it. If you are giving a speech, the people in the audience have to be able to
hear you, and they have to be paying attention.

But physical reception is only the first step. The receiver also has to absorb the message
mentally. In other words, the message has to be understood and stored in the receiver's
mind. If all goes well, the message is interpreted correctly: The receiver assigns the same
basic meaning to the words as the sender intended and responds in the desired way.

Even if a message does arrive intact as its intended receiver, there is no guarantee that it will
be understood as the sender intended it to be. The receiver must still decode it, making sense
out of the words or other symbols. Decoding is done in the same manner as encoding by
motor skills, muscle system or sensory skills.

vii. Feedback
Feedback is the receiver’s response to a message. It is the final link in the communication
chain. It determines whether the message was clearly understood and the required action
taken. However, the feedback response involves a reversal of the communication process so
that the receiver now becomes the sender and the sender becomes the receiver. After getting
the message, the receiver responds in some way and signals that response to the sender. The
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signal may take the form of a smile, a long pause, a spoken comment, a written message, or
an action. Even a lack of response is, in a sense, a form of response.

Feedback is a key element in the communication process because it enables the sender to
evaluate the effectiveness of the message. It provides guidance for the next message that you
send to the receiver. If your audience doesn't understand what you mean, you can tell by the
response and refine the message. Feedback plays an important role by indicating significant
communication barriers: differences in background, different interpretations of words, and
differing emotional reactions. So when the receiver of the message has made feedback and
the sender is sure that the message has been communicated in the way intended, we say
communication has existed.

Therefore, from the above phrasing, you can think of communication as a process consisting
of identifiable links, with ultimate objective of influencing behavior, attitudes, & beliefs. Each
element of the communication process is critical: the sender, encoding, channel, the receiver,
decoding, and feedback.

Forms (types) of Communication

The types of communication employed in the two situations (social and
business/organizational life) are not the same, as for example, the business telephone is
different from the personal telephone. This shows that the type of communication we
employ is dependent highly on the existing environment (situation). Hence, we will discuss
the different types of communication from different perspectives.

From the point of view of the direction of communication, the following

communication types are there.
✓ Intrapersonal Communication
✓ Interpersonal Communication
✓ Mediated Communication
✓ Mass Communication
Intrapersonal Communication
This is a communication within self. It is speaking to oneself. Thinking, encoding, and
decoding are examples of intrapersonal communication. Hence, the intrapersonal is the first
level of communication. It focuses on internal behavior such as observing, listening, reading,
speaking, and writing. Thus, it is apparent that without intrapersonal there can be no
interpersonal communication.
Interpersonal Communication

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 This is a type of communication that exists between or among people (persons). The
nature of participants could be: I- individual
G- group
Example
I - I --when two persons communicate
I - G --when someone makes a speech
G - I --when parents talk to their child
G - G --when members of different parties communicate

The individuals or groups exchange thoughts. They may be sharing information,

providing feedback, or simply maintaining a social relationship. It is a direct or face-to-face
communication. Therefore, it is a two-way communication.

Mediated Communication
It is part of interpersonal communication. But it is not direct or face-to-face; it is
rather performed at a distance. Because of this, to fill the gap between the individuals, the
communication is mediated with some kind of technical means such as telecommunication,
telex, fax, the internet, etc.

Mass (media) Communication

This is a one-way communication. The producer or the source is usually an institution
at the national or international level and the receiver is unknown in number or indefinite.
The receiver is thus called anonymous public. Example: Radio, TV, News paper, etc.

From the point of view of media (form) of communication, the following types of
communication are there.

✓ Nonverbal Communication
✓ Verbal Communication

Nonverbal Communication
The most basic form of communication is nonverbal. Anthropologists theorized that
long before human beings used words to talk things over, our ancestors communicated with
one another by using their bodies. They gritted their teeth to show anger; they smiled and
touched one another to indicate affection. Although we have come a long way since those
primitive times, we still use nonverbal cues to express superiority, dependence, dislike,
respect, love, and other feelings.

Nonverbal communication differs from verbal communication in fundamental ways.

For one thing, it is less structured, which makes it more difficult to study. A person cannot
pick up a book on nonverbal language and master the vocabulary of gestures, expressions,
and inflections that are common in our culture. We don’t really know how people learn
nonverbal behavior. No one teaches a baby to cry or smile, yet these forms of self-expression
are almost universal. Other types of nonverbal communication, such as the meaning of colors
and certain gestures, vary form culture to culture.

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 The Function of Nonverbal Communication
Although nonverbal communication can stand alone, it frequently works hand in hand
with speech. Our words carry part of the message, and nonverbal signals carry the rest.
Together, the two modes of expression make a powerful team, augmenting, reinforcing, and
clarifying each other.

Experts in nonverbal communication suggest that it has six specific functions:

✓ To provide information, whether consciously or unconsciously
✓ To regulate the flow of conversation
✓ To express emotion
✓ To qualify, complement, contradict, or expand verbal messages
✓ To control or influence others
✓ To facilitate specific tasks, such as teaching a person skills

Verities of nonverbal communication

Non-verbal symbols: They include-
1. Kinesis- refers to the use of movement to communicate. Movements of the face, the
hands, or the whole body convey messages about the speaker, how the speaker
perceives the situation, and how the speaker sees the listener.
2. Haptics- Touch is another type of non-verbal symbol. We use touch for a variety of
purposes- to convey warmth, support, sexual attraction, or ridicule, or to exert power.
3. Oculesics- Eye gazes and eye movement provide another means of communicating
nonverbally.
4. Proxemics- people use space and distance to communicate. For example, how close or
how far we stand from another may convey something about the relationship we have
with that person. We tend to stand or sit nearer to people with whom we have a close
or intimate relationship.
5. Paralanguage- it refers to vocal characteristics, such as tone of voice, vocal inflection,
loudness, pitch, quality of voice, and pauses.\

According to studies, there are over 700,000 forms of nonverbal communication. For
discussion purposes, however, these forms can be grouped into general categories. These
categories are:
• Facial expressions and eye behavior
• Gestures and postures
• Vocal characteristics
• Personal appearance
• Touching behavior, and
• Use of time and space.

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 Facial expression and eye behavior
The face is a rich source of information. Facial expressions convey a wide range of emotions
such as attention and interest, influence over others, regulate interaction, and establish
dominance. The eyes and face can divulge hidden emotions- anger, annoyance, confusion,
enthusiasm, fear, hatred, joy, love, interest, sorrow, surprise, uncertainty, and others.
Although the eyes and the face are usually a reliable source of meaning, people sometimes
manipulates their expressions to simulate an emotion they do not feel or to mask their true
feelings.

A new employee may answer ‘yes’ hesitantly, ashamed, or embarrassed to tell the truth when
asked if s/he understands the supervisor’s oral instruction. Yet that employee’s frown or red
face and bewildered expression in the eyes should prompt the observant supervisor to
consider restating the instruction more clearly.

Gestures and postures

By moving their bodies, people can express both specific and general messages, some of
which are voluntary and some of which are involuntary. Many gestures - a wave of the hand,
for example - have a specific and intentional meaning, such as "hello" or "goodbye." Clenched
fists pounding on a table or podium may indicate anger or emphasis. Continual gestures with
arms while speaking may signal nervousness; they may also distract listeners’ attention from
the spoken words. These unconscious signals reveal whether a person feels confident or
nervous, friendly or hostile, assertive or passive, powerful or powerless.

Posture conveys impressions of self-confidence, status, and interest. Confident executives

may have a relaxed posture and yet stand more erect than a timid subordinate. Interested
persons occasionally lean forward toward the speaker, while those who are bored or annoyed
may slump – as well as yawn and repeatedly glance at their watches.

Gestures can be used to punctuate a statement; for example, pointing to emphasize or

signaling to get attention. Movements all too often indicate tension or boredom. Shifting in
one’s seat, foot tapping, or finger drumming, are all signs of inattentiveness and should be
restricted. By paying attention to these, you can tell when a resident is nervous, exhausted,
ready to end your visit, or any one of a number of other messages. Thus, gestures and
movements do have meanings.

To be a skilled communicator, you need to be able to read their meanings and to effectively
use gestures and movements to convey your messages.

Vocal characteristics
Like body language, a person's voice carries both intentional and unintentional messages. On
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a conscious level, we can use our voices to create various impressions. For example, consider
the phrase "Where were you?" If you repeat that question four or five times, changing your
tone of voice and stressing various words, you can convey quite different messages. A
person’s tone of voice can affect the meaning of her/his words. Suppose your classmate
enters your dorm & you say, “how nice to see you.” Your classmate will use your tone of voice
to decide whether you are pleased, surprised, or sarcastic. In this case, your vocal tones
convey more information than your words. Vocal tones convey the most information when
they are a change from the person’s usual tone of voice – say when a person’s voice is
uncharacteristically high-pitched.

Recognizing the importance of vocal tones, Jaguar’s senior executives enhanced commitment
to quality by using middle managers listen to taped interviews with customers, rather than
distributing written survey results. Hearing the intensity of customers’ complains about
service inspired managers to make improvements. Similarly, Procter & Gamble disseminates
customer complaints in the form of a half-taped of calls. According to executives there,
employees react much different to the oral messages than to a sheet of statistics.

However, your vocal characteristics also reveal many things that you are unaware of. The
tone and volume of your voice, your accent and speaking pace, and all the little um's and ah's
that creep into your speech say a lot about who you are, your relationship with the audience,
and the emotions underlying your words.

Personal appearance
An individual's appearance helps establish his or her social identity. Aspects of physical
appearance such as clothing, hairstyle, jewelry, & makeup communicate people’s values &
social group. People respond to us on the basis of our physical attractiveness. When people
think we're capable and attractive, we feel good about ourselves, and this affects our
behavior, which in turn affects other people's perceptions of us. In most businesses, a
professional image is appropriate. In the work place, the norms for appropriate physical
appearance depend on the industry, job, geographical location & culture, & organizational
culture. People who fail to live up to these norms typically create a bad impression. Their
physical appearance is interpreted as meaning they either do not understand their role or do
not care about fulfilling it. But some companies or industries are more casual. People in the
creative side of advertising, for example, are likely to wear more casual clothes rather than
suits and ties.

Touching behavior
Touching people in different ways and places can silently communicate friendship, love,
approval, hatred, anger, or other motives and feelings. A kiss on the check, pat on the
shoulder, or slap on the back is prompted by various attitude and emotions. Perhaps because

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it implies intimacy, touching behavior is governed by relatively strict customs that establish
who can touch whom, and how, in various circumstances. The accepted norms vary
depending on the gender, age, relative status, and cultural background of the individuals
involved. In business situations, touching suggests dominance, and so a higher-status person
is more likely to touch a lower-status person than the other way around.

Use of time and space

Like touch, time and space can be used to assert authority. In many cultures, people
demonstrate their importance by making other people wait; they show respect by being on
time. However, attitudes toward punctuality are cultural. In North America, being on time is a
mark of good manners; in other places, it is more polite to be somewhat late. People can also
assert their status by occupying the best space. For instance, in many companies, the chief
executive usually has the nicest office and the prettiest view. Apart from serving as a symbol
of status, space determines how comfortable people feel talking with each other. When
people stand too close or too far away, we feel ill at ease. The comfort zone varies from
culture to culture. Somebody from the Middle East would be okay talking with a partner
standing close to one another, whereas Americans would find it very uncomfortable talking
with someone standing close to one another.

The way people use space is also part of nonverbal communication. Each of us has a variable
size of personal space. Personal space refers to the distance that we put between ourselves
and others. There are four distances that we use, depending on how we feel toward the
person with whom we are communicating.

1. Intimate distance is usually reserved for people with whom we feel emotionally close.
The zone begins with skin contact and ranges out to about 18 inches.
2. Personal distance can range from 18 inches to about 4 feet. Here again, the contact is
rather close, but less personal than the intimate distance.
3. Social distance, the third zone, ranges from 4 feet to 12 feet. This is the distance at
which most business situations occur or ombudsmen deal with residents.
4. Public distance runs outward from twelve feet. The closer range of public distance is
the one most teachers use in the classroom. As you seek to communicate effectively
with others, you must be aware of their personal space. If you are trying to establish
rapport, you will respect their comfort with various degrees of physical closeness. There
maybe other times when you will purposefully “invade” someone’s personal space.

Verbal Communication
Although you can express many things nonverbally, there are limits to what you can

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communicate without the help of language. If you want to discuss past events, ideas, or
abstractions, you need words-symbols that stand for thoughts-arranged in meaningful
patterns.

We then transmit the message in spoken or written form, hoping that someone will
hear or read what we have to say.

Speaking and Writing

When it comes to sending business messages, speaking is more common than writing.
Giving instructions, conducting interviews, working in small groups, attending meetings,
making speeches, and the like are all important activities in business. You’ll learn more about
them in later chapters.

Writing takes up less time, but it too is important. If you’re dealing with a complex
message of lasting significance, you will probably want to put it in writing.

Reading and Listening

Although this material focuses on writing and speaking to a larger extent, it’s
important to bear in mind that effective communication is a two-way street. People in
business spend more time obtaining information than transmitting it. To do their jobs
effectively, therefore, they need good listening and reading skills.

As a college student, you are probably better at listening and reading than many
people, partly because you get so much practice. You spend your days going to classes and
your nights studying (may be). Effective business communication depends on skill in receiving
messages as well as on skill in sending them. So we need to be good at listening and reading
and there by good at speaking and writing.

Reading
When you observe an event or an object, you perceive stimuli, as they exist in the real world
outside yourself. For instance, you can see a real-world computer, hear its real-world keys
strike, touch its real-world space bar, etc. However, when you read or listen, you perceive
stimuli which stand for or which represent the actual objects or events in your “mind’s eye”.
For example, when you read (or listen to) the word computer, you perceive (“see” in your
mind’s eye) the machine represented by the word “computer”.

While reading, your perception (your understanding) can be enlarged by being aware of the
rate or speed at which you detect stimuli (ink marks or simply what is written).

* If you read slowly, your eyes probably stop, or “fixate” more often
than necessary on a line of words. So you cannot perceive better.

* Thus, you have to read faster. To read faster, fixate your eyes only
three times on a line (near the beginning, at the middle, and near the
end of the line). Then you can reduce the fixations to two or perhaps
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 even to the speed reader’s goal of one per line. As a result your
reading rate accelerates, and your comprehension will be effective.

Note * Try to avoid or eliminate “lip-reading” or “vocalizing” because they

slow your reading rate.

* Also vary your reading techniques according to your particular purposes of which
some are described here.

Skimming
If your purpose is to identify general topics rather than details, or to review what you
have already read, or simply to be entertained by amusing literature and personal
correspondence, use the skimming technique. Skimming is reading quickly to notice (locate)
some aids to one’s comprehension.
For example, for skimming a book or a report, the aids are title pages, prefaces, and
table of contents, illustrations, appended materials and indexes.
Scanning
If your purpose is to discover or to verify a specific item, for instance, a name or an
address, a date, a word, statistic or fact in a letter, first skim the message to locate the section
(s) that pertain to your purpose. Then read those particular lines attentively. Scanning,
therefore, is skimming with a specific target of information in mind.
Study Reading (in depth reading)
If your purpose is to absorb virtually the entire message—every fact and implication, every
difference of style as well as of data—first skim, scan, and then study-read. In study reading
you summarize the message and its parts in your own words. After summarizing:

- Test your summaries, notes, and comments against evidence in the message itself.
- Ask and answer appropriate questions concerning the evidence, its presentation,
your perception and your interpretation.

Listening
As reading is an application of vision, so listening is a use of hearing. To listen is not just to
hear; it is to understand what you hear. It should be remembered therefore, that one hears
with the ears and listens with the mind. Hence, effective listening requires considerable
concentration, sensitivity, and what they call a “sixth” sense. It requires a conscious
attempt to understand what the speaker wants to communicate—not what you want to
understand.

Types of Listening
We usually think of three types or levels of listening:
✓ Casual listening is the way most of us listen to music or news reports while driving or
reading.
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 ✓ Attentive listening is done when important information is directed at us. This is
information we may analyze, remember, and question. Attentive listening is assisted
when we can question, get feedback, and see and hear simultaneously.

✓ Empathetic listening requires that we listen with the other person; that we attempt to
understand his or her emotions, feelings, and attitudes about the item under
discussion. It is the listening that is often referred to as between the lines, active
listening, or listening from the other’s point of view.
Categories of Listeners
Four general categories of listeners have been identified. Whenever people listen, they are
typically at one of those four basic levels of attentiveness. These levels are not, however
distinct lines of difference, and may even overlap or interchange depending on the situation
or circumstance.

The Non-listener: At this level, you do not listen to the speaker at all. You do not even make
an effort to hear what the other person is saying. The non-listener fakes attention while
thinking about unrelated matters. He is too busy with preparing what he wants to say next
than to listen to what is being said to him now. He is primarily concerned with doing most of
the speaking. He is a chronic interrupter. He is perceived as a social bore and a know it all,
and as insensitive and non-understanding; and he is typically disliked or “tolerated” by most
people.

The Marginal Listener: At this, you are hearing the sounds and words but not really listening.
The marginal is a superficial listener. He stays on the surface of the argument or problem,
never risking going deeper. He postpones problems into the future rather than dealing with
them in the present. This behavior only tends to make the problems get bigger, which in turn
scares the marginal listener into putting them off even more. The marginal listener is easily
distracted by his own thinking and by outside occurrences. He in fact looks for distractions to
have an excuse to draw him away from the conversation.

Evaluative Listening: This level takes somewhat more concentration and attention by the
listener than the first two levels. At this level the listener is actively trying to hear what the
speaker is saying but is not making an effort to understand the speaker’s intent. He tends to
be a more logical listener, who is more concerned about content than feelings. He listens to
the words of the speaker (evaluates them) but totally ignores that part of the message that is
carried in the speaker’s vocal intonation (pitch), body language, and facial expressions. He is
poor in sensitivity, empathy, and true understanding. Evaluative listening greatly speeds up
conversation because the listener anticipates the speaker’s words and is ready with a report
almost as soon as the speaker finishes speaking, whether in agreement of rebuttal (refusal).

The Active Listener: This is by far the highest and most effective level of listening. If you can
refrain from evaluating the speaker’s words and place yourself in his position—attempting to

16
see things from his point of view—you are using the fourth and most effective level of
listening—active listening. This is the level where real communication takes place. You are
not only attentive to the words being spoken; you are also trying to project your mind into
that of the speaker so that you can align your own thoughts and feelings more closely with
those of the speaker. In doing so, you must actively try to suspend your own thoughts and
feelings and give your attention solely to listening to the speaker.

Active listening requires that you listen not only for the content of the speaker’s message
but, more importantly, for the intent and feeling of the speaker as well. This requires you to
show the speaker, both verbally and nonverbally, that you are truly listening. The active
listener does not interrupt the speaker. He is also extremely perceptive. He always likes for
verbal and/or visual cues that might signify the other person would like to say something.
The active listener listens for feelings and emotions, as well as words, from the speaker. The
active listener is a skillful questioner. He uses questions to encourage the speaker to extend
the conversation and clarify the message; then probes into areas that need to be developed
further in order to get a better total picture of what the speaker is trying to communicate.

Good listening quickly builds up and enhances rapport and trust with people. Studies suggest
that most executives spend between 45 and 63 percent of their working day listening. Thus,
to be an active listener, avoid being a compulsive talker and develop your listening attitude to
benefit from it largely.

Who is a compulsive talker?

A compulsive talker is a person who constantly monopolizes speech. Such a person blocks
effective listening and exclude feedback. He/she also obstruct the exchange of information
that he/she and others can use. For the reason, avoid being a compulsive talker. Speak only
when necessary and appropriate for you to do so.

Also develop your listening attitude by following these suggestions

1. Focus your attention upon the oral message and the speaker.

2. Respond with pertinent questions or comments concerning the data and its intended
interpretation (listen to both internal and external information).

3. Reinforce rapport by your own behavior (participate nonverbally). Your listening

posture, facial expressions, and gestures are parts of feedback language.

4. Participate in the communication event (participate verbally). Instead of being passive,

respond vocally, in writing, or even if silent with mental reactions.

Note Although listening and reading skills require separate attention, they pose the
following questions mutually.
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 1. What is the core thought of the message?
2. What evidence supports the core thought?
3. What is implied as well as stated?
4. What response does the message elicit?

Questions

1. What are the pros and cons of evaluating a message as it is transmitted to you orally?
2. Explain the difference between hearing and listening.

Activity

1. Often we end up listening poorly without really deciding to do so. What obstacles to
listening can influence our attention without our conscious knowledge?
2. List the points that make an active listener different from the rest type of listeners.

Human Communication Theory

Today, we find many business activities taken over by highly sophisticated systems, but
those systems are being developed and operated still by people. This simply shows that no
communication takes place minus human beings no matter what it is. Communication is
always interpersonal (takes place between or among people) whether machine or human.
Because of this, human theorists say the following: “As long as human beings are involved in
the process of communication—whether spoken, written, graphic or non-verbal—semantics,
behavioral patterns, and attitudes will enter the process.”

It is this fact that forced human communication theorists to make their studies on
human beings and hence, the theory called human or behavioral theory of communication.

Nevertheless, while studying theories of human behavior in an attempt to be a better

communicator, remember that we are frequently talking about the behavior of “most”
people.

Behavioral Concepts
All types of communication—business, administrative, social, etc.—are only parts of
human communication and hence an understanding of the nature of human behavior is
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highly important to have a better insight into the nature of business and administrative
communication which is the intent of this material.

What do we have to understand about human behavior then?

1. Each person wants to be, and of course is, his or her own person. Through past
experiences we all have developed our own values, prejudices, likes and dislikes. Hence, no
matter that we all have some characteristics in common; the composite of our individual
characteristics makes each of us different. As a result, we react in individual ways to
messages. That is why we have variety of possible reactions to a single message or event.
However, communication is effective only if the sender and receiver create the same meaning
for a single message. Communication is effective or successful when a receiver understands
a sender in exactly the same way intended by the sender. Therefore, understanding behavior
is a necessary foundation for becoming a successful communicator. When a sender
understands a receiver (his/her behavior), it is possible for him/her to prepare the message
from that understanding point of view.

To do this, we need to digest what the theory of information communication says.

Information is fed into the information source of a person early from childhood and shapes
the person to think, act, speak, and listen, etc. in that line. Therefore, any person is nobody
but the information fed into his/her mind. Hence, to understand a person, we simply need
to know the stuff of information—related to the topic under discussion—in our receiver’s
mind. That is possible only by listening well. By listening well, we understand personalities,
biases, abilities, and resources of our receiver(s). For example, by listening well, you will be
acquainted with the values, interests, and needs, etc. of associates or customers as a
businessperson. So listening well enables one deal more profitably with family members,
relatives, friends, etc. and also with co-workers, customers, and competitors than he/she
might otherwise do.

2. We all have certain needs at certain times. These needs determine our behavior
and the goals we set for ourselves. According to Abraham Maslow, a famous psychologist,
most people will respond positively to messages that will meet their particular needs at
particular times. Hence, a successful communicator has the ability to understand the needs
of those who will receive his or her message. A successful or effective communicator speaks
and writes with the receiver’s needs in mind at all times. As you have learnt in Introduction
to Management Course, these needs are classified into five levels or rungs as follows and
discussed in connection with communication.

Rung 1. Basic Physical Needs: What basic things do we need before we can turn
our attention to other things? We need food, shelter, and clothing. Until these
needs are reasonably well met, we think of little else.

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 Rung 2. Safety and Security Needs: Next we think about keeping ourselves free
from physical harm or mental abuse. Most of us try to avoid situations that
could cause us physical harm or people that threaten our peace of mind.

The first two rungs represent lower-level needs. Once we have met these
needs, we can turn our attention to our upper-level needs.

Rung 3. The Need to Belong (love): Most of us want to feel that we are part of a
group—to feel that we have friends and enjoy being with our co-workers. Simply
feel comfortable in the society in which we live.

Rung 4. The Need to be Somebody (esteem need): Most of us want to feel that
we are good at doing something. If we are good at swimming or athletics or
some of our school subjects, we feel very pleased with the recognition we receive.
We feel that we are “somebody.” We have met our ego.

Rung 5. The Need to be Creative and Help Others (self actualization): If we are
reasonably able to meet all the previous needs, we seem to lose our anxieties
and fears. Two things then happen: (1) we become more creative, and creative
people make a better quality of life; and (2) we are more willing to help people
who are still struggling on the lower rungs of the ladder, those still striving to
meet their physical, safety and security needs.

The point here is that, how individuals satisfy these psychological needs is reflected
in their behavior. Simply people react and interact with others based upon their needs and
their self-image. Thus, because psychological needs are related to behavior, interpersonal
relationships are affected. We react favorably to a situation or person who helps us satisfy
our needs, but we react negatively to a situation or a person who hurts our ability to meet
our needs. To be a successful or an effective communicator, therefore, we must try to
determine the needs of the people to whom we are writing or speaking.

Nevertheless, goals (needs) may change rapidly—so many times—even within a day.
For example, when you arrive at school in the morning, let’s say, you have had a good
breakfast so you are not hungry (Rung 1). You feel safe and comfortable in your surroundings
(Rung 2), and you have enjoyed visiting with friends before class (Rung 3). You have just
finished a class that you enjoy and do well in, so you have satisfied the need to be
“somebody” (Rung 4). However, 11:30 a.m. comes and you get hungry. The lunch hour does
not begin till 12 noon. You shift in your chair and keep looking at your watch. You find it
most difficult to concentrate because you now have a basic physical need, the need for food
(Rung 1). Until that need is satisfied, the only real meaningful messages you will receive
concern food.

Overall, effective communicators fulfill their own psychological needs. This means
that the communicators use empathy, honesty, justice, and trust so that the receivers’ needs

20
are satisfied and be able to communicate with them in the same manner (with the same
mood).

Activity

Is it really possible to know a person? Discuss in-group and present it in class.

Transactional Analysis
Developed by Dr. Eric Berne in the early 1960’s transactional analysis (TA) is a practical
approach to understanding personality and analyzing interactions between people.

A transaction is an exchange of meaning between two people—verbal or nonverbal.

Transactions are moves that people make when dealing with others. It is a means of
analyzing behavior patterns in interpersonal relationships. It focuses on two-person
exchanging communication based on the premise that all persons have a set of ego states
reflected in three broad categories. The three categories (ego states) are parent, adult, and
child.

Parent: The parent in each of us contains attitudes and behavior learned externally,
mostly from our parents. Our internal Parent is a huge collection of rules, moral dictums, and
how-to-do-it instructions that our parents provided us. “Don’t be lazy… Don’t be brag
(boastful)… Never trust people….” These rules were all important as a child because we had
no way of predicting danger and no knowledge of the ways of the world.

In effect, this is the “law and order” attitude. It is critical, prejudicial, but nurturing.
In short, a parent in us is judgmental (judges on everything)

Adult: The adult in each of us is reasonable. It is the part of a person that is factual,
logical, and objective. An adult has no predetermined feelings and evaluates a situation by
investigation and analysis of facts. It enables us to cope with the real world—to admit faults,
evaluate objectively, estimate consequences of actions and practice self-control.

Child: The child in each of us contains the memories of our childhood experiences. It
is impulsive, exciting, fun loving, and dependent, urges to know, to feel, to touch, and to
experience a new world. These are behavioral characteristics learned in infancy and early
Childhood. Our Child is the part of us where our emotions reside: our attractions, our love,
our delight, and also our fear, our anger and our feelings of not being OK, left over from the
turmoil of growing up. When we are communicating from a Child position, there is usually a
great deal of energy: tears, temper, tantrums, and whining.

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 When communication, which is a transaction, takes place between two people, one
person provides a stimulus from one of his/her three ego states, and the other person still
responds from one of the three ego states in him/her.

Person A Person B

Parent Parent

Adult Adult

Child Child

Note the following examples well

Example 1: Question- “Where did I leave my communication material?” With this question,
the transaction begins or stimulated. The stimulated question is
indicated by a stimulus line, which is drawn from Person A to Person B.

Answer- “On the kitchen table.” This response is indicated by a response

line—the line drawn from Person B to Person A.

In this example, both the question and answer emanated from the adult ego states of
the two people. A serious answer given to a serious question, so the transaction is “adult” to
“adult”. Thus, the stimulus and response lines are parallel; therefore, a complementary
transaction has occurred.

Example 2: Question- “Where did I leave my car keys?”

Answer- “Can’t you keep track of anything?”

In this case, the answer is judgmental, telling the person that he always forgets things.
Such a remark is given by parents to their children. Likewise, the response in the example is
from the parent ego state to the child ego state. Here, stimulus and response lines have
crossed. When lines cross, the transaction is not complementary, and an argument,
problems, and misunderstanding will probably occur.

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 The core idea of this concept is that a respondent has to answer to someone in a
manner intended by the sender. If for example, someone makes a joking remark, which
emanates from “child” ego state, he/she needs the same kind of response (“child” to “child”).

We learn from this that if we are aware of the situations in which the response and
stimulus lines cross, we are able to respond appropriately or make communication effective
or successful as receivers.

Sometimes, however, the Adult is overwhelmed or “contaminated” by the Child or

Parent. You can tell when someone’s Adult has given up to his/her Child because the person
tends to act on intense feelings and impulses without examining them. The feelings
overwhelm the person. He/she may express them by whining, complaining, having crying jags
or tantrums.

When someone’s Adult is contaminated by his/her Parent, the result is usually a large
supply of unquestioned prejudices (opinion formed before hand based on insufficient
knowledge). The person sticks to rules that he/she has no permission to evaluate. Often
he/she communicates with an attacking, blaming style.

The healthy Adult knows the needs of the Child and is aware of the rules of the Parent.
But it can function independently. It communicates and makes decisions without blocking out
or giving up control to either of them.

You see, our communication behavior can be adapted. The focus of TA is to

strengthen the Adult. Our Adult describes, it asks questions, it assesses probabilities; it
evaluates the known and the unknown, the true and the false. It has opinions rather than
judgments or beliefs.

Stroking
The most important concept of TA is that of stroking. Stroking is a concept that helps
to improve communications and positively influence the behavior of others. It has two facets.
Praising or recognizing good performance is positive stroking, while criticizing poor
performance and ignoring good or bad performance is negative stroking.

Positive stroking enriches the communication environment. It makes you feel good
about yourself and your situation.

For example,
✓ A pat on the back
✓ A congratulatory phone call
✓ A simple “Good Morning”
✓ And a reply “Same to You”
✓ Taking the time to listen to other’s problems are some of the everyday positive
stroking that occur in our life.

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 We all require stroking for our mental health, and attention to strokes can greatly
improve communication and people’s feelings.

General Guidelines for developing TA

✓ Develop your own set of up-to-date values, and internalize them so that you can
automatically respond to situations in ways that you and others perceive as
ethical. This is really a job of re-educating your Parent.

✓ Delay your responses to behaviors that tempt your Child or Parent into unthinking
reactions. This gives your Adult time to sort out reality from the feelings of your
Parent and Child.

✓ Be sensitive to the Child in others. It is especially important to help the Not Ok

Child in others to carry its burden. Recognize its need for support, and supply the
necessary positive strokes.

✓ Be sensitive to the Parent in others, and deal with it in a manner that is

appropriate from its point of view. This is usually from an Adult or Child response.

✓ Accept and appreciate the Child within yourself. Let your creative and fun-loving
Child have free rein when appropriate. Recognize when you are angry and spiteful
Child is taking over, and try to temper negative behaviors with positive internal
strokes.

✓ Learn to recognize your Parent. Check out its admonitions and bias with your
Adult. Learn to use your Nurturing Parent when appropriate.

✓ Strive for productive relationships with others. Help them build a healthy Adult.
Relate primarily in an Adult-to-Adult manner—open, trusting, caring, and
appropriate to the situation.

✓ Strive to be aware, perceptive, and receptive to both others and yourself.

Activity

In the group, you have formed, make a thorough discussion on TA and list as many
characteristics as you can for each of the three ego states.

The Johari Window Communication Concept.

According to this theory, the communication transaction is not only a means of
sharing information about things, ideas and tasks but also a means in knowing about selves.

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 For example, when two strangers meet they know nothing about each other but
something about themselves. After an introduction, they know something about each other,
at least their names.

As the transaction progresses (communication continues) they learn more and more
about each other and themselves too.

Psychologists Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham developed a model known as the Johari
Window for their group process program.

The Johari window model consists of a foursquare grid shown in the diagram below.

Known to self Not known to

self

Known to others Free or open Blind area

area

Not known to others Hidden Unknown

area area

Using the Johari model, each person is represented by his/her own four-quadrant, or
four-pane or window. Each of these contains and represents personal information—feelings,
motivation, etc.—about the person, and shows whether the information is known or not
known by him/her selves or other people.

Hence:
- Quadrant 1: Free or Open Area (Arena) represents
what a person knows about him/herself and what others know about the person
too.

- Quadrant 2: Blind area “Blind Spot” designates

what is unknown by the person about him/herself but which others know.
This can be simple information, or can involve deep issues (for example,
feelings of inadequacy, incompetence, unworthiness, rejection) which are
difficult for individuals to face directly, and yet can be seen by others.

- Quadrant 3: Hidden or Avoided Area concerns

what is known by the person and not by others.

- Quadrant 4: Unknown Area includes

things that are unknown by the person about him/herself and is
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 also unknown by others.

The Johari window depicts what a person is characteristically; but there are two key
ideas behind the tool:

1. That individuals can build trust between themselves by disclosing information

about themselves; and

2. That they can learn about themselves and come to terms with personal issues
with the help of feedback from others.

You see, it is a communication model that can be used to improve understanding

between individuals within a team or in a group setting. It centers on giving and soliciting
feedback. Through the feedback process, we see ourselves as others see us. Through
feedback, other people also learn how we see them. The information you give tells others
how their behavior affects you, how you feel, and what you perceive (feedback and self-
disclosure). Feedback is also a reaction by others, usually in terms of their feelings and
perceptions, telling you how your behavior affects them (receiving feedback).

It is therefore, possible to vary the size of each quadrant. For example, if you solicit
feedback consistently and remain receptive to that feedback, the size of your Blind Spot will
decrease. On the other hand you can reduce the size of the Hidden window by telling others
about your perceptions, feelings, and opinions about things in them and yourself. This
feedback tells others exactly where you stand; they no longer need to guess about the
meaning of your actions.

The goal of soliciting feedback and self-disclosure or giving feedback is to move

information from Blind Spot and the Hidden to the Open or Free area, where everyone
accesses it. A large Arena or Free area suggests that much of your behavior is open to your
group members or others. Because of your openness, other group members do not need to
interpret (or misinterpret) or project more personal meanings into your behavior. They
understand your actions and words, and they know you are open to soliciting and giving
feedback.

Nevertheless, you do not need a large Arena with everyone. Disclosing harmless items
builds trust. Disclosing information which could damage people’s respect for you, however,
can put you in a position of weakness.

You have to be careful in the way you give feedback also. Some cultures have a very
open and accepting approach to feedback. Others don’t. Hence, you can cause incredible
offence if you offer personal feedback to someone who’s not used to it. Be sensitive, and
start gradually.

The process of giving and receiving feedback also moves new information from the
unknown into the Arena or Free area. You have an “Ah” experience when you suddenly
perceive a relationship between a here-and-now transaction in the group and a previous
event. You gain insight and inspiration from these experiences.
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Question

Why is feed back important as a communication device? Is it possible to have too much
feedback at the same time? Explain.

Activity

1. At your instructor’s direction, form pairs in the classroom. Your partner should be
someone you are not close with. Learn all you can about each other in four or five
minutes. Evaluate your discussion In terms of trust, openness or self-disclosure, and
the Johari window.

2. Make a list of things you believe are included in most people’s blind area of the Johari
window. Indicate those you think people would like to know about themselves and
those you think people might not like to know abut themselves.

Objectives of Communication
The basic objective of all human communication is to obtain an understanding
response. Likewise, the basic objective of communicating in business and administration is to
obtain an understanding response in administration and business.

Every large and small business (organization) is successful or unsuccessful, depending

on how well it can communicate internally and externally. Hence, the communicant in the
business world or organization uses communication for any one or more of the following
objectives:

To give Information; Advice; Order; Suggestion; Persuasion; Education; Warning; Motivation;

Raising Morale; Initiating Action; Promoting the Image of the Organization; Influencing a
Potential Customer; Increasing Productivity or Establishing Better Relations.

This is, however, a long list and each objective needs its own discussion. Therefore, we
need to look for a few generalized objectives of business that are useful for both inside and
outside the organization to understand business and organizational communication in a
better way.

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 Organizational communication, as discussed in the communication process, involves
answering the WH questions—who, what, where, when, why, or how.
Who -- is concerned with the people who are communicating—
sender/receiver.
What -- is related to the core thought—the key idea, the main point, etc.

where does the message reinforce relationship between the sender

and the receiver?

-- This is related to taking the need, desire, and all human

factors, into account for better understanding (focuses on maintaining
favorable relations or goodwill)
when -- is concerned with the time of the message sent or received.
-- Related to the timeliness of information.
why was the message (or why will it be) sent?
-- Related to the purpose of the message.
Why? - to pass information of any kind—to inform
- to ask for something—to inquire
- to make others accept our ideas, proposals, etc.—
to persuade
how -- How should the message be - worded?
- transmitted?
- sent
-- Related to the skills, methods, and techniques of
communication and its delivery method.

In conclusion, these questions involve the goals (objectives) used by business and
administrative communicators.

Wolf Morris and his companions say, “For written or oral communication, inside and
outside a business firm, the following basic goals recur.”

a) To gain goodwill
b) To Inquire
c) To Inform
d) To Persuade

Note: All of the aforementioned listed objectives are included in these four objectives
somehow. So let us examine each one of these objectives closely.

To Gain Goodwill

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 Goodwill in business is appreciation that a company or an individual acquires beyond
the value of what is sold. The appreciation represents an attitude and a commodity.

The attitude factor is related to the business friendship. Business friendship is the result of
genuine interest in others reflected in the give-and-take business relationship. In other words
it is an experience; an experience in which one admits the importance of others to himself
and of himself to others.

The commodity factor of goodwill is related to its reputation. It is the confidence in,
loyalty for, and satisfaction with the personnel, operations and products of a business.

You see, goodwill is more than the decision of a customer to return where he or she has been
well served. Because it is important in life and business, building goodwill is of high necessity
to every person or organization. How then is it built? Goodwill is built by conveying
justification, showing relevance and developing tone.

Conveying Justification
As an effective business person, first you determine why you send or respond to a
message (purpose). Then, you prepare the message in trying to bring you and your receiver
together (to establish better relationship). In establishing good relationship, therefore, it is
expected from you to convey justification. To justify in this sense is saying what needs to be
said without exaggerating. Hence, it is expected from a good communicator not to become a
miscommunicator called pseudogoodwiller. A pseudogoodwiller is a person who, for
example,

- talks about genuine assistance but provides rarely

- invites to call for help but does not give it
- focuses on appearances rather than on realities etc.

For example, in an office situation, if you ask for information a pseudogoodwiller can
and should supply, he/she promises to give you and “forgets” to do so. If you assign him/her
responsibility for a task, the pseudogoodwiller accepts the responsibility gladly if it connotes
prestige for him/her. Later he/she tells you, in effect (in practice): “So many things were
happening that I didn’t get around to it. “I’ll do it now.” The pseudogoodwiller’s now arrives
late if ever, and the promises remain largely unfulfilled. This is simply a misuse of
communication to gain attention.

By and large, goodwill is not the result of superficial, decorative, or something “nice to
have” words, it is a human blending of ideas and emotions communicated by genuine
helpful, appropriate, and productive action. In conveying justification therefore, you have to
resist the temptation of becoming a pseudogoodwiller and send a message (written or oral)
by balancing ethics and desires. In so doing, you begin to establish goodwill.

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 Showing Relevance

Mind you, you have decided on the purpose and ready to say only what needs to be
said without exaggerating (by balancing ethics and desire). Then you need to tie the
explanations or parts of your message to the core thought (also called gist, main point, or
key idea). When doing so, you have to take the maximum precaution that all the parts of
your business message have relevance (oneness) to the gist.

Developing Tone
You have now decided on your purpose and prepared explanations that build up the
whole message. But that is not all. For building goodwill, you also need to develop the right
tone. Tone is a demonstration of the communicator’s attitude. How the receiver of a
message interprets the tone depends largely on the sender’s careful word choice, paragraph
structure, and punctuations. These devices are not merely decorative; they actually influence
your reader’s judgment and response. To make your receiver interpret your tone
appropriately then, you have to consider the attitude that words can convey. Some words
may be interpreted as condescending, boastful, or curt. Other words may be constructed as
sarcastic, preachy or accusative. Effective communicators use words that convey
considerate, sincere, and positive tone— words that indicate a straightforward, earnest,
confident, courteous, and considerate approach to others.

To Inquire

The second aim of communicating in business is to inquire. When you inquire, you seek to
learn (get information) by asking. If your questions are vague or needlessly wordy, however,
your respondent—although willing to co-operate with you—will hardly know what to say. If
your questions are specific, clear, and concise, on the other hand, the answers are more apt
to be definite and useful. You see, getting the right answer largely lies on effective asking
which is a form of communication art. The art of inquiry will be discussed in the later
chapters. But for the moment, let’s see the types of information an administrator/manager
usually inquires.

Businessmen thrive on information relevant to their business activities. Hence, they need
internal, external, and competitive information in general.

✓ Internal information—strong and weak points pertaining to capital,

production and sale capacity, degree of training to the workers, their efficiency,
etc.
✓ External information—about sources of credit, availability of raw material, etc.
✓ Competitive information—strong and weak points of rival companies and their
past and present performance in the field.

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All these information is needed by a businessperson or an administrator in order to run
his/her business efficiently and profitably.

Before accepting any information, however, the successful manager will make sure that the
information he/she has received is from a reliable source, that it is complete and recent.

To Inform

The third goal of business communicators is giving or supplying information. Informing is

concerned with acquiring knowledge or information first and then sharing it with other
people. Information can be given in writing, orally or by any other system of signs, signals
or symbols. An administrator/manager provides information to:

The outside world: People should be informed about the quality of products, the facilities
provided to workers, the research done by the “scientists” in the employment of the
company, the social services rendered by the company to the community and the country,
etc. This can be done by direct advertising or by the subtle technique of organizing seminars,
conferences and exhibitions.

To the workers in his/her organization: A business organization needs to communicate the

following information internally to its workers:

Information relating to job assignments and the procedure governing them:

This means that the administration must have ready information in its files about every
employee of the organization; the particular job assigned to him/her and the nature of
his/her work.

Information which gives a clear understanding of authority:

This is necessary to avoid confusion and clashes among employees as every employee is given
a clear idea about his/her immediate superiors and his/her responsibility to report to them.

Information which will make possible better reception of instructions:

Illiterate, uneducated and very junior employees have to be given this information so that
they can understand the brief and terse (sudden) orders that may be issued by the executives
of the organization.

To Persuade

The last communication goal is persuasion. To persuade is to have your receiver think or act
as you propose. From this, it follows that in business and administrative communications
persuasion is being used all the time and at all levels of an organization. It can be used to
make a prospective customer buy a product; to make subordinates work better; to suggest a
plan or a change to superiors; to bring round antagonistic parties; to make outsiders more

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cooperative with the activities of the organization; to improve the image of the organization
in the eyes of the workers and the public.

Persuasion is a two edged weapon. While it is essential for effective communication

on one hand, it can also prove harmful to an organization when used by a person who gives ill
advice on the other hand. The persuasive adviser can influence top executives in such a
manner that they find it difficult to reach decisions objectively. The advisor influences their
thinking and often makes them take a wrong decision.

From the view-point of internal management (administration), persuasion is a very important

objective of communication. In modern times it is always better to persuade employees into
doing things or adopting new methods rather than ordering them to change. Workers do not
like to be suddenly ordered to do things in a different way and might resist change by
deliberately obstructing or going slow in their work.

Chapter Two: Problems (Barriers) of Communication

After completing this unit, you should be able to:

✓ Identify the major barriers of communication

✓ Differentiate internal and external communication

✓ Explain the different types of formal communication channel

✓ Explain the formal and informal communication networks

✓ Describe the strength and weakness of formal and informal communication channel

✓ Identify the types of messages that follow in the communication channel

2.1. Barriers of Communication

Communication is a complex process as you have seen studies in the previous section. One
the factors that make it complex and difficult is the existence of several obstacles or barriers.
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In many cases, messages do not flow smoothly in the communication channel because it is
blocked or distorted by personal and external factors or situations. In this section, you will
study problems in the communication process and the general barriers to communication.

It is true that no two persons are exactly alike mentally, physically, or emotionally. Thus, the
innumerable human difference plus cultural, social, & environmental differences may cause
problems in conveying an intended message.

Problems in the communication process

Although most acts of communication are at least partially successful, very few are
perfect. Generally speaking, some meaning is lost as the message encounters various barriers
to communication along the pathway between sender and receiver. With regard to the
process, communication barriers can arise while the message is being developed,
transmitted, received, or interpreted.

A. Problems in developing the message

The first potential source of trouble is formulation of the message. Problems involve
indecision about message content, lack of familiarity with the situation or the receiver,
emotional conflicts, or difficulty in expressing ideas. If you aren’t successful at this point, the
communication process starts out wrong and rapidly goes downhill.

Indecision about content

Deciding what to say is the first hurdle in the communication process. If you know too
little about a subject, you cannot develop an effective or convincing message.
Communication often fails because the sender tries to convey everything that she or he
knows about a subject. When a message contains too much information, it is difficult to
absorb.

If you want to get your point across, therefore, you have to decide what to include
and what to leave out, how much detail to provide, and what order to follow.

Difficulty in expressing ideas

Lack of experience in writing or speaking can also prevent a person from developing
effective messages. Some people have limited education or lack of aptitude when it comes to
expressing ideas. Perhaps they have a limited vocabulary or are uncertain about questions of
grammar, punctuations, and style. Or perhaps they are simply frightened by the idea of
writing something or appearing before a group. In any case, they are unable to develop an
effective message because they lack expertise in using language.

Problems in transmitting the message

Communication may also break down because of problems in getting the message
from sender to receiver. The most obvious transmission problems are physical factors,
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conflicting signals, and too many transmission links:

Physical factors
If you are preparing a written document, make sure that the appearance—its
arrangement and illegibility—does not detract the receiver from your message.
If you are delivering an oral presentation, choose a setting that permits the audience
to see and hear you without straining.

Conflicting signals
When two messages are transmitted at once, there is interference in the
communication line, just as there is interference when two radio signals overlap. Both
messages are garbled, and the receiver has trouble deciphering either one. A similar problem
arises when two messages are contradictory. For example, Abebe told the store supervisor
that he needed time to think about whether to fire an employee. The supervisor
misunderstood, possibly because Abebe’s remark conflicted with company policy. The
supervisor might have been uncertain about which message had higher priority. The result
was a failure of communication. Hence, you should be aware that a conflicting message may
also be conveyed nonverbally—by a tone of voice, a wink, a casual shrug—instead of in
words.

Too many transmission links

Aside from conflicting signals, perhaps the most troublesome transmission problem
arises when the communication chain has too many links. Because everyone’s mental map is
different, some distortion is likely when messages are transferred from person to person. The
original message is interpreted and retold differently by each person in the chain. By the time
the message reaches the end of the line, it may have only a vague resemblance to the original
version. The longer the chain, the bigger the problem.

Problems in receiving the message

Like transmission problems, reception problems often have a physical cause. The
receiver may be distracted by competing sights and sounds, an uncomfortable chair, poor
lighting, or some other irritating condition. In some cases, the barrier may be related to the
receiver’s health
. Hearing or visual impairment, for example, or even a headache, can interfere with reception
of a message. These annoyances don’t generally block communication entirely, but they may
reduce the receiver’s concentration.

Problems in understanding the message

Although messages may get lost anywhere along the communication chain, the
biggest potential trouble spot is the final link, where the message is interpreted by the
receiver. As we shall see later, difference in background, vocabulary, and emotional state can
all lead to misunderstanding.

General barriers to communication

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The major barriers of communication include the following:

1. Choice of inappropriate channel

Poor choice of channel communication can be contributory to the misunderstanding of the
message. The manager must decide whether the communication would be most effective if it
is written or by a telephone call or a face-to-face conversation or a combination of these
modes.

The different communication channels can be personal barriers in that some individuals
always seem to lean toward a particular channel even though a more effective one exists. All
the media have their relative merits and limitations. While a properly chosen medium can add
to the effectiveness of a communication, an unsuitable medium may act as a barrier to it.

Consider, for example, a superior who uses a written memo to let you know about the recent
denial of a promotion. The effective channel in this case might be face-to-face meeting in
which you can ask questions. If a salesperson is required to submit a report based on the
comparative sales figures of the last five years, he/she will fail to communicate anything if
he/she writes a lengthy paragraph about it. He has to present the figures in a tabular form, or
preferably make a bar diagram, which would make communication an instantaneous process.
An employee desirous of expressing his regrets for his earlier misconduct with his supervisor
should meet him personally. Whatsoever a lengthy letter he might write, it can never be as
effective as an earnest look on his face. But if he does not meet him personally, his written
explanation will most probably be misinterpreted. In offices, if memos are frequently issued
to employees to ask them to explain minor things like late arrivals or early departure they
become a source of irritation. A manager using a memo to complement an employee for a
creditable achievement or to congratulate another employee for a wedding is surely creating
communication barrier through the wrong choice of medium.

2. Physical barriers

The physical barriers include noise, time and distance and are briefly explained below.
i. Noise: Anything that interferes with communication and distorts or blocks the
message is noise. Noise is quite often a barrier to communication. In factories oral
communication could be difficult by the loud noise of machines. Electronic noise like
blaring often interferes in communication by telephone. The word “noise” is also used
to refer to all kinds of physical interference like illegible handwriting, smudged copies
of duplicated typescript, poor telephone connections, use of jargons (terms that have
a precise meaning among specialists, but are unfamiliar to others), distraction that

35
 prevents the receiver from paying attention, a worn printer ribbon that makes a
document hard to read, etc.

ii. Time and Distance: Time and distance also act as barriers to communication. Modern
communication facilities like fax, telephone and Internet are not available everywhere.
This is especially a serious problem in our country. Even when these technologies are
available, sometimes-mechanical breakdowns render these facilities ineffective. In
such cases, the distance between the transmitter and the receiver becomes a barrier.
There is a kind of communication gap between persons working in different shifts of a
factory. Can you imagine how difficult it would be to send an urgent message to a
business partner living in America if it had to be done through postal mail?

3. Semantics barriers

Semantic barriers refer to the different uses and meanings of words. Words are symbols;
therefore, they do not necessarily have the same meaning for everyone. The words and
paragraphs must be interpreted with the same meaning as was intended. The choice of a
wrong word or a comma at a wrong place in a sentence can sometimes alter the meaning of
the intended message.

There is also “body language,” which includes facial expressions, the twinkle in the eye,
gesture made, and tone of voice. For example, a word spoken in anger can have an entirely
different meaning from the same word spoken in friendliness. The statement “All right, I’ll
show you how to do the work” can be said with various voice inflections, emphases, and
gestures so that different meanings are imparted to the listener- for instance, a feeling of
encouragement or, in contrast, a feeling of impatience.

In general semantic barriers arise because of many factors and the major ones are discussed
below.

i. Different Interpretations of words by the receiver and the sender

Do you remember a situation where you and your friend understood a word communicated
by somebody else in a different way? The knowledge we each have about a subject or word
affects the meaning we attach to it. Individuals have their own network of words and
meanings available for recall that overlap, but do not correspond exactly, with those of
others. Individuals using their own networks can attach different meanings to words.
Receivers decode words & phrases in conformity with their own network, which may be very
different from those of senders. Words are capable of communicating a variety of meanings.
36
It is quite possible that the receiver does not assign the same meaning to a word as the
sender has intended, that may lead to miscommunication.

For some, a successful career means having prestigious job title and making lots of money; for
others, it may mean having a job they really enjoy & plenty of personal time to spend with
family and friends. Different word interpretations are especially noticeable in ‘bypassed’
instructions & in reactions to denotations, connotations, and euphemisms.

ii. Bypassed instructions or failure to understand instructions to be followed to take

some actions

When the message sender and receiver attribute different meanings to the same words or
use different words though intending the same meaning, bypassing often occurs. Example: An
office manager handed to a new assistant a letter, with the instruction “Take it to our store
room and burn it.” In the office manager’s mind (and in the firm’s jargon) the word “burn”
meant to make a copy on a photocopier. As the letter was extremely important, she wanted
an extra copy. However, the puzzled new employee afraid to ask questions, burned the letter
and thus destroyed the only existing copy! To avoid communication errors of bypassing, when
you give instructions or discuss issues, be sure your words & sentences will convey the
intended meaning to the recipient. Also, when you are the recipient of unclear instruction,
before acting on it, ask questions to determine the sender’s intended meaning.
iii. Denotations, Connotations, and Euphoniums meanings of words

Many of us have at some time been surprised that a remark intended as a complement, or
joke was interpreted by the receiver as an insult. A statement intended as a good deed can be
distorted into something self-serving. Some of these communication problems may occur
because words have both denotative and connotative meanings, and the sender has not
considered the receiver’s probable interpretation and reactions.

Denotations: the denotative meaning is the meaning on which most people will probably
agree. It often is the dictionary definition. The word informs the receiver & it names objects,
people, or events without indicating positive or negative qualities. Such words are car, desk,
book, house, water conveys denotative meaning, provided, of course, that the
communicators understand the English language & provided that the receiver has a similar
understanding of the context in which the word is used.

Connotations: in addition to more literal denotative meanings, some words have connotative
meanings that arouse qualitative judgments and personal reactions. The term ‘meeting room’
is denotative. Director’s lounge, executive suite, boardroom, though they each denote a
meeting place, also has connotative meanings. The word ‘student’ is denotative; bookworm,

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scholar, dropout, school dummy, gunner are connotative. Some words have favorable
connotations in some contexts but unfavorable meanings in other instances. Compare, for
example, fat check and fat girl; free enterprise and free (rude, bold) manners; cheap products
& cheap price.

The communicators’ different backgrounds and interests also affect the connotative
meanings for words. On hearing that a particular person is ‘cool’, members of one generation
may take it to mean the person is fun to be with, while members of earlier generation may
believe it means that the individual is unemotional & insensitive.

Euphemisms: tactful writer & speakers are euphemisms whenever possible to replace words
that might have blunt, painful, lowly, or distasteful connotations. Euphemisms are mild,
innovative expressions with which most people do not have negative associations.
Expressions like the following have obvious connotative advantage: maintenance worker or
staff member instead of janitor; slender instead of skinny; restroom instead of toilet. Instead
of saying an employee was fired, a communicator may use such euphemism as laid off,
terminated, or a victim of reorganization or staff cutbacks.

To communicate effectively you need to be aware of the usual connotative meanings of

various terms and also to realize that some people may have their own unique meanings
because of their experiences and background. Thus choose your words carefully, considering
both their connotations and other denotations to convey the idea you want and achieve the
desired results.

4. Difference in the perception of reality

Perception relates to the process through which we receive and interpret information from
our environment and create a meaningful word out of it. The reality of an object, an event, or
a person is different to different people. Reality is not a fixed concept; it is complex, infinite
and continually changing. Besides, each human being has limited sensory perceptions-touch,
sight, hearings, smell, and taste and each person’s mental filter is unique. People perceive
reality in different ways. No two persons perceive reality in identical manners. We make
various abstractions, inferences, and evaluations of the world around us. Hearing what we
want to hear and ignoring information that conflicts with what we know can totally distort
the intent or content of the message. Some of the perceptual situations that may distort a
manager’s assessment of people resulting in reduced effectiveness of the communication are-
Stereotyping, halo effect, contrast and selective perception.
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5. Attitudes and Opinions: communication effectiveness is influenced also by the
attitudes and opinions the communicators have in their mental filters. People tend to
react favorably when the message they receive agrees with their views towards the
information, the set of facts, and the sender. In addition, sometimes unrelated
circumstances affect their attitudes, and responses like:

A. Emotional state: a person’s ability to encode a message can become impaired when
a person is feeling strong emotions. For example, when you are angry, it is hard to
consider the other person’s viewpoint and to choose words carefully. Likewise, the
receiver will have difficulty in decoding a message when her/his emotions are
strong. For instance, a person who is elated at receiving good news might not pay
close attention to some one else’s words or body language. Some one who is angry
might pay attention but misinterpret a message in light of her/his anger.For
example, a manager who has just an disagreement with a spouse is not likely to
receive a quarterly report showing a downturn in sales with much sensitivity or to be
open to explanations as to why sales are low. However, it is possible that, with time
to cool off, the manager will be more willing to listen to reasons for poor sales.

B. Favorable or Unfavorable information: rejecting, distorting, and avoiding are three

common undesirable, negative ways receivers react to information they consider
unfavorable. For example, if a change in the policy of an organization proves
advantageous to employees, they welcome it as good; if it is contrary to their beliefs
or benefits, they may reject, or resent the company and their boss, perhaps falsely
accusing them of being unfair. Or they may instead, distort, the meaning and
misinterpret the true purpose of the policy change. Or they may avoid the message;
situation or people by putting off acceptance, hoping that the delay will some how
prevent the change & protect them.

C. Closed mind: some people have a closed mind toward receiving new information.
The closed-minded person is one of the most difficult to communicate with.
Typically this person has only inadequate and mainly incorrect knowledge of the
subject. Yet s/he refuses to consider any new facts, even from an expert who has
made a long, careful study of the problem and the proposed change. The closed
minded person says in essence: “my mind is made up” “Don’t bother me with facts”
“I want what I want”. Closed-minded people stubbornly reject, distort or avoid a
viewpoint before they know the facts.

D. Status consciousness: people in the upper areas of organization’s hierarchy, those

who have more status & power, may be hesitant to listen to those individuals lower
39
 in the hierarchy, feeling for example, that people of lower status & power do not
possess any useful information. By the same token, people of lower status & power
may be reluctant to share information because they believe that people with higher
status & power will not listen. Subordinates are afraid of communicating any
unpleasant information to their managers. They may be afraid that they might
displease their superiors by telling them unpleasant facts. Or they may fear that
unfavorable communication may adversely reflect upon their own competence. The
subordinates also find it difficult to offer proposals for the improvement of the
organization, for such proposals are not usually encouraged.

6. Sender credibility
People react more favorably when a communicator has high credibility – when they
respect, trust, and believe in the communicator and the message is taken much more
seriously and accepted at face value. That means, a sender’s credibility plays an
important role in how a message is received and understood. If the receiver does not
consider the sender trustworthy or knowledgeable about the subject being
communicated, s/he will most likely be reluctant even to listen to the message. For
example, if you learn that your tutor has no educational background about business
communication, you may feel that he/she has little knowledge concerning the area of
management and, thus, place little weight on anything he/she tells you concerning the
subject. Likewise, a sender may limit what s/he communicates to a receiver who is not
considered trustworthy. For instance, if an employee offers an idea for a more
efficient way to perform a job & his supervisor takes credit for it, then the employee is
more likely to withhold future information from the supervisor, as he will probably not
trust the supervisor with such information.

7. Information overload
Information overload refers to the condition of having too much information to
process. The implication is that individuals can effectively process only a certain amount
of information. An example would be if your professor gave you too much information,
too quickly, concerning a term paper’s requirements or if a manager gave an employee
too much information at one time about a report’s requirements. In either situation, the
receiver probably does not receive the entire message. Managers need to be aware of
potential for information overload & to make appropriate adjustments.

8. Cultural barriers

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 The cultural differences can adversely affect the communication effectiveness,
especially for multi-national companies and enterprises with multi-ethnic workforce.

9. Fear
When communication is expressed under tension or nervousness, its effectiveness can
be changed considerably-usually disadvantageously, yet in some instances,
advantageously-by increasing mental and physical energy and alertness.

10. Snap reactions

When a receiver feels little will be gained by listening or reading carefully, the
communication is almost certain to be ineffective. The possibility that the giver has a
new idea, fact, or point of view doesn’t occur to the receiver. Frequently this condition
exists in communication between two persons in conflict or when one person is short-
tempered.

11. Assumptions
Another barrier is making and acting on unjustified assumptions. Everyone makes
assumptions about a working environment and the people in it. But when a high- or a
low-level assumption is made without checking the facts, trouble and communication
breakdown can take place. It is well to be alert to the assumptions made, and the reader
should not assume that the receiver understands what she or he has been told. That
assumption is one of the biggest causes of communication failure. Mutual
understanding must not be taken for granted.
12. Degree of motivation
When communicating, people have various motives-to persuade, to tell, to entertain,
and to reinforce ideas. The enthusiasm displayed and the interest shown definitely
conditions the communication. When it is planned to appeal to the assumed motives of
the participant, it usually is more effective.

13. Differing backgrounds

Differences in background can be one of the major communication barriers to
overcome. Age, education, gender, social status, economic position, cultural
background, temperament, health, beauty, popularity, religion, political belief, even a
passing mood can all separate one person from another and make understanding
difficult. To overcome the barriers associated with differing backgrounds, avoid
projecting your own background or culture onto others. Clarify your own and
understand the background of others, spheres of knowledge, personalities and
perceptions and don’t assume that certain behaviors mean the same thing to everyone.
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 In the above discussion we have seen general barriers to effective communication in
organizations and outside of the organization. In the following section, our discussion
focuses on the specific barriers attributed to managers and subordinates.

Unit Three: Principles of Communication

After completing this unit, you should be able to:
Use seven c’s of communication for preparing effective messages

The Seven C’s of Business Communications

The seven C’s of communication are Completeness, Conciseness, Consideration,

Concreteness, Clarity, Courtesy and Correctness. They are explained as follows:

1. Completeness
A business message whether oral or written is said to be complete when it contains all facts
the reader or listener needs for the reaction you desire. Completeness is necessary for several
reasons: First, complete messages are more likely to bring the desired results without the
expense other messages. Second, they can do better jobs of building images/goodwill. Third,
they can help avert costly lawsuits that may result is important information is missing.

Guidelines for Completeness include:

i. Answer all Questions Asked: when you are replying to an inquiry try to answer all
questions asked. A prospective customer’s reaction to an incomplete reply is likely to
be unfavorable. The customer may think the respondent is careless or is purposely
trying to conceal a week spot. For instance, in a reply to a customer request, if you fail
to answer the entire question, you might loss a customer. Hence, you should take your
time to give reply to the customer.

ii. Give Something Extra, when desirable: if you receive a letter with the word “when
desirable”, it implies that you must give more information in addition to the questions
asked.

iii. Check for the WH questions and any other essentials: to help make our message
complete is to answer, whenever desirable, the ‘WH’ questions who, where, what,
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 when, why and other essentials like how. For instance, to organize a concert, we need
to specify the type of concert (what), location (where), date and time (when),
performers (who), and other necessary details (how).

2. Conciseness
A concise message saves time and expense for both sender and the receiver. Conciseness is
saying what you have to say in the fewest possible words without compromising the other
C’s. Conciseness contributes to emphasis. By eliminating unnecessary words, you help make
important ideas stand out.

To achieve conciseness, try to observe the following guidelines:

1. Eliminate Wordy expressions: eliminate unnecessary words from your statements.

✓ Wordy: If and when we can establish and define our goals and objectives, each and every
member will be ready and willing to give aid and assistance.

✓ Instead: When we define our goals, each member will be ready to help.

✓ Wordy: There are 4 rules that should be observed.

✓ Concise: Four rules should be observed.

2. Include only Relevant Statements: the effective, concise message should omit not
only unnecessarily wordy expressions but also irrelevant material. To be sure you
include only relevant facts, observe the following suggestions:

✓ Stick to the purpose of the message

✓ Prune irrelevant works and rambling sentences

✓ Omit information obvious to the receiver; do not repeat at length what that
person has already told you

✓ Avoid long introductions, unnecessary explanations, excessive adjectives and

prepositions

✓ Get to the important point tactfully and concisely

3. Avoid Unnecessary Repetition: Sometimes repetition is necessary for emphasis. But

when the same thing is repeated again and again without reason, the message
becomes wordy and boring.

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3. Consideration
Consideration is to show care for your listener or reader, to see things from the receiver’s
point of view, and to have a ‘you-attitude’ instead of ‘I-attitude’. Are you considerate?
• Do you show your readers you care about their needs in the message you send
and the way in which you send it?

• Have you looked at your letter from your reader’s point of view?

• Have you used a warm, friendly tone that tells your readers you care about their
needs?

The following are guidelines to achieve consideration:

1. Focus on ‘you’ instead of ‘I’ or ‘’We’: Your receivers are more concerned about
themselves than about you or the organization you represent. They are more likely
to read your message when they see their name and the pronoun “you” rather than
“I”, “we”, or “us”.

We-attitude You-attitude
I want to send my congratulations for …. Congratulations to you on your …
we give the best service from around the You can get the best service from around the
locality locality
We welcome you to our online bookshop. If You are welcome to our on-line bookshop.
we can be of additional help, please call on us Please call on us whenever you need
additional help
We pay 8% interest on … You earn 8% interest on…

N: B In situations like below, it is advisable not to use ‘YOU’.

i. When the reader has made a mistake

• Poor: Your contract tells you clearly not to

• Better: I am glad to explain more fully the contract terms.

ii. When a reader has an opinion different from us.

• Poor: You are entirely wrong in your attitude.

• Better: The proposed plan has three aspects which are extremely important
and which we need to explain now.

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 2. Show Reader Benefit or Interest in Reading: whenever possible, show your receiver
the benefit that they will get from the message. They will be more likely to react
favorably and do what you suggest if you show what benefits are worth the effort
and cost.

3. Emphasize the Positive, Pleasant Facts: a third way to show consideration is for
your audiences is to accent on the positive. This means stress on what can be done
instead of what cannot and focus on words your recipient will consider favorably.

Negative-unpleasant positive –pleasant

It is impossible to open an account for you As soon as your signature card reaches us, we
today will gladly open an account….
We do not refund if the returned item is solid We refund when the returned it is clean and
and unsalable resalable

4. Apply Integrity and Ethics: to be truly considerate, you need also apply integrity-
high moral standards, personal honor, truthfulness, sincerity-to your written and oral
messages. Integrity is indispensable in our jobs, in business transactions, in social and
political activities, in everything we do. Without it, business communications would prove
worthless, and our confidence in people would be shattered.

Ethics is concerned with what is right human conduct. Communication requires honesty and
moral, both within and outside the organization. Integrity with persons outside the
organization requires “Doing the harder right instead of the easier wrong.”
Integrity is also important with or about co-workers. Dishonest behavior towards employer
include claiming sick leave when not ill; internal thefts, etc. Unfair communication about co-
workers includes providing false information about someone to a superior.

4. Concreteness
Concreteness refers to being specific, definite, and vivid rather than vague and general. The
following guidelines should help you compose concrete, convincing messages:

1. Use Specific Facts and Figures: facts and figures tend to last long in somebody’s mind
than general statements, therefore, whenever you can substitute an exact statement
or a figure for a general word to make your message more concrete and convincing.
Look at the following examples:

Vague, general, indefinite Concrete and convincing

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This computer reproduces letters fast This computer types 400 letters in one hour
Our product has win several prizes X product has won first prize in four national
contests within the past three years
Our Company serves the majority of the Our Company serves 60% of the market
market
NASA claims that it has the best Physicists 8 out of the 10 physicists who have won the
from all over the world. ‘Nobel’ prize in the field of physics have
worked in NASA at one point in their lives.

Often vague, general words are opinion words; they may have different meanings to the
sender and the receiver.

2. Put Action in your verbs: As much as possible use the active voice rather than the
passive voice. Who did what to whom stands out loud and clear in active sentences
than passive sentences. For example; if you say, W/t Almaz is generally disliked here.
Her work habits are frequently criticized. Prior to beginning work as supervisor, she
was rated poorly as a leader. Almaz may insist and say: Who dislikes (active) me? Who
criticizes (active) me? Who rates (active) me poorly? She might thus request her
evaluation be written in active form, not passive, so that she confronts her accusers.

3. Choose Vivid, Image-Building Words: among the devices you can use to you’re your
messages forceful, vivid, and specific are comparisons, and figurative language,
concrete instead of abstract nouns, and well-chosen adjectives and adverbs. The
common methods are:

A. Comparisons: Comparing one with its equivalent builds a meaningful picture.

B. Figurative language: figures of speech may express an idea more clearly than
literal language. E.g. Fiker is the one who usually organize social activities;
instead of she is usually the one who organize things.

5. Clarity
Clarity refers to getting a message across so that the receiver will understand what you are
saying easily. You want that person to interpret your message with the same meaning you
have in mind. Accomplishing that goal is difficult because of individual differences in their
experiences, and as a result word may have different meanings to different persons.

Here are some specific ways to help make your messages clear:

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 • Choose short, familiar, conversational words: choose short, familiar, conventional
words whenever possible so that your audiences can understand it quickly. You should
also avoid technical and business jargons.

• Construct effective sentences and paragraphs: short sentences are preferred and you
have to make sure that the sentence you construct have a unified message; i.e. having
one main idea in a sentence or paragraph.

• Achieve appropriate readability and “listenability” – adapt your business messages

so that their words-and –sentence level will be appropriate for your recipients’
general education level.

• Include examples, illustrations, and other visual aids, when desirable: you can
improve the clarity of you message by giving illustration, examples, or visual aids such
as tabulation, charts, pictures, etc.

6. Courtesy
Courtesy comes from sincere ‘you-attitude’. Courteous messages help to strengthen present
business friendships, as well as make new friends. Courtesy requires:
1. Being Sincerely Tactful, Thoughtful, and Appreciative - Tactful instead of bluntness.
Not only tactful but messages should also be thoughtful and appreciative.

• Blunt: Obviously, if you’d read your policy carefully, you’d be able to answer
these questions yourself.

• Tactful: Sometimes policy wording is a little hard to understand. I’m glad to

clear up these questions for you.

2. Omit Expressions that Irritate, Hurt, or Belittle: do not offend the reader or listener of
your message. Avoid expressions such as: you forgot to; you surely don’t expect; you
failed to; you are probably ignorant of the fact that; you have to etc.

3. Grant and Apologize Good-Naturedly: begin your message with the good news and
continue with a courteous and willing tone.

7. Correctness
The correctness principle comprises more than proper grammar, punctuation, and spelling. A
message may be perfect grammatically and mechanically but still insult or lose a customer
and fail to achieve its purpose. The term correctness, as applied to a business message,
means the writer should:

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 1. Use of the right level of language: there are 3 level of the English language formal,
informal, and substandard, which are used in different situations. Formal level is usually
used for scholarly dissertation, legal documents, or government agreements. The
informal level is used for writing business letter, newspaper, reports, etc. The
substandard has to be avoided at all times. Example;

Formal Informal
Anticipate Expect
Endeavor Try
Terminate End
Utilize Use

2. Maintain Acceptable writing Mechanics: use words correctly. Watch out for spelling
errors and careless omission.

Spelling errors: nad (and); form (from)

Careless Omission: NO (NO.)
3. Choose Nondiscriminatory Expressions: avoid discrimination between the sexes, races,
ethnic groups, and physical features.

Discriminatory: mankind; manpower; chairman

Nondiscriminatory: human being; human power; chairperson
4. Check Accuracy of Figures, Facts, and Words: check for the correctness of figures, facts,
or words. In some cases inaccurate figure or fact can cause a serious problem. Words
can also be confusing, thus chose correct words to communicate your message. For
example, reporting an amount of $300,000 instead of $30,000 as the total revenue in an
important company meeting.

Chapter Four: Types of Communication in an

Organization
After completing this unit, you should be able to:
✓ Identify the major barriers of communication

✓ Differentiate internal and external communication

✓ Explain the different types of formal communication channel

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 ✓ Explain the formal and informal communication networks

✓ Describe the strength and weakness of formal and informal communication channel

✓ Identify the types of messages that follow in the communication channel

Internal and External Communication

Dear learners, according to the participants, communication in organizations can be classified

as internal and external. What is internal communication? What is external communication?
These are known as Business and Administrative Types of Communications.

Business communication actually is the exchange of business messages/information mainly

verbally (but also nonverbally) between organizations for creating an understanding that
promotes business. Peter Little in his book “Oral and Written Communication” defines it this
way: Business communication is the process by which information is transmitted between
individuals or organizations so that an understanding response results. This means business
communication is mainly an outside or external communication.

Administrative (managerial) communication on the other hand is defined by William Scott in

his book “Organization Theory” as “A process which involves the transmission and accurate
replication of ideas ensured by feedback for the purpose of eliciting actions which will
accomplish organizational goals.” Accurate replication denotes that information passes
different levels, from top to bottom or otherwise, in an organization. Hence, it is mainly an
inside or internal communication.

In both business and administrative environment communication has to be effective.

Communication is effective when a receiver understands a sender in exactly as it is intended
by the sender.

External (business) Communication

External communication is a communication with people outside an organization. It is the
organization’s means of establishing contact with the outside world. External communications
deliver specific businesses messages to individuals outside an organization. They may
announce changes in staff or strategy, earnings, and more. The goal of an external
communication is to create a specific message that the receiver will understand and share
with others.
External communication can have a far reaching effect on the organization’s reputation and
ultimate success. The right letter, proposal, or personal conversation can win back dissatisfied
customer, create a desire for a firm’s product or service, help negotiate a profitable sale,

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encourage collections, motivate performance, in general create goodwill. The following figure
shows you the parties involved in the external communication.

Examples of external communications include: business letters, press releases,

advertisements, web pages, leaflets, invitations, telegrams, proposals, etc. the major ones are
discussed below briefly.

Public Relations/Press Releases

Public relations is an external communication in that professionals create a message about a
client’s product, services, or practices for specific receivers. In time, as the message is passed
along, it should appear to be independent of the sender, creating the illusion of an
independently-generated consumer trend, public opinion, etc.

The message of a public relations effort may be b2b (business to business), b2c (business to
consumer), and/or media related. The message can take different forms. Press releases try to
convey a newsworthy message, real or manufactured. It may be constructed like a news item,
inviting editors or reporters to reprint the message in part or as a whole, with or without
acknowledgement of the sender’s identity. Public relations campaigns create messages over
time through contests, special events, trade shows, and media interviews in addition to press
releases.

Advertisements
Advertising places external business messages before target receivers through media buys. A
media buy is a fee that is paid to a television network, web site, magazine, etc. by an

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advertiser to insert an advertisement. The fee is based on the perceived value of the audience
who watches, reads, listens to, or frequents the space where the ad will appear.

In recent years, receivers have begun to filter advertiser’s messages. This phenomenon is
perceived to be a result of the large amount of ads the average person sees each day and a
growing level of consumer wariness of paid messaging. Advertisers, in turn, are trying to
create alternative forms of advertising that receivers won’t filter. The advertorial is one
example of an external communication that combines the look of an article with the focused
message of an ad. Product placements in videos, movies, and games are other ways that
advertisers strive to reach receivers with commercial messages.

Web Pages
A web page’s external communication can combine elements of public relations, advertising,
and editorial content, reaching receivers on multiple levels and in multiple ways. Banner ads,
blogs, and advertiser-driven “click-through” areas are just a few of the elements that allow a
business to deliver a message to a receiver online. The perceived flexibility of online
communications can impart a less formal (and therefore, more believable) quality to an
external communication. A message relayed in a daily blog post, for example, will reach a
receiver differently than if it is delivered in an annual report. The “real-time” quality of web
communications may appeal to receivers who might filter out traditional ads and public
relations messages due to their “prefab” quality. Despite a “spontaneous” feel, many online
pages can be revisited many times in a single day. For this reason, clear and accurate external
communications are as vital for online use as they are in traditional media.

Customer communications can include letters, catalogs, direct mail, e-mails, text messages,
and telemarketing messages. The key to a successful external communication to customers is
to convey a business message in personally-compelling way-dramatic news, a money-saving
coupon, and so forth.

Internal (administrative or managerial) Communication

Internal communication involves transmission of information within the organization. Among

various ways of communicating with organization are: memos, reports, meetings, face-to-face
discussions, teleconference, video conference, notices, etc.

Internal communication is a vital means of attending to matters of company concern. Internal

communication can be further classified as formal and informal.

Formal and Informal Communication channels

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The formal communication channel takes place using the official channel. Whereas, informal
communication is a communication in which message is transmitted over non-official
channels within the organization.

Formal communication channel/networks

Within the organization, information may be transmitted from superiors to subordinates

(downward communication) subordinates to superiors (upward communication), among people
at the same level on the organizational chart (horizontal communication), and among people in
different departments in different positions within the organization (diagonal communication).
These four types of communication make up the organization’s formal communication network.
The following figure shows the formal communication network.

The direction of organizational Communication

One research showed that managers spend most of their time communication with their
subordinates (46%) and external communication (23%) as given by the following pi-chart.

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How Managers Spend Time Communicating at Work

The formal communication channel is communication that flows along the organization’s lines
of authority. Formal channels of communication are intentionally defined and designed by
the organization. They represent the flow of communication within the formal organizational
structure. Typically, communication flows in four separate directions;
• Downward

• Upward

• Horizontal and

• Diagonal

In the next section, you will study these communication channels.

Downward Communication
Communication that involves a message exchange between two or more levels of the
organizational hierarchy is called vertical communication. It can involve a manager and a
subordinate or can involve several layers of the hierarchy. It can flow in a downward or an
upward direction.

The differences between downward and upward communication can be compared to the
force of water when it flows up or down. Downward communication is like water streaming
down from a waterfall or a showerhead. It pours down easily with great force and wets a
large area, while upward communication is like a small spurt of water shooting up from a
fountain against the pull of gravity. The higher it travels, the more it loses its force. Official
top -to- bottom communication channels flow down with great force and reach a great many
people, but official bottom - to – top channels flow up with difficulty, and reach relatively few
people.

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Downward communications are formal messages that flow from managers to subordinates,
as it is illustrated by the figure below. The message might take the form of a casual
conversation or formal interview between a supervisor and an individual employee. Or it
might be disseminated orally to a group through a meeting, workshop etc. Or it can be a
written memo, news letter, bulletin board announcements.

In downward communication the following types of messages flow from management to

subordinates.
• Job directions: Directions about what to do or how to do it.

• Assignment of tasks and responsibilities

• Performance feedback

• Certain information concerning the organization’s strategies and goals.

• Speeches

• Policy and procedure manuals: Information about rules, regulation that are
guidelines and constraints that tell what to do and what not.

• Employee handbooks

• Company leaflets

• Briefings on the organization’s mission and strategies

• Staff meetings and

• Job descriptions

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 • Job rationales: explaining the relationship between a task and other organizational
tasks.

• Feedback: on employee performance appraisal/individual performance on

assigned tasks.

• Motivational appeals: efforts to encourage a sense of mission and dedication to

the goals of the organization. “If everyone will put in a little extra effort, we can
become the number one producer of X components.”

Problems of Downward Communication

Downward communication across several levels is prone to considerable distortion. Much of
top management’s message may be lost by the time the message reaches five levels below.
There are usually three main reasons for the distortion.

1. Faulty message transmission methods - it may occur because of sender’s carelessness,

poor communication skills, and the difficulty of encoding a message that will be clearly
understood by individuals at multiple levels.

2. One way communication - Another is that managers tend to overuse one-way

communication methods, such as, memos, manuals, and newsletters, leaving little
possibility for immediate feedback regarding receiver understanding.

3. Lack of Awareness - Some managers don't know about all the types of downward
communication. Giving instructions is natural enough, but the other functions such as
explaining organizational rationale and giving feedback aren't so obvious.

4. Insufficient or Unclear Messages -The message may be too brief lacking enough detail
to make it clear. Or it may be too vague to be useful.

5. Message Overload - There can be too many messages, making it difficult to pay
attention to any of them. The Messages can also be too long, disguising important
information in the sea of details or it can be too complicated to understand. Over
leading people with too much information can be like over loading on packhorse: you
run the risk that none of the goods will be delivered.

6. Bad Timing- Giving a good and clear message at the wrong time can cause trouble. For
example, a boss who gives clear message while an employee's phone is ringing or both
are in a hurry shouldn't expect complete understanding. Psychological timing is
important too. For example, it would be a mistake to conduct a performance appraisal
interview just after a worker has had a job setback or while the employee is working out
a personal problem.

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 7. Filtering and Distortion - Another problem in the downward communication is that
some managers may intentionally or unintentionally filter communications by
withholding, screening, or manipulating information. It is hard to understand most
messages that contain bad news. It is very difficult to listen openly and objectively to
someone who talks about your sloppy work or bad attitude, especially when that person
has the power to reward and punish you.

8. Serial Transmission – refers to transmitting a message from one person to another until
it reaches to the intended person. Therefore, as information passes from one person to
another it becomes less accurate. The problem of serial transmission is especially great
in "tall" organization that has several levels of authority. One remedy for information
loss due to serial transmission is to put a message that has to travel through several
hands (and heads) into writing. A second antidote is to ask for feedback from the
receiver as a means of verifying understanding.

Upward Communication

Upward communication is the reverse of down ward communication and it can be defined
as follows: “Upward communication is the flow of information from lower level employee to
upper level employees/mangers”, see the figure below. Upward communication is important
because it provides higher management with the information needed for decision making.
Managers cannot be everywhere at once, therefore, they depend on lower level employees
to furnish them with accurate, and timely reports. Upward communication also enable
management know how their downward messages were received and interpreted by the
employees. It also cultivates employees loyalty by giving employees an opportunity to be
heard, to air their grievances, and to offer suggestions.

In general, the following are the benefits of upward communication:

a) It gives feedback on how accurately downward messages have been received.

b) It indicates how well management decisions are being received.

c) It can increase acceptance of management decisions.

d) It can prevent new problems and diagnose old ones.

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Upward communication can take the form of one-to-one meetings with one’s immediate
supervisor, staff meetings with supervisors, suggestion systems, grievance procedures,
employee attitude survey, progress reports, inquiries, conferences, memos etc.

The following types of messages are valuable when communicated upward.

1. What subordinates are doing: highlights of their work, achievements, progress, and future
job plan.

2. Outlines of unsolved work problems: on which subordinates now need aid or may require
help in the future.

3. Suggestions or ideas for improvements: within departments or in the organization as a

whole.

4. How subordinates think and feel: about their jobs, their associates, and their organization.

Problems with Upward Communication

Three factors create problems with upward communication.

1. Risk

Employees have much to gain by opening to the boss, but there's a chance of big losses as
well. The fear of being punished for communicating upward is highest in two sorts of
organizations: Once with truly unsympathetic management (it is smart to keep quiet in these)
and once in which managers are uncommunicative (where employees have no way of
knowing whether supervisors will support the kind of open communication that sooner or
later becomes necessary.
2. Distortion

One fact of original life is that negative information is less likely to be communicated upward
than positive information.

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In ancient Greece, messengers bringing bad news were slaughtered, and subordinates seem
to fear that this practice hasn't entirely disappeared. No such problem exists with good news.
Subordinates are usually glad to let the boss know how well they've done, sometimes
exaggerating the degree or quality of their brilliance.

Thus, managers run the risk of getting short changed on bad news and overdosed on
favorable reports - hardly an accurate picture of what's going on. Distortion is not entirely the
fault of subordinates. Since many managers dislike bad news, they often twist it or screen it
out. This is especially true when the bad news reflects poorly on the manager's skill.

3. Status Differential

Many bosses having the 'I talk, you listen' behaviors, have the idea that listening to the factual
reports of subordinates is all right, but that ideas and opinions should only flow downward.

How can we improve upward communication?

Most of the responsibility for improving upward communication rests with managers. The
place to begin is for managers to announce their willingness to hear from subordinates. They
must be sincerely interested in hearing from subordinates and genuinely values their ideas.
Managers can use various methods to facilitate upward communication such as:
▪ Following an "open - door" policy

▪ Establishing clear grievance procedures

▪ Conducting periodic interviews

▪ Periodic group meetings and

▪ Using suggestion box

Horizontal Communication
Horizontal communication is the flow of information among employees within the same level
in the organizational chart. Horizontal information informs, supports, and coordinates
activities. Considerable horizontal communication in organizations stems from staff
specialists, in areas such as engineering, accounting, and human resources management, who
provide advice to managers in various departments.

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Horizontal communication is especially important in an organization for the following
purposes:
1. To coordinate task when several employees or departments are each working on part of
an important project.

2. To solve problems such as how to reduce waste or how to increase the number of items
assembled each hour.

3. To share information such as an easier way to perform a task or the results of a new
survey.

4. To solve conflicts such as jealousy or disagreements between coworkers.

5. To build rapport: peer support.

Problem of horizontal communication

The following are factors inhibiting horizontal communication:
i. Rivalry-People who feel threatened by one another aren’t likely to be very
cooperative. The treat can come from competition for a promotion, raise etc…

ii. Specialization -As the amount of work a person or division does become more
technical, others in the organization have a harder time understanding it.

iii. Lack of Motivation- Every one agrees about the importance of communicating more,
but often no strong motivation to do exists.

iv. Physical Barriers- Colleagues who work in different areas aren't as likely to keep in
close contact as those who rub shoulders everyday.

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Diagonal Communication
Some organizational structures employ teams comprised of members from different
functional areas, even different levels of the hierarchy. When these individuals from different
units and organizational level communicate, it is diagonal communication. With more and
more firms reducing the number of management layers and increasing the use of self
managed work teams, many workers are being required to communicate with others in
different departments and on different levels to solve problems and coordinate work. For
instance, a team might be formed from all functional areas (accounting, marketing,
operations, and human resources) to work on a specific product project to ensure that all
points of view are considered.

Informal Communication (Grapevine)

A middle manager of a medium-size manufacturing company was surprised when a fellow
employee congratulated him on his promotion. He has received no formal announcement
from the organization.

Not all messages flow along the official paths prescribed by the organization’s chain of
command. Many messages, as in the example above, flow along an informal network
commonly called the ‘grapevine’. Informal communication, better known as grapevine, is
communication that takes place without regard to hierarchical or task requirements. Informal
communication channels are not deliberately designed and therefore, are not abide by the
formal organizational hierarchy or chain of command.

One classical study investigated four possible configurations for grapevine chains.
• Single-stand chain: communication moves serially from person A to B to C and so on
(each tells one other).

• Gossip chain: person A seeks out and tells others (one tells all).

• Probability chain: person A spreads the message randomly; as do individuals F & D

(each randomly tells others).

• Cluster chain: person A tells selected individuals and then one of these tells selected
others (some tell selected others). The study found that the cluster chain was the
most predominant form, which suggests that individuals who euphonium are part of
grapevines are likely to be selective about the persons to whom they relay information
and that only some of these persons will in turn pass the information further.

Despite the fact that grapevines sometimes create difficulties when they carry gossip and
false rumors, they are a fact of life in organizations, and it is unrealistic for managers to think
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that they can eliminate grapevine. The type of information the grapevine carries depend on
the ‘health’ of the organization. If managers are fairly open with employees and send all
necessary information through formal channels, the grapevine usually caries only personal
interest items. However, when the formal communication channels fail to do the job, the
grapevine begins to carry information about the organization. In other words, the grapevine
busies itself with official matters only when the formal channels of communication fail to
deliver, are not understood, or are not accepted by the people for whom the messages are
intended.

Research has found that although some entirely false rumors are spread by the grapevine,
information passed by this means is 75-95 % accurate. Informal messages may be more
accurate than the formal ones because status, power and rank differences are temporarily set
aside. Overall, grapevines tend to be fast, and carry large amounts of information.

Managers who listen carefully to the informal communication find it useful source of
information about employees concerns and problems. Some managers actually leak new
ideas or proposals to the grapevine to test worker response. If an idea is greeted with
hostility, they drop it or reverse it; if the idea is received positively, they introduce it into
official channels. The grapevine can also help to disseminate information about organizational
traditions and history.
Functions of Informal Communication to organization
1. Confirming: Some informal communication confirms formal messages.

2. Expanding: Informal communication can fill in the gaps left by incomplete formal
messages.

3. Expediting: Informal networks can often deliver messages more quickly than can
official channels.

4. Contradicting: Sometimes informal networks contradict official messages.

5. Circumventing: Informal contacts can sometimes help you short cut official channels
that are unnecessarily cumbersome and time consuming.

6. Supplementing: Sometimes even management realized that informal communication

can get the job done better than can the more formal variety.

Who Uses the Grapevine?

Some people become very active on the grapevine when the organization is undergoing
periods of instability or excitement. Layoffs and rumors of impending automation or
electronic dates processing tend to start the grapevine working overtime. At such times,
managers should take care to "feed" grapevine accurate information to keep the rumor level

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down so that it doesn't affect morale and production rates. Some people are active on the
grapevine only when their personal feelings are involved.

Most grapevine messages are short-lived. People become easily board by stale gossip. Some
people, however, always have the latest "dirt." They are the controls transmitters on the
grapevine line and sometimes the ones to consult when it is necessary to find out "what is
really going on." Such people are the "stars" of the grapevine channel - hence called
grapevine leaders.
How Accurate Is It?
A study showed that in normal, non-controversial work situations, a little over three fourth of
all the messages carried by the grapevine were accurate. Grapevine messages are not 100%
accurate. It is distorted. The reason is that the message invariably carries the personal
impressions and emotional reactions of each person on the communication chain, as well as
the information. Because of this some managers view the grapevine as a demoralizing
influence that leads to irresponsible behaviors and lowered production rates and sometimes
destroys morale and reputations. Rumors are subject to distortion because people are
interested in the subject matter, and they filter and distort those details that do not interest
them and enlarge & elaborate the ones that due.

Chapter Five: Types of correspondences

After completing this unit you should be able to:

➢ Differentiate letter, memo and reports

➢ Explain the formats of business letter, identify its parts and their positions

➢ Identify the styles of business letters

➢ Write an effective business letters

➢ Explain the parts of a memo

Next we will discuss letters and memos(memoranda) as examples of written communication and
presentation and interview as examples of oral communication.

Business Letters and memos

Business letter is one of the most important verbal communication methods. It serves as an
ambassador for an organization in any correspondence with its stakeholders. Therefore, it

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should be written with great care taking in to account several factors. In this section of the
unit, you will learn the points to be considered while writing a business letter, formats of the
business letter and styles of business letters and business memos.

Business Letters

A business letter is a formal way of communicating between two or more parties in writing. It
can be informational, persuasive, motivational, or promotional. The most important points
that should always be taken in to consideration before writing a business letter is to identify a
specific audience to whom one is writing, defining the objective clearly and in a concise
manner.

Points to be considered in writing business letters

A good business letter;
• should be communicative
• Use positive opening statements
• should be accurate, thoroughness, concise, clear, and prompt
• should have a standard part and supplemental parts

Letter parts (Basic Parts)

You will use the following basic parts of letters in almost all letter styles.
1. heading/Return address/Sender’s address

This is important for any organization released letter. The return address on the letter serves
as a necessary reference for the recipient. It doesn't include the name of the sender because
it appears at the end of the letter.

2. Date

The date line is used to indicate the date the letter was written. It serves as an important
tracking device for a letter. Both senders and recipients use the date to identify a particular
piece of correspondence. It indicates the date, the month and year in which the letter is
written for example, March 9, 2009.

3. Inside Address

This part carries the postal, telephone, fax etc addresses of the receiver of the business letter.
It serves as a future reference on the copy the sender keeps. The address's name should also
include his or her title in the inside address.

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 4. Salutation

This part is carries simple expression of greeting and appears beneath the inside address.
Example, Dear sir, Dear Alemu, and Dear Manager etc are the common salutation.
Traditionally, the salutation includes the word Dear with the receiver’s name following.

5. Subject line

This serves as a title of the letter message. It has two major advantages. First, it readily
identifies to someone the nature of the correspondence. People may not have to possibly
waste time reading the document, because the subject line identifies who should receive the
letter. Second, it provides key words that will help the recipient get to the core of your
message quickly.
6. Body of the letter

The body of the letter begins one space below the message heading. It carries the actual
message you are sending.

7. Complimentary Closes

This serves as polite, "Complimentary" transition from the end of the message to your
personal signature. Common phrases used as complimentary closes include the following:
Sincerely, Yours truly,
Sincerely yours, Yours very truly,
Cordially, With best wishes,
Cordially yours, With best regards.

8. Signature, Name and official Title

When presenting the name at the end of the letter, you generally do not include the sender's
title (such as Mr., Mrs., Dr...). However, the person sending the letter includes his or her
official job title.

Supplementary Parts of Business letters

Several pieces of reference information may appear at the bottom of a letter. They begin a
double space below the official title of the sender. For all letter styles, they appear at the left
margin. This includes:

9. Reference initials

If you compose and dictate a letter and someone else prepares the printed copy, both
individuals' initials should appear at the bottom of the letter. The initials of the person who
composed the letter appear in all capital letters. Followed by a colon or slash and then the
preparer's initials in small letters.
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 10. Enclosure Notations

If you have enclosed any documents along with the letter, such as a resume, you indicate this
simply by typing Enclosures one line below the closing. As an option, you may list the name of
each document you are including in the envelope. For instance, if you have included many
documents and need to ensure that the recipient is aware of each document, it may be a
good idea to list the names.

These are standard notations which refer to important materials that are needed by the
receiver which are attached with the original letter. We use one of the following notations:
Encl: single page/material to be enclosed
Encls: more than one page materials to be enclosed

11. Copy Notations

If you send a copy of the letter to others, note that person or group of individuals in the
reference information section of the letter. CC-carbon copy, PC photographic copy and BCC-
blind carbon copy are standard abbreviations which refer to copies of letter concerned to
make them become aware of the letter communicate.

12. Postscript

It is an additional message, sometimes an entire paragraph, which writers add at the bottom
of the page. You can use this tool to send along another message to your reader and
emphasize the main message in some way (PS).

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66
Styles of Business letters

1. Block Format (Full Blocked)

When writing business letters, you must pay special attention to the format and font used.
The most common layout of a business letter is known as block format. Using this format, the
entire letter is left justified and single spaced except for a double space between paragraphs.
2. Modified Block

Another widely utilized format is known as modified block format. In this type, the body of
the letter is left justified and single-spaced. However, for the date and closing, tab to the
center point and begin to type.
3. Semi-Block

The final, and least used, style is semi-block. It is much like the modified block style except
that each paragraph is indented instead of left justified.

Keep in mind that different organizations have different format requirements for their
professional communication.

4. Font
Another important factor in the readability of a letter is the font. The generally accepted font
is Times New Roman, size 12, although other fonts such as Arial may be used. When choosing
a font, always consider your audience. If you are writing to a conservative company, you may
want to use Times New Roman. However, if you are writing to a more liberal company, you
have a little more freedom when choosing fonts.

5. Punctuation

Punctuation after the salutation and closing - use a colon (:) after the salutation (never a
comma) and a comma (,) after the closing. In some circumstances, you may also use a less
common format, known as open punctuation. For this style, punctuation is excluded after the
salutation and the closing.

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Memos (memoranda)
Memos are the documents most often exchanged among people within organizations.
However, sometimes you may be sending memos to individuals in other branches of your
company.

People within organizations primarily and regularly communicate by writing memos. Memos
let others in the company know what they are doing to keep the business running smoothly.
As with letters, people use memos for three communication purposes:
i. To inform others: You will use memos to inform people, to inform about meetings,
to report the status of various projects in which you and others are involved, to
inform about company policies and procedures, and to inform about personal
matters.

ii. To deliver bad news: For example, you may need to notify an employee of a transfer
to another department, deny an employee a promotion, or dismiss an employee.

iii. To persuade other: You may write memos to persuade some one;

• To implement an idea you have

• To follow company policy

• To use supplies more efficiently

• To change undesired behaviors

• To purchase equipment

• To change the way the company is operating or doing business.

Formats of memos
Memos have different layouts, and different companies have their own styles and sometimes-
specific forms. Most memos include the following elements:

1. Title

The word memorandum or memo is usually centered at the top of page or placed at the left
margin.
2. ''To'' and ''From'' lines

68
The memo always included lined using the words to and from to quickly show that the
addressee and sender are. Titled are not used, as the parties usually know one another and
because this in-house communication is not formal,
3. Date

Dates are important for filing and tracking chronology.

4. Subject line

This concisely summarizes the contents of the memo.

Style and tone of letters / memos are governed by the relationship between the writer & the
reader. The options range from forceful to passive, from personal to impersonal, and from
colorful to bland.

Memo's format is different from that of letters. The body of a memo, especially a longer one,
often includes headings and lists to call attention to important points and make the
information convenient to readers.

Introduction and transitions may be given less attention in a memo than in a letter, because
the writer and reader share a common frame of reference.
How Sample

Letter Composition
Prior to starting sentence construction or deciding what ideas go into the letter,
however, the writer ought to make a choice among many logical developments of writing
(organization)—deductive, inductive, simple to complex, etc. This is so, because letters that
convey a favorable message are organized differently from letters that convey an unfavorable
message. Composing persuasive letters asks still a different organization.

To do this well then, we need to exert some effort first. That effort or endeavor is
predicting the reaction of the receiver. To any message in a business letter, a reader is likely
to react in one of the following ways.

✓ Interested but not emotionally involved

✓ Pleased
✓ Displeased
✓ Not initially interested

But, “How is it possible to predict the reader’s reaction?” Predicting reader’s reaction
is possible in answering the following questions.

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 ✓ What is the main idea to be used?
✓ What will the reader’s reaction likely to be to this main idea?

It is apparent that the answer to the second question can be derived from the answer
to the first. Let us say that the main idea of a letter is to reveal that a request is being
granted. Then knowing the satisfaction that comes when their own requests are granted, a
writer can safely assume that the recipient will be pleased with the basic content of the letter.
On the whole, writers can draw upon their own experiences to predict the reactions of
others. The messages that would please them would please others; the messages that would
displease them would displease others.

After a letter has been classified into one of the above categories, there is no problem
in organizing it into a message that will be clear and that facilitates human relations.

6.2.1. When will the Reader be Interested?

The business letter is still one of the main vehicles for transmitting messages to and
from customers. It means transactions are carried out by way of exchanging letters such as
routine, goodwill, no, persuasive and other types. For the reason, it is customary for
managers to wait for all types of letters generally by being interested day in day out to come
to their desks. They are especially interested in such routine letters as requests and neutrals.
They are interested but not
emotionally involved because these letters are about the day-to-day activities and moreover
they neither please nor displease them.

The requests and neutrals include the followings.

Requests:
- Inquiries
- Claims (complaints) and requests for adjustment
- Requests for action (related to routine business procedures)
- Invitations, orders, and reservations

Neutral Reaction Message:

- Announcements
- Transmittals

What type of logical development should the writer use for such category of letters?
For the routine information or requests like these ones, you assume the reader will do as
you request, once he/she understands what you want and why you want it. Thus, you use
the direct (deductive) approach in organizing your letters.

a) Present the main idea (first paragraph)

i) Introduce your request, major statement, or question.
70
 ii) State reasons, if desirable, justifying the request.

b) Explanation (second and subsequent paragraphs, if any)

i) Include details necessary to help the reader respond to your
request correctly.
ii) Consider numbering your questions (if more than one) for easy
reading and answering.

c) Courteous close with motivation to action (third or last paragraph)

i) State clearly what action you want the reader to take—and when.
ii) Express appreciation and, if appropriate, include a statement of
goodwill or reader benefit.

Let’s Discuss the above Category of Letters one by one

Requests

The following types of letters are categorized under requests because they are a form
of requests in one way or another.

Inquiries
To get facts that you need and cannot conveniently or economically obtain yourself,
you write inquiries requesting information. Thus, you seek information about persons and
messages inquiring about products, services, prices, and other matters.

A letter that inquires

ABCD Furniture Co.

P. O. Box -----
Addis Ababa

Ladies and Gentlemen:

May we have credit information about Ato Abebe Kebede? He has applied for credit with us
and has given your business as a reference. Main idea (Inquiry)

After filling in the blanks on this page, use the back side for additional remarks if necessary.
Your reply will be in strict confidence.
Length of time sold on credit __________________
Highest credit extended __________________
Credit limit __________ ________
Normal paying habits __________________
Remarks __________________ Explanatory details

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Thank you for your help. Please call on us when we can be of similar assistance.
Closure with an expression of appreciation
Truly yours, and a look to the future.

Tasew Balcha (Dr.)

Credit Manager

Note

1. Although all the three paragraphs are equally important for this letter, the first one
is most important from the point of view of direct outline. Hence, you have to
word the inquiry carefully so that it says exactly what you want to say.

2. Nevertheless, as discussed in earlier chapters, since the amount of words you use in
your writing depends on the amount of your vocabulary, your paragraph can be short
or long.

Let us see how different people write the first paragraph (main idea) of the above letter
differently.

By Ato Tenkir Zeberga

• Would you please help us determine whether Ato Abebe Kebede is a suitable person
for credit. He has applied for credit with us and has given your organization as a
reference.

By W/ro Gebeyanish Tulu

• Ato Abebe Kebede—an accountant in XWX Plc.—has given us your company as a
reference, when he applied with us for a credit. We would be thankful if you give us
information about his credit experience.

By W/rt Asmeret G/Sellasie

• Will you take a minute to give us your honest opinion about Ato Abebe Kebede, who
was your customer while he was in Adama. He has applied with us for a credit and
given us your company as a reference, very proudly.

Claims/Complaints
Whenever you are dissatisfied with a product, service, or policy, it is to your
advantage—and the company’s (because they point to areas of company activity that need
strengthening or revising)—to communicate with the right person promptly about the desired
correction. Thus, these are requests for adjustment when,

o service is unsatisfactory
72
 o letters are not answered promptly
o orders arrive late
o merchandise is damaged
o problems arise in the course of business in general

January------

The Manager
Addis Printing Press Plc.
P. O. Box ------
Addis Ababa

Dear Sir:

1. Please send a replacement copy of the book that is attached.

(This sentence (paragraph) briefly reveals the claim. It requests action)

2. When it was delivered in response to my order (see copy attached), pages 17 through 32
were missing.
(This paragraph explains the details supporting the request for actions. It presents reason)

3. I shall appreciate you sending a complete volume in exchange.

(This one closes with a confident references to the action desired)

Yours truly,

Hirut Goitom (Phd.)

Chief Librarian

This claim letter may have a different set up as follows.

1) Enclosed is a copy of the book which was delivered this morning. I

wish its replacement by a correct one.

* Main idea—claim (request for adjustment)

2) When I received the 10-volume books which I ordered, I have noted one
problem and that is in volume 2 pages 17 through 32 are missing.

* Explanatory/details

3) I shall appreciate your sending a complete volume in exchange.

* Closure with an expression of appreciation for taking the action requested.

73
Note: Claim (request for adjustment) letters are written by the buyer whenever there is fault.
The fault, however could be
- the company’s
- the buyer’s himself or
- the third party’s

Thus, answers could be

- yes
- no or
- compromised

Requests for Action (Related to Routine Business Procedures)

This is asking your reader either within or outside the organization
to take some action on matters you request. Watch the following example carefully.

Requests to persons within an organization

A message sent to a person within an organization is usually done by using a memo
format. Memoranda are used to exchange messages between employees, colleagues,
supervisors and subordinates, and others such as stockholders who are part of an
organization. So they travel to all directions—down, up, and horizontal.

A memo (memorandum) is a FORM on one hand, hence, like all other forms; it is
arranged with guide words.

ABC Co. Memorandum

TO: DATE:
FROM:
SUBJECT:

______________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________

Memorandum is also a LETTER (Interoffice Correspondence) on the other hand; hence

such parts as initials, enclosure notation, copy notation, and postscript are included in it as in
letter. Nevertheless, it does not have formal receiver address. For the reason, it omits such
letter parts as the salutation and complimentary closing that go along with formal inside
addresses.

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 When a memorandum (an interoffice correspondence) is to be sent to many persons,
there are two ways of arranging it.
1. Listing the names under the guide word “TO”.
2. Using a collective term in the heading and a “Copies To” phrase to list the names
before the body.

The end of a memo is indicated by the writer’s initials, if the full name is in the
heading or a writer’s full name, if there is no name in the heading.

A division manager’s memo asking field representatives to send monthly reports.

ABC Company Memorandum

TO: All Field Representatives DATE: December 10, 20—

FORM: Lydia Petros, Division Manager
SUBJECT: Monthly Reports

Copies To: Ojullu Omod

Amente Merdassa
Kisho Tona
Goitom Hagos

Request 1) Starting January 1, 20--, will each of you please submit to this office
on the 21st of the month a monthly report including:

Details 2) 1. Major orders received during the month

2. Anticipated major orders for the following month
3. New business activity
4. Lost orders
5. Industrial trends
6. General comments
Helpful sample 2) A copy of the form I would like you to use is attached.

Action (when & 3) By no later than the 21st of every month, please mail
where reports your monthly report to me, with copies to the
should be sent) following:
1. Each of the other sales representatives
2. Habtamu Moges, Sales Manager

Positive end 4) I will appreciate your co-operation.

75
 LP

Invitations, Orders, Reservations

Though quite different from each other, invitations, orders, and reservations are
similar in that the reader is asked for participation, merchandise or facilities in the order
mentioned.

Invitations
Invitations that require action from people who are interested or willing are direct
requests. In writing invitations, therefore, present the main idea (a phrase that says, “You are
invited”) and the details (give accurate detail of what the event is, who is giving it, the place,
the date, and the time of invitation). Simply include in it as many of the five whs as you can.
Thoughtful additional details might include directions or a simple map, the location of
parking, choice of menu, cost, and the simplest way to respond.

XYZ Co. Memo

To: All Employees

From: Abebe Kebede, Editor

Date: Current Date

Subject: Company’s House-organ

Do you have an item of news or a suggestion you would like to share with other
employees in our company? If so, you are invited to submit it for inclusion in our semi-annual
Company House Organ before April 1.

AK

* Try to pinpoint the what, who, where and when (the Wh’s) in the
paragraph.

Current date

All Members of AMTS Department

P. O. Box ------
Addis Ababa
76
 Dear AMTS Member:

Invitation The next Meting of Elites is one you are especially

What invited to attend. This is a special panel discussion,
Who sponsored jointly by the Chamber of Commerce and your
college:

to be held
Where at the Adama Ras Hotel, Adama
When On Thursday, December 21, -- at 2:30 a.m.

A detail A highlight of the program is the panel discussion on the

about the topic, “Problems of Small Business Executives.” You
program will find the discussion timely, challenging, and thought
provoking.

Easy To make your reservation, please

Action call either Tirunesh Nardos (0911------) or Mekonnen
Jaleta (0911---) before Tuesday, December 10, 5:00 p.m.
How about phoning right now while you think of it?

Closure with We look forward to seeing you on December 21 at the

reader luncheon. For your convenience, parking is available on
benefit the north side of the Hotel.

Respectfully yours,

Bewketu Ayele
Program Officer

Orders
Many firms use quick-reply forms to make orders. However, when you are ordering
supplies or equipment and do not have an order blank or purchase form of the company with
which you are placing the order, you can accomplish your purpose by writing a letter.

Because orders are usually processed without objection and refer to a product that
the reader knows abut, an order is considered one of the simplest types of direct request.
Hence, when placing an order, you need not excite your reader’s interest; just state your
needs clearly and directly.

77
 Order letters include three kinds of facts: details about what you are ordering or
reserving, directions for shipment, and manner of payment. Thus, it is creating one half of a
contract. We also use order language like “please send”, “I order”, “Please ship” etc.

Current date

Ladies and Gentlemen:

We would like to order the merchandise listed below provided it will reach us not later than
the end of this year 20--.

Details Description Quantity Unit Price Total

. . . .

A4 paper size 400(pads) Birr 40.00 Br.16,000

. . . .
. . . .

Total Birr

Terms of These items are to be charged to our account on the usual

payment 2/10 net 30 terms. If you cannot send the entire order to reach us
by late December 31, 20--, please send as much as you can we count
on your company’s usual promptness in filling orders.

Truly yours,

Endelibu Azeze
Office Director

Reservations
When you want to reserve hotel accommodations, a meeting room, parking facilities
for a conference, or any other premises, you use the same direct-request approach.

Current date
78
 Bethlehem Hotel
P. O. Box -----
Addis Ababa

Ladies and Gentlemen

Main Our College will be holding its annual best-teachers dinner some
idea Saturday evening in January. Attendance will be 125 to 150 persons.

Explanation Please let us know for which Saturday evening it is possible for you to
arrange the dinner and what menus you can provide us at birr 40.00
and birr 50.00 a plate.

Closure We shall need this information until November 12, 20--.

with reference
to the main idea

Truly yours,

Girmay Goitom, Dean

ABCD College

/xxx

PS: If you have any special arrangement for special people, please let
us
know.

Neutral-Reaction Letters

79
 A neutral-reaction letters are also written following the same outline discussed so far,
because the messages are neutral (about something that the reader considers neither good
nor bad).

Announcements
Included in this section are group and personal announcements about sales, events,
procedures, policies, and responsibilities; honors and activities of people such as luncheon,
conference, celebration, meeting, etc.

* See the following preannouncement letter

Current date

Ato Abebe Kebede

P. O. Box -----
Addis Ababa

Dear Ato Abebe:

Main idea Because you are a regular Tana Department Store

(reason for customer, we are glad to announce to you a special
the announcement) sale of an unusual collection of Christmas coat values (birr 100 to
200) in our main store. This announcement comes to you now
so that you can make your selection during a three-day period
before
newspaper ads appear.

Displayed ___________________________________
items ___________________________________
for emphasis ___________________________________

Easy action Take advantage of this opportunity for first choice and super
savings!
Come in early ... November 3, 4, 5 ...to choose your coat. Price will
return to regular immediately after this outstanding coat event.
Respectfully yours,

Hirut Abegaz
Head, Sales Agent

80
 Transmittals
Transmittals differ from announcements in several ways. Announcements always
include an explanation whose main purpose is to convey information. Transmittals may or
may not include explanation; their main purpose is just to transmit something, which is,
usually mentioned in the first paragraph.

See the following document transmittal letter (processed fill-in form)

January______

Abebe Kebede
Abebe and Sons Plc.
P.O.Box-----
Addis Ababa

Dear Ato Abebe,

Main idea We are enclosing the following instruments

transmittal for your file regarding your property.
(reason)

List for ( ) Owner’s policy

easy ( ) Warranty deed conveying property to your name
checking ( ) Can called note and deed of trust, loan birr ____
( ) Payable to ______
( ) Copies of closing papers

Courtesy Thank you for allowing us to be of service to you.

Cordially yours,

Ephrem Alilo, Manager

ABCE Insusrance Co.

Enc.

Activity
81
Prepare at least one letter of each category of the letters discussed so far (the requests).

When will the Reader be Pleased?

What else can please a reader than good news? Than a favorable answer to his/her
request? Therefore, letters in this category are all positive answers to the letters in the first
category that neither please nor displease. Because they are positive answers to requests,
letters that please the reader are also known as “yes” or “good news” letters. So, writers’
prepare letters in this group when:
- Answering inquiries for information related to sales
- Answering inquiries for information unrelated to sales
- Granting adjustments on claims and complaints
- Approving credit
- Acknowledging orders
- Granting favors
- Granting any other requests--pertaining to business, government,
and organizational procedures or individual needs
- Accepting invitations
- Accepting offers or franchises, and other negotiations

Organizational Plan
A message that conveys good news is usually easy to write, than others, because you
are giving or telling your reader something that is pleasant. Thus, the direct approach
(putting the best news or the main idea) in the opening paragraph is the most effective plan
to use when writing any type of letter in this category.

1. Best news or the main idea (pleasant idea)

2. Explanation (essential details)
3. Positive, friendly ending

a) appreciation
b) clear statement of action desired and motivation to action
c) willingness to help further

This outline has the following advantages

1. It gives emphasis to the positive idea.

2. It conditions the reader favorably for details that follow.
3. It gives the writer a dependable starting place.
Let’s see some examples by considering only the (messages) bodies of letters.

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A positive answer to an inquiry

1) Yes, The Latest Fashion Dress is available for showing on July 18 as you
requested.
* (Presents Pleasant Idea)

2) It is being mailed in time to reach your office on or before July 18.

Please note the “instructions” card that is included with the film.
Viewer comments are appreciated.
* (Essential Details)

3) See the enclosed folder for a list of related films.

* (Ends with a reminder that a pleasant events
could be repeated)

A gift shop owner replaces a camera damaged in shipment

An adjustment letter on a complaint.

Best news A new ALFA camera should reach you in few days
(replacement) to replace the one you received in damaged condition.
We sent it today by prepaid express.

Explanation We are sorry this happened, for we know how much you
(showing seller want this beautiful gift for your cousin’s birthday
not at fault) anniversary. Although our responsibility ended when the
HGBBES Delivery Agency accepted the package, we are
glad to make this replacement for you.

Suggested Will you please give the original camera to this

action to help driver when you receive the second camera?
claim with We will then enter a claim with the HGBBES Delivery
carrier Agency.

Courtesy Thank you for writing promptly. Our main concern is

(resale) that you receive the camera in time and in perfect
condition for the anniversary.

A collection manager replies with a personalized letter

83
to a college student who requested information.

January 28, 20—

Aster Besufekad
P. O. Box -----
Addis Ababa

Dear Aster:

Best news It is a pleasure to return to you the completed form as

(pleasant news) requested in your letter of December 3, 20--.

Comments I was very favorably impressed with the sample collection series you
enclosed. As a whole, the letters are courteous and also appropriately
firm. Achieving the right tone in this type of letter is very important,
and I believe you have done so.

Offer of Any further information you may need from us will be gladly
forwarded.
further help The recap (main points)you offered to send showing your survey is
interesting. I will appreciate receiving a copy.

Sincerely,

Hassen Abdela, Officer

Public Relation

/xxx

Activity

1. Prepare a letter of this category.

2. Discuss the difference between the first (request) and this (yes) category of letters.

When will the Reader be Displeased

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 Writing bad (displeasing) news is more difficult than writing good news. The difficulty
is not in clarity; it is in human relations. Hence, the situation requires special planning and
carefulness. Just as good news is accompanied with details, bad news is accompanied with
supporting details (reasons or explanations).

When the message is unpleasant (a “no” answer to routine letters), we can expect the
reaction to be negative or disappointing. And if the sentence that contains the disappointing
idea is placed at the beginning of the letter, the unpleasant idea receives emphasis. Then,
having made a value judgment of reading this sentence reader are naturally a bit reluctant to
change their minds before the last sentence—even though the intervening sentence present
a valid basis for doing so. More over, having been disappointed by the idea, contained in the
first sentence, readers are tempted to concentrate on refuting (instead of understanding)
supporting details. As a result, promoting business harmony becomes difficult. Thus, the
following outline is recommended for such type of letters.

1. Begin with a neutral statement (neither presents bad news nor leads a reader to expect
good news) that leads to the reasons for refusal.
2. Present the facts, an analysis and the reasons for refusal
(supporting details)
3. State the refusal (bad news)
4. Include an alternative if appropriate
5. Close with a related idea that shifts emphasis away from the refusal.

The above outline is organized using inductive or indirect approach. In this outline the
explanation precedes the refusal. Presenting explanation first is an effective technique for
emphasizing reasons. The more clearly a reader understands our reasons, the less likely
he/she will be disappointed or thinks that the decision is illogical, unfair, or arbitrary. Hence,
when we write a “no” letter, our goal must always be to make business friends understand
our reasons. Because if we can make them understand our reasons, they may agree with us
that their request should have been refused. When they agree with us, it means we have
their goodwill—and future business.

Most of the bad news (“no”) letters and memorandums you may have to write can be
grouped under the following unfavorable replies and messages.

Unfavorable Replies

- Answering sales-related inquiries

- answering non-sales-related inquiries
- Refusing adjustments on claims and complaints
- Refusing credit
- Acknowledging orders you can’t fill now or at all
- Declining requests for favors
- Turning down contract or work offers

85
 Unfavorable messages

- Announcing bad news about prices and/or services

- Requiring minimum orders and/or deposits
- Penalizing for nonconformity with rules and procedures
- Conveying other bad news

Note the following letter

( A no letter or refusal to a letter inquiring to inspect insurance policies).

Current date

Dear Hirut Tsehay:

You are to be commended for your efforts to identify principles that apply to the insurance
field.

* (Introduces the subject without revealing whether the answer will be “yes” or
“no”.)

One of our primary concerns has been preservation of confidentiality. Each policy holder is
assured that information provided will be seen by insurance officials only.

* (Gives reasons)--explanation

Therefore, permission to inspect 100 selected policies cannot be given.

* (States refusal--the refusal is the logical outcome of the explanation)

If in your research you could use some of our blank policyholder forms, we can supply them
for you.
* (Closes on a more positive note by offering an alternative)

Sincerely,

Deborah Petros
Vice manager

86
Note: To ensure a pleasant close, avoid the following endings.

a) Do not repeat or refer back to the refusal

b) Do not end with clichés that sound insincere in light of the refusal.
- As you know, customer satisfaction is our goal.

c) Do not imply future trouble.

- Should you have any further problems, please let us know.

d) Do not suggest uncertainty about the refusal.

- We hope our decision meets with your approval

e) Do not prolong the correspondence

- If you have any questions, don’t hesitate to call or write.

f) Do not apologize for the refusal.

- We are sorry that we had to make this decision, but....

Activity

Prepare two letters of this category. One letter, should concern unfavorable reply and the
other letter concerning unfavorable message.

When will the Reader be not Interested Initially

The letters discussed so far were designed to convey information or to get action. In
letters that contain orders, requests for information, or requests for adjustment, the
assumption is that the reader will be willing to take the desired action once it is identified.
For example, a supplier who has shipped the wrong merchandise will almost certainly want to
correct the error. Thus, explaining why the correction should be made does not ask great
effort.

Sometimes, however, we may write a letter asking for action which will be rejected
unless we are able to show why it should be accepted or why doing so would be beneficial.
Letters that involve these conditions are called persuasive or sales letters--they sell a product
or an idea. Kinds of messages that are including persuasive letters are:

Requests for favors that:

- require time, knowledge, or effort
87
 - urge co-operation on goals and projects
- make a direct sale
- serve as stimulus to future sales
- bring back lost customers
- apply for a job

Such letters are not received with great enthusiasm—at first. A deductive approach
(arrangement), therefore, would hardly work at all. As shown in the following outline the
reasons for acting must precede the request because they provide readers with sufficient
information to make them want to take the desired action.

Thus the basic structure for persuasive letters follows the inductive organization which
is commonly known as the AIDA formula for sales presentation.

A- Attention
Begin with an attention-getting sentence, designed to make the reader to make put aside
other thoughts and read further.

I- Interest
Build upon the theme started in the attention-getting opening. Begin to tell
what your project, product or service is and what it will do for the reader. (Introduce product
or idea to arouse interest).

D- Desire
So that your readers will desire to do as you request and be convinced they will benefit from
your proposals, you usually present proof. Give evidence that your statements are true.
Include needed facts, figures, testimonials, tests, samples, guarantees, and other proof your
proposal may call for.

A- Action
Close by encouraging action

Note this exemplary letter which illustrates application of the above outline.

Current date

Association of Women’s Affairs

P. O. Box ----
Addis Ababa

Dear Ladies:

88
How to increase productivity without decreasing efficiency in typewriting—for three years our
college worked on this program.

* Seeks to gain attention by identifying a problem in which the recipient will almost
surely be interested.

The success of the effort was disclosed in June 20-- when our graduates of the same year
were celebrating their graduation.

* Introduces the product

Since then, many organizations have been sending their secretaries to benefit from the
program conducted at different times.

* Begins presentation of evidence.

The next training program will commence on February first 20-- and stays for three weeks. It
will be a special program for organizations that have close relationship with us.
* Provides information that will be useful if the organization accepts

As yours is one of these organizations (the first line in the list), we encourage you to benefit
from it. If you wish to do so, we need you to send us the list of your trainees before or on
January 15.

* Encourages the desired action

Respectfully yours,

Ewnetu Belete
The Assitatnt Dean
College of Excellence

Writing Special Letters

So far, the messages you have studied are necessary in the usual course of business.
Every business—person, however, occasionally faces circumstances that vary from the usual
day-to-day operations. Many of these situations require letters that provide an opportunity
to create goodwill for both the business and the individual. For the reason, such letters
sometimes called goodwill messages. Their main purpose is to convey a friendly, usually
unexpected message that builds goodwill.

89
 Besides being friendly, unexpected, and outside the usual courses of business,
goodwill messages have several other characteristics in common. That is their organizational
plan resembles a good-news or neutral messages.

✓ First Most important idea

✓ Then Brief comments and details (if any)
✓ Finally Cordial ending (if needed)

An important value of good will messages is that their effects sometimes develop
months, even years, later. Because these messages reach out in a pleasant, friendly way to
readers, they are remembered when the recipients want to buy products or services.

Goodwill messages are written on occasions like:

- Congratulating or giving deserved praise

- Expressing appreciation
- Extending seasonal greetings
- Conveying sympathy or condolence
- Welcoming and/or offering favors
- Showing continuing special concern.

Congratulatory message
(Congratulatory note about a promotion)

Dear Abebe:

Your promotion to vice president of General Construction Company was great news. I was
happy to read about you in the Ethiopian Herald.

If ever a person deserved company recognition, you do. Your courage and hard work in
developing new ways to promote the services of your firm have won the admiration of many,
including your competitors.

Congratulations to you-and best wishes for your continued success!

Sincerely,

Thank you message

(A company president thanks a customer for her complementary letter about an employee)

Dear Aster,

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Thank you very much for your warm and cordial letter of August 29. It is really a pleasure,
upon opening the morning mail, to find a letter like yours.

Nothing gratifies me more than to learn that the efforts of our employees are so thoroughly
appreciated. Many people are quick to write criticisms, but seldom does anyone take the
time to say something nice. So it is always pleasing to hear from the many, many people
who are satisfied.

We will do our best to continue to provide you with the service you like.

Truly,

Conveying sympathy
(Condolence to a widowed person)

Dear Ashenafi

With profound sorrow we have just learned of the death of your wife

Though there is little one can say or do to lesson the grief that must be yours, we want you to
know the heart felt sympathy of all your friends at WTCH Co.’s is with you.

We hope that cherished memories you have of your many years together will comfort you in
the months ahead.

Respectfully,

Activity

Prepare one persuasive letter and one letter from the special letter category.

Chapter Six: Short Presentations

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Discuss elements of oral communication.

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2. Describe the types of short presentations people in organizations are called on to make.
3. Prepare short presentation of any type for use in the office environment.
4. Use the appropriate mode of delivery to present your speech.

As a manager, a shop owner, a professional assistant, an artisan, a secretary, a nurse

or an engineer, you are constantly involved in a variety of oral communication each day. In
actuality, however, most of your oral communications are not formal speeches.
Nevertheless, if you can identify and apply the basic guidelines for a speech (presentation),
your effectiveness in all oral communication situations--formal and informal, short and long-
will be improved.

Types of Short Presentations.

Before exploring how to give a speech, it is beneficial to step back and ask, “What
kind of short presentations are people in organizations called on to make?” Once we can
identify the typical kinds of presentations, then we can discuss how to be more effective in
those situations.

The five basic types of presentation are:

✓ Introductions
✓ Briefings
✓ Informative Talks
✓ Recognitions
✓ Welcomes

Introductions
Whether introducing a person or concepts (idea), your main job is to quickly
familiarize the audience with the person or idea and to attempt to encourage the audience to
accept what follows.

Introducing People
Before introducing a person, it is your responsibility to gain some familiarity with the
individual and to go beyond the data sheet or resume received. It means, it is always polite to
ask the person being introduced if there are some specific items that should be included or
avoided in making the introduction. Hence, the first step in making introductions is knowing
the speaker and the audience. Then what you will do is striving to match their mutual
interests (match the speaker’s background with the interests of the audience).

Finally, avoid all the trite nonsense that we often hear:

“This person needs no introduction . . . ”
“It is a pleasure and an honor . . . ”
“I am pleased . . .”
“Last but not least . . .”

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 Remember that the listeners are present to hear the speaker, not the introducer. Yet,
the introduction sets the stage for the presentation.

When you introduce people around a conference table or at a panel discussion, help
all involved getting to know one another’s name. Pronounce each person’s name slowly,
clearly, and distinctively. Attempt to relate the individual to the group by indicating what the
person does or by telling something about the person. These techniques permit people to
associate names and faces. Introducing concepts or projects (a research report done by a
group, for instance).

It is common to divide long presentations into several component parts. After the
presentation has been divided into several sections, a different person will speak on each part
(introduction, background, basic findings, alternative solutions, recommendations). In this
instance, you may introduce the entire concept with a very short presentation first and then
say a few words before each of the speakers begins. In this way you link one presentation
with the next and add coherence to the total package. The introduction is short
presentations that can set the stage for success; thus, provide the group (audience) with
enough information of the materials that are to follow.

Briefings
The oral briefing is described by its name, brief-ing. It is short, to the point, and very
concise. In the business context you may be asked to brief people who are somewhat familiar
with an operation, a project, an idea, or an event. In this instance, in your briefing, attempt to
limit your comments to a background statement of the project for example, and then provide
the new information. By definition the briefing does not get into specific details of the
project, however, it keeps people generally informed—so, the background statement first and
then the new information.

Thus, to give short, concise, and interesting oral briefing, the employee in the
organization should be a person who knows what is going on and who is able to differentiate
the important data from the unimportant.

Informative talks
A list of situations calling for a speech to inform is almost endless. You may be called
upon to inform college students about careers; new company personnel about the products
and services of your organization; customers about a new service; individuals in your
profession about new concepts; etc.

All in all, the purpose of the informative talk is to provide individuals with information
they previously did not have. It means, the speech to inform is different from the briefings in
that generally it will be presented to a group not informed to any great degree on the topic,
and usually the informative presentation will be somewhat longer than a briefing.

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 In order to relate the informative speech to a particular audience, it is vital to know
their current understanding. Certainly a presentation on new state regulations concerning
education, for instance, will be different when given to a public organization as compared to
making the presentation to the Association of Teachers. Mind you, we all are annoyed when
speakers do not tell us anything new or when speakers present data we cannot understand.

Recognitions
In various situations, and at many points in your career, you will be called upon to
present an award or special recognition to an individual or group. There are numerous
presentation situations: the employee of the Year Award, 25-year pins to employee; a
company scholarship to an outstanding student. It is assumed that a group of people will be
present when the award or honor is presented.

Remember that the people assembled are there not to recognize the presenter but to
honor the recipient. It is hence, appropriate to note the reason for the award, to suggest why
it is important to the organization, and to indicate some of the attributes of the individual or
group receiving the recognition.

The recipient probably has devoted many hours and made individual scarifies
achieving the award. It is then important that the presenter consider these aspects in making
the formal presentation and do so with sincerity and enthusiasm.

Welcomes
In your organization, in your individual department, or in your service club (if you have
any), frequently someone is called upon to welcome guests and that person could be you.
Let’s say, as an administrator of a public relations department of a major hospital, you are to
welcome a group of college juniors majoring in health care. As the general manager’s
personal advisor in a major corporation, you may be called on to welcome the School of
Commerce students who are touring your company. As head of your organization’s
Technology department, you are called upon to welcome a group of executives from other
companies who are going to observe your Technology center.

If you are called upon to welcome people to your department, organization, or club,
therefore, strive to gain their interest. Know why the people are with you and let them know
that you hope they will be able to learn from their experience. Indicate an interest in them
and relate a sincere enthusiasm about which it is you are presenting. Overall, provide the
spirit of friendliness.

Guidelines for Preparing the Speech

Preparing a speech seems like a chore to most people. It need not be difficult, though,
if you follow a few simple rules.

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 Know Your Subject
If you do not know the topic, you should not be talking about it. Thorough knowledge
is needed. That knowledge will give you confidence and motivation to speak in a forceful
manner. Many times this means that you will have to do some research in order to have the
information you need to make an interesting and knowledgeable presentation. Knowing your
subject permits you to anticipate objections and answer questions that members of our
audience may bring up.

Know Your Audience

The effective speaker is one who knows how to relate the topic to the listeners. As
has been emphasized earlier discussion, it is vital to know the receiver. In here, the job of the
speaker is more difficult if the receiver is plural. But by discovering all you can about the
audience, by identifying what it is they know, they will want to know, and what will motivate
them, you can relate the information directly to them.

Be Well Organized
The oral presentation does not get after you are on your feet. It must be organized
logically in your planning process. If you have the following points it will be easier.
- Decide on the order that will be followed (ask how the materials can
be ordered best to satisfy both the information and interest needs of the
audience).
- Set down the basic ideas you want to express (and consider different
ways of arranging them).
- State what you want to discuss clearly (problem, process, project)
- Note your objectives.

Involve Your Listener

Involving members of the audience can be done through various means.

Tell a real story

Reviewing an actual incident that relates to the point you want to make can be very
interesting. A story is an effective way to establish a base of information in an exciting
manner. The story may be serious or humorous; it may be a situation from your personal
experience or a story you learned from someone else. The felling of the story may not only
gain the attention of the audience but may also put you at ease.

Tell a hypothetical story

By relating a situation that may not be real, it is possible to capture the attention of
the audience. This is the use of a story that is believable and actually could happen. The
hypothetical story is helpful in exemplifying ideas to an audience.

Present Statistics
The use of numbers can put ideas in perspective. However, numbers just presented
by themselves can be confusing and impersonal. For instance, which of the following

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statements will most likely get the attention of the audience and also be remembered by
them?
- This year 50 pupil in the School of Commerce will be awarded.
- Three of you in this audience will be awarded this year.

Use a quotation
The incorporation of interesting statements from others often can be a focal point for
an idea. The quotation provides the audience with something to remember; it may also
capsulize a complex concept in an interesting way so that you can further explain the idea.

Tell a joke
A joke or humorous situation that illustrates an idea can be a good way to help the
audience think about the idea you are explaining. Of course, good taste must always prevail.

Plan Your Conclusion

At times you want your audience to take specific action; at other times you may want
them to clearly remember your key ideas. Whichever the case may be, a strong conclusion
can help accomplish your objective. Perhaps a quotation from a recognized authority will
accomplish your objective, or a dramatically revealed visual aid or simply restating your key
idea by using carefully chosen words. The point is, don’t let your talk die out. Prepare your
conclusion so that it will be effective and perhaps even memorable.

Maintain Poise
Often people do not think about stage fright until after they are standing before an
audience. Then it is too late! However, there is a cure, nervousness can be eliminated or
alleviated if you are prepared.

That is, be knowledgeable

be well-organized
be honest (don’t use illogical argument)

In other words, plan, prepare, and practice. Know your audience. Speak to their
needs, their wants, their desires.

Preparation is vital for the inexperienced speaker. Good speeches do not happen by
accident. The impressive speaker meticulously has prepared, planned, organized the
materials, analyzed the audience, and practiced. Having accomplished these pre-speech
duties, you can approach the podium with confidence and poise (remember how you defined
poise in your Office Operations Management course--“a reflection of inner confidence; self
control, etc.”)

Modes of Delivery

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 There are four basic ways that an individual can present a speech: read it, memorize it
, present it extemporaneously, or simply make the presentation in an impromptu manner.

Reading the Speech (also known as textual delivery)

Reading the speech is a common technique, especially in business. However, if a
manuscript is prepared and all the presenter does is stand up, look at the paper, and read it
to the audience, we have to ask: “Why wasn’t the speech just duplicated and sent to us?”

There are times when it may be appropriate to read a speech. The statements,
statistics, and policies presented are so vital that they must be absolutely accurate.

If the speech is written in a conversational manner and delivered informally, it can be

very effective when read. The speech should be typed in large print. It is also good to leave
plenty of space on the paper between lines and paragraphs. Key ideas can be underlined in:

red--to remind the speaker to give those points emphasis

green--to note in the margins to remind the speaker to look up and to look at the
audience. (The marginal note “smile” may be written at appropriate places). Most
important, go over and over the pages so that you can read it with force and clarity, knowing
what is coming up next.

The pre-preparation items like these can aide in making the read speech acceptable
communication.

Memorizing the Speech

Memorizing the speech is probably a dangerous technique. First of all, it takes a great
deal of time to memorize. Second, just like reading the speech, the act of memorization may
pull the speaker away from interaction with the audience. Another danger is that you may
forget a memorized speech.

However, memorization is not completely out of line. It can be effective, for instance,
when a speaker wants to establish just the right mood in memorizing and presenting a poem,
a quotation, or a segment of scripture as part of a speech. Used in this way, memorization
may add emphasis to the presentation. But this is substantially different from memorizing
the entire speech!

Presenting the Speech Extemporaneously

The extemporaneous presentation is probably the preferred way to relate to people
when called upon to give a brief talk. Extemporaneous means that the speaker has given
careful thought to the presentation, probably has outlined what is going to be said, but is not
going to present something memorized. The key phrase that is often used to explain the
extemporaneous speech is conversational mode. Thus,
- Having given careful preliminary thought to the speech; having made up
an outline and drawn up notes, the speaker presents the speech to
achieve close interaction with the audience. All of the language is not
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 established precisely beforehand. But the speaker,
- knows the basic ideas to be presented
- knows the order in which topics will be revealed
- has developed a clear introduction and a meaningful conclusion.

The extemporaneous speech allows you to adjust the presentation to the situation.
Audience feedback tells you to expand on the point or eliminate it, tell a joke or not. It is all
extemporaneous but thoughtfully so. Extemporaneous does not mean “spur of the moment,”
“off the cuff,” or “winging it,” it is well-prepared presentation.

Presenting the Speech Impromptu

The impromptu talk actually refers to a situation where the speaker is given little or no
time to prepare. On the spur of the moment, the individual quickly must develop a
presentation and begin. The basic guidelines of speech still apply, but they are substantially
telescoped. Perhaps you will have a few moments to jot down some notes and sketch a
rough outline ... then, you are on your feet and talking. But never begin speaking without
thinking and deciding the order in which your points will be presented.

As noted, there are advantages to each of the four presentation methods listed above.
You often may find that a combination of modes will be used in one presentation. For
instance, you may present the speech extemporaneously, but you may read some specific
figures, memorize a summarizing quotation or respond to impromptu questions.

Guidelines for Presenting the Speech

Up to this point, with the exception of practice, the speech is an item on paper or a
series of thoughts in the mind. To implement the oral presentation and to aid you in actually
making the speech, there are some very practical guidelines.

Look at Your Audience

The first way to make the written paper different from the oral presentation is to
involve yourself in the presentation. The easiest way to do this is to look at the audience.
This does not mean periodically glance at the group; it means talk with them and look at them
( do not look at the podium or over their heads). Be alert to the audience feedback and make
adjustments as necessary. Maintain good eye contact ( it helps to build a link between you
and the audience). All this will permit you to relate your information to them instead of at
them.

Vary Your Volume and Speed

A droning speech may put your audience to sleep. Some ideas need to be stated
rather than forcefully; others should be noted softly, respectfully, or sympathetically. Like a
good piece of music that is fast, slow, high, low, loud, or soft, so a speech should reflect
changes to match the content of the ideas. How boring and monotonous is a piece of music
or a speech that proceeds at one volume level and one speed!
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 Speak Clearly
This is related to enunciation. Enunciation is pronouncing noticeably. Do you hear
yourself saying “comin’,” “goin’,” “dontcha”? enunciate every necessary sound in every word.
It is just easy to do it correctly as to drop a syllable?

Use Appropriate Gestures

In preparing your speech, analyze the ideas and the feelings you want to express.
Then determine what gestures will aid in communicating the idea to the audience. Standing
before a group with both hands in your pockets while reading a speech obviously is not the
best use of the oral situation. Gestures can be used in many ways:

a) To aid in picturing the speakers words. ______

“ The economy has been like a roller coaster...”
( the speaker moves a hand and arm in waving motion)

b) To add emphasis to a point. _____ “ we should clearly understand...” (the

speaker strikes the podium)

c) To help the audience know that a new piece of information is going to be

introduced ____ “second, let us turn to the foreign market implications...”
(speaker holds up two fingers and makes a turning motion to the audience) of
course.

Gestures should come naturally. But many effective speakers must plan carefully and
practice diligently to incorporate them into the speech. Regardless of how the gestures get
into the speech, whether as natural expressions or calculations to provide emphasis, they are
an important element in the live oral communication situation

At the same time, watch out for and eliminate unnecessary and distracting gestures.
If you are continually putting a hand into your coat pocket or jingling coins or keys, such
action will prove distracting.

Check Your Posture and Appearance

Obviously a speaker will dress and stand in a manner appropriate for the presentation.
Just as the sales letter is typed neatly on company stationery, the sales speech is presented by
a neatly dressed representative of the organization. Thus, don’t let your appearance,
posture, or distracting gestures override your message. It is important for you to dress
properly, stand correctly, and bring the focus of the audience to your message and not to
distractions.

Make Clear Transitions

It is very possible to cover topics faster than the audience follow them. Therefore, it is
vital that you watch your transitions. At the end of a major point, slow down or pause for a
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moment. Then instead of abruptly stating the next idea, clearly tell the audience that you are
now moving from your explanation of “communication goals” to “ Communication skills.”
statements like this are called transitions and they tell the audience to switch gears and
prepare for the next item in the speech. Transitions provide a rest for the listener and also
give a clear signal of where you are and where you are going. Some common transitions that
might be used are:
• “Now lets turn to another point...”
• “However, there is another aspect that we should look at today...”
• “Now with our understanding of ______ we can move to a discussion of _____.”

When the transition is stated slowly, when you look at the audience and incorporate
an appropriate gesture with the transition, the audience will understand what is being said
and will know where you are going.

Watch and Listen for Feedback

Regardless of how much you plan and practice the speech, the actual presentation will
be different from thinking about the speech. The alert speaker will be on the lookout for
feedback. If the audience looks confused on a particular point, you can assist by interjecting a
statement- for example, “Let me repeat that...” or “perhaps I can state this concept in
another way...” Besides helping the audience to understand the message, these statements
indicate that the alert speaker is paying attention to the audience. Also if the audience laughs
longer than expected at a humorous comment, the speaker who is turned in the feedback just
does not plow ahead; instead the speaker pauses and permits the audience to catch up. By
looking at the people in the audience and interpreting their feedback, you can keep the
message on target. Successful interaction with the audience is, to a large extent, the element
that makes your listeners glad they have come to hear you.

Unit Seven: Career Communication

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Think about yourself and your future job in order to find the right job for you.
2. Organize your marketable qualities to prepare a resume that represents you in the best
possible way.
3. Use the right type of strategy and format to attract your potential employer in your
resume.
4. Prepare both unsolicited and solicited job application letters.
5. Prepare yourself for an employment interview.

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5. Prepare yourself for an employment interview.

Thinking About Employment

There are two items you should have a great deal of information on before you start
to think about employment: you and the job. Thinking about yourself and the future job is no
being selfish rather it is being wise and farsighted. When you consider the time you spend on
the job, it involves more hours during the day than any other single activity in life. Therefore,
it is vitally important that you find the right job for yourself.

This, however, depends on the labor market. If the labor market is “tight”--that there
are more applicants than jobs, you may be forced to give up your choice for the kind of
organization you look for. If on the other hand the labor market for applicants is “open”--that
there are plenty of jobs, then it is possible for you to use the many opportunities and make
the right selection.

Be it any, having a clear understanding of yourself, the job requirements, and the
employment climate into which you are going is helpful in that you will be able to gain
pleasant and satisfying employment for the many years ahead of you.

If you know what you want and need in a job and can obtain them, then your
relationships with your employer, your family, and your friends will probably be satisfying
because of your own contentment.

Hence, the first step in job finding is making self and job analysis. Think about what it
is that you have to offer the potential employer (your qualification) and what it is you like and
what you dislike in a job. Ask yourself how you feel about:
- the size of the organization--large or small.
- the type of the organization--government, private, etc.
- your salary needs--now, in the future.
- the length of the working day,--overtime?
- evening and weekend assignments
- fringe benefits offered--encourage and pay for further studies, health, etc.
- opportunities for advancement
- potential for transfer to other cities
- level of job security offered

Although all these are not involved directly in the job, they are items thought about
first and then discussed at the interview rather than after the job has been accepted. There is
no point in locking yourself into a job that you will keep for only a few months and being
unhappy with in the bargain.

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Where are the Jobs?

Formal Sources of Job Information

- Newspapers
- State employment agencies
- Private employment firms e.g. Talent Search
- Alumni associations
- The School of Commerce employment office

Informal sources (published or interacting with people)

- Instructors
- Employees
- Former students who have gotten jobs

Writing a Resume

Whether you decide to seek a job through the formal or informal sources, you are
obliged to prepare a resume. The resume is a detailed statement that neatly, precisely, and
clearly provides a potential employer with a quick, convenient, and favorable overview of you
and your job qualifications. This is also known as Curriculum Vitae (Curricula Vitae) or simply
CV.

The Purpose of the Resume

In a limited amount of space, you attempt to represent yourself in the way you want
the receiver see you.
As you begin to prepare your resume, therefore, keep in mind that the resume is a
piece of sales literature. It represents a very important commodity—you. In one or two
pages, it represents a clear and well-organized statement of your abilities, qualities,
accomplishments, and job aspirations. The subject—you—is interesting and complex, and
therefore you want to represent yourself in the best light possible. In general, the resume
provides the potential employer with a summary of your qualifications.

Organizing Information

Prior to making up the formal resume, many individuals find it very helpful to first
organize their marketable qualities. This data collection may then be set down on a data
sheet. Usually the data sheet is divided into four broad categories: personal education,
experience, and references. Each of these, in turn, can be subdivided.

Personal
- Name
- Age
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 - Marital status
- Health
- Travel desires (geographical location desired--if any)

Education
- Schools attended and dates
- Academic major
- Certificates and licenses
- Grade point average(s)
- Honors, awards, scholarships
- Extracurricular activities

Experience
- Jobs held (that relate to the desired employment) and responsibilities of the
jobs
- Jobs held (that do not relate to the desired employment)
- Volunteer activities that provided experience (leadership, responsibility,
group interaction)

Reference
- Professional references
- Educational references
- Personal references

Explanation of the Sections of the Resume

Name and Address

The first thing, an employer needs to know is who you are and where you can be
reached: your name, address, and phone number.

Many resume headings are nothing more than the name and address centered at the
top of the page. But you may also feature the title “Resume” or something more attention
getting. For example:

- Qualifications of Abera Kebede for Insurance Representative

- Kebedech Chala’s Qualifications for the Position of Teaching Assistant
- Data sheet of Ayalnesh Endelibu for Senior Secretary
- Profile of Micheal Alilo for Entertainment Management

* Whatever heading you use, make sure the reader can tell in an instant who you are and
how to communicate with you.

Personal Data
This section includes marital status, health, age, physical data, and other pertinent
information. Many of these items may be listed in the heading (along with name and
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address). They serve to give background on you which some prospective employers will find
valuable.
Note: You can leave out information you think of no importance, e.g. marital status and age.

Education
It is wise to list first your most recent school or degree and work back. Don’t start
your listing under education with the elementary school you attended many years ago. Give
this section a heading, such as “Education,” “Professional College Training,” or “Academic
Preparation.” Then starting with the post secondary school you most recently attended, list
for each school the name and location, the term of your enrolment (in months and years),
your major and minor fields of study, the degree(s) or certificate(s) you earned. List courses
that have directly equipped you for the job sought, and indicate any academic honors you
have received. At times, it is also helpful to have a short statement or two indicating how
relevant your education is or was to the demands of the job.

The education section should also include off-campus training sponsored by business,
industry or government. Indicate any relevant seminars or workshops you have attended, as
well as the certificates or other documents you have received.

Note: If you’re still in school, education is probably your strongest selling point. So present
your educational background in depth.

Experience
In addition to describing your education, you should discuss your work experience.
Under the heading “Experience”, many of the same principles hold true. List your most
recent job first and then work back in chronological order. The exception here is obvious: if
you held a job four years ago which is associated closely to the one you are applying for
today, you will list that job first to emphasize how your previous job relates to the position
you are seeking.

Under experience, list the company or organization name or what the organization
does, if not clear from its name, whether full-time or part-time, dates of employment and
duties (details of all the related jobs you have had). Your functional title (sales person,
personal advisor of the executive, records manager, etc.). How long you worked there. Your
significant achievements or contributions (if any, remember to back them up with specific
evidence).

Which section is listed first on the resume sheet: Education or Experience? Here
again, common sense dictates the answer. Obviously if your long suit (finest quality) is
experience and the advertisement states “individual with background in computer with
private firm needed,” and you have such experience, then of course, this section would
precede education.

Extracurricular Activities and Achievements

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 Most resumes certainly list awards, items of recognition, scholarship, and activities.
Many of these reflect very favorably on you and perhaps indicate that you are well rounded.
Hence, you must describe any paid or unpaid activities that demonstrate your abilities.
Participation in athletics, or creative projects, fund-raising or community-service activities and
offices help in academic or professional organizations. Include speaking, writing, or tutoring
experience as well.

Quantify your achievements with numbers wherever possible. Instead of saying that
you addressed various student groups, state how many and the approximate audience sizes.

Other Relevant Facts

You may also want to include a section that describes other aspects of your
background that pertains to your career objective. For example, if you were applying for a
position with an organization in other regions (other than Addis), you would mention your
command of the region’s language or your travel experience. Other skills you might mention
include the ability to operate a computer, word processor, photocopier or other equipment.

References
You may want to list the names of three to five people who can provide potential
employers with insights into your abilities and personal characteristics. Your list might
include the names of former and present employers, business associates, professors
(teachers) and contacts who can attest to your character. The most convincing references are
people who have a good reputation in their field and who are in a position to know a good
deal about you. Because relatives are likely to be biased, they should not be used as
references.

Perhaps the most important point to remember about relatives is to list individuals
who will take the time and trouble to respond in some detail about your qualifications. Of
course, you should obtain permission from those concerned before you list their names as
references. In any event choose with care and attempt to select those people who are
concerned and conscientious (showing great care).

Instead of listing references, you may wish to use an alternate course and simply state
“References furnished on request” or “References available on request.” If you can call on
several impressive references, however, you should list them.

Miscellaneous Items
If your academic transcripts, samples of your work, and/or letters of recommendation
might increase your chances of getting the job, insert a line at the end of your resume
offering to supply these documents on request. But don’t include them with your resume.
The only thing that should accompany your resume is the letter of application.
As you can see, there are many factors to consider in preparing your resume. Once
you determine your employment strategy, you can answer the questions as they relate
specifically to your situation. However, every individual has different qualities and is looking
for a different job; therefore, resumes necessarily must be different.
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 Job Strategy
You want to present yourself honestly, in the best possible light, to gain the job you
want. Therefore, your strategy should concentrate on what the potential employer needs to
know to make a favorable evaluation of your ability to successfully perform the job. It means,
although you want to include a little information in all categories, you should emphasize the
information that has a bearing on your career objective and minimize or exclude any that is
irrelevant or counterproductive.

Format and Style

There are various formats that can be used in presenting your information. Use the
format that represents you best and that fits your employment strategy.

The reader’s initial reaction to your resume will be based on its appearance, not its
content. For an impressive looking resume, use clean paper, leave ample margins all rounds
for easy reading. Corrections should be unnoticeable. It means the key characteristics of
good resume are neatness, simplicity, accuracy, and honesty.

As a rule of thumb, try to write a one-page resume. But if you have a great deal of
experience and are applying for a higher-level position you may wish to prepare a somewhat
longer resume. The important thing is, to give your self, enough space to present a fair and
persuasive portrait of your accomplishments and capabilities.

Skilful layout and graphic design make the resume visually appealing and easy to
follow. Break up the text by using headings that call attention to different aspects of your
background, such as your work experience and education. Underline or capitalize key points,
or set them off in the left margin. Use indented lists to itemize your most important
qualifications. Leave plenty of white space, even if doing so forces you to use two pages
rather than one page.

Your resume has only seconds to make an impression, so keep the writing style simple
and direct. Instead of whole sentences, use short, crisp phrases starting with action verbs—
supervised, completed, etc.
An example of a Resume

Resume

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 Abebe Kebede
P.O. Box _____
Telephone ________
Addis Ababa

Experience
a) Worked as a Junior Accountant
Organization Name _____________
b) Assisted a senior finance head in the Finance Office
Organization Name _____________

Education
a) Graduated from AAUCC with a BA degree in Accounting
b) Acquired a deploma in Computer Literacy from _____________

Reference
a) Ato ___________, Lecturer
AACC
b) W/ro _____________, Senior Accountant
Organization Name ________
c) Professor ___________, General Manager
Organization Name ___________

Style -- Alternative Block

Approach -- Chronological (Your work history or experience gets emphasis--
comes first)

Abebe Kebede’s Resume

Personal Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Data Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Excellent
Marital Status . . . . . . . . . Engaged
Address . . . . . . . . . . . . . Addis Ababa
P.O.Box _______
Tel. Res. _______
Off. _______

Education Addis Ababa University College of Commerce

BA degree in Administrative Services Management
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 Date_______________________________

ENFOTEC , Tel __________

Diploma in Computer Science
(Learnt for 160 hours)

Management of Arts, Gonder, P.O. Box _____

Diploma in Public Relations
(3 – month course)

Experience Word Processor Operator (six months)—state months.

ABC Company, Tel. ____________

Admin Assistant - Office Practice

WXYZ Company, Personnel Department.
Tel. ___________

Honor Awarded Certificate of Honor for serving the

community by teaching public relations duties
to 15 Woreda workers in Gondor.

Reference _____________________________
_____________________________
_____________________________

Resume for a position of Administrator

Style - Marginal Heading
Approach - Targeted--shows how one is qualified for a specific job.

Writing an Application Letter

If you’re like most job seekers, you will send your resume to many employers, because
the chances of getting an interview from each inquiry are relatively slight. To make the
process more efficient, you will probably use the same resume repeatedly but tailor your
application for each potential employer by including a cover letter that tells what you can do
for the specific organization.

Like your resume, your application letter is a form of advertising, and it should be
organized like a persuasive message. You need to stimulate the reader’s interest, then show
how you can satisfy the organization’s needs. The style should project confidence, because
you can’t hope to sell a potential employer on your merits unless you truly believe in them
yourself and sound as though you do.
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 Your letter should also reflect your personal style, so be yourself, but be businesslike
too; avoid sounding cute. Don’t use slang or a gimmicky layout. The only time to be
unusually creative is when the job you’re seeking requires imagination, such as a position in
advertising.

Finally, showing that you know something about the organization can pay off. It gets
attention; it conveys your desire to join the organization. The more you can learn about the
organization the better you’ll be able to write about how your qualifications fit its needs.

Writing the Opening Paragraph

A solicited application letter is one sent in response to an announced job opening. An
unsolicited, or “prospecting,” letter is one sent to an organization that has not announced an
opening. When you send a solicited letter, you usually know in advance what qualifications
the organization is looking for. However, you also have more competition, because hundreds
of other job seekers will have seen the listing and may be sending applications. In some
respects, therefore, an unsolicited application letter stands a better chance of being read.
Although it may initially be filed away, it will probably be considered eventually, and it may
get more individualized attention.

Whether your application letter is solicited or unsolicited, your qualifications are

presented similarly. The main difference is in the opening paragraph. In a solicited letter no
special attention-getting effort is needed, because you have been invited to apply. The
unsolicited letter, however, must start by capturing the reader’s attention and interest.

Getting Attention
One way to spark attention in the opening paragraph is to show how your strongest
work skills could benefit the organization. A 20 year-old secretary with 1 1/2 years of college
might begin like this:

When you need a secretary in your export division who can

take shorthand at 125 words a minute and transcribe notes
at 70--call me.

Another attention better consists of describing your understanding of the job’s

requirements and then showing how well your qualifications fit the job:

From my research, I’ve learned that the ETC technician needs

a diverse array of skills. These include mechanical aptitude,
manual dexterity, and public relations skills. Please check the
attached resume to see how well my background in telephone
repair fits these specifications.

Mentioning the name of a person known to and highly regarded by the reader is also
bound to capture some attention:
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 When Aster Jaleta of your franchise sales division spoke
to our Business Communication class last week, she said you
often add promising new marketing graduates to your sales
staff at this time to year.

Another type of attention-getting opening uses a question to demonstrate an

understanding of the organization’s needs:

Can your fast-growing market research division use an

interviewer with 1-1/2 years of field survey experience, a
BA in public relations, and a real desire to succeed? If so,
please consider me for the position.

In contrast, a solicited letter written in response to a job advertisement usually opens

by identifying the publication in which the ad ran and then describes what the applicant has
to offer:

Your ad in the April issues of Addis Tribune for the Dire

Dawa office director caught my eye. My eight years of
experience as a social director in the travel industry would
allow me to serve your new Eastern Branch well.

Notice that all these openings demonstrate the “you” attitude and indicate how the applicant
can serve the employer.

Clarifying your reason for writing

The opening paragraph of your application letter should also state your reason for
writing: You are applying for a job. It should therefore identify the desired job or job area:
I am seeking an entry-level position in technical writing.

Having had six months of new-car sales experience, I am

applying for the fleet sales position advertised by your firm
in the Ethiopian Herald (1998).

Another way to state your reason for writing is to use a title at the opening of your
letter. For example:

Subject: Application for Administrative Manager

After this clear signal, your first paragraph can focus on getting attention and
indicating how hiring you may benefit the organization.

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 Summarizing Your Key Selling Points
The middle paragraph(s) of the application letter should present your strongest selling
points in terms of their potential benefit to the organization, thereby creating interest in you
and a desire to interview you. If your selling points have already been mentioned in the
opening, don’t repeat them. Simply give supporting evidence. Otherwise, spell out your key
qualifications, together with some convincing evidence of your ability to perform.
To avoid a cluttered application letter, mention only the qualifications that indicate
you can do the job. For example, show how your studies and work experience have prepared
you for it. Or tell the reader about how you grew up in the business. But be careful not to
repeat the facts presented in your resume. Simply interpret them:
Experience in customer relations and college courses
in public relations have taught me how to handle the
problem-solving tasks that arise in a leading retail
clothing firm like yours. Such important tasks build
good customer relations, and above all, promoting the
organization’s positive image.

Thus, the middle section of an application letter should

✓ summarize those qualifications that are directly related to this job

✓ show how you have put your qualifications to use
✓ provide evidence of desirable personal qualities
✓ tie salary requirements to the benefits of hiring you
✓ refer to your resume
Writing the closing paragraph

The final paragraph of your application letter has two important functions: to ask the
reader for a specific action and to make a reply easy.

In almost all cases, the action you should ask for is an interview. But don’t demand it.
Try to sound natural and appreciative. Offer to come to the employer’s office at a convenient
time or, if the firm is some distance away, to meet with its nearest representative. Make the
request easy to fulfill by stating your phone number and the best time to reach you. Refer
again to your strongest selling point and, if desired, your date of availability.

Sample: Unsolicited Application Letter

Hasset Bekele
P.O.Box ----
Telephone ---

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 Addis Ababa

Ato Ephrem Bereket

WWW Private Co.
P. O. Box -----
Addis Ababa

Dear Ato Ephrem:

When W/ro Taitu Shiferaw of your personnel department spoke with me today, she
indicated that you may be looking for a staff accountant. On the basis of our talk, I believe
that my background would benefit WWW. Three years of college, Addis Ababa University
College of Commerce, have trained me in accounting and related courses such as financial
management, costing, auditing, etc.

My 62 credits in accounting and courses in electronic data processing have equipped me to

work with computer-based clients like yours. I have had training also in Administrative-
business communication, human relations, and psychology and this will help me to achieve
solid rapport with your clients and co-workers. And advanced studies in tax accounting will
enable me to analyze your financial needs from a tax planning perspective.

Because your company specializes in tax-shelter planning, my work experience could also be
beneficial. After two years as a part-time bookkeeper for a securities brokerage firm, I was
promoted to full-time financial analyst in the corporate investment division. In making
recommendations to the firm’s corporate clients, I analyzed and selected specific tax-shelter
programs. After three months, my accomplishments were acknowledged by a substantial
salary increase.

Ato Lakew Birhanu, vice president of City Bank, and other references listed on the enclosed
resume will confirm my potential for the staff accountant position.

At a time convenient for you, I would appreciate the opportunity to discuss my qualifications
for beginning a career with your company. I will phone you early next Wednesday to see if
we can arrange a meeting at your Convenience.

Sincerely,

Hasset Bekele

Enclosure

Sample: Solicited Application Letter

Current Date
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 P.O.Box ------
Telephone ----
Adama

W/rt Hasset Samuel

Director Administration
P.O.Box ----
Addis Ababa

Dear W/rt Hasset,

Your advertisement in the January 31 issue of Reporter attracted my attention because

I believe that I have the “proven skills” you are looking for in an administrative position.
In addition to having previous experience in a variety of office settings, I am familiar
with the computer system that you use in your office.

I recently completed a three-course sequence at KKK College on operation of the

Integrated computer system. I learned how to apply this technology to speed up letter-
writing and report-writing tasks. A workshop on “Writing and Editing with the
Integrated processor” gave me experience with other valuable applications.

As a result of this training, I am able to compose many different types of finished

documents, including sales letters, financial reports, and presentations slides.

These specialized skills have proven valuable in my work for the past eight months as
assistant to the Chief Nutritionist at the University of South Sub city campus. As my
resume indicates, my duties include drafting letters, typing finished correspondence,
and handling customers. I’m particularly proud of the order-confirmation system I
designed, which has sharply reduced the problem of late shipments and depleted
inventories.

Because “proven skills are best explained in person, I would appreciate an interview
with you. Please phone me any after noon between 3 and 5 p.m. at 0911-000000 to let
me know the day and time most convenient for you.
Sincerely,

Yeshi Abegaz
Enclosure

Employment Interview

The purpose of the application process is to get an interview. To some degree, the
letter and resume are one-way communications. In preparing your cover letter and resume,
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you were able to draft and rewrite your presentation. In the interview situation there is no
such thing as a redraft. It will be necessary for you to respond to questions and indicate that
you have a pleasant personality, can communicate effectively, have knowledge of the job and
organization, and are familiar with topics of professional socio-economic and cultural interest.

Preparing for the Interview

In gaining knowledge of the job and the organization and by preparing the
employment letter and resume, you have the basic bits of information needed for an
interview. However, the interview can be considerably less structured than your resume.
Therefore, perhaps one of the best ways to prepare for interview is to do what is often done
in preparation for an oral examination. List the questions that might be asked. Carefully think
through how you would answer each one. The possible categories of questions are: your
background, your personal interests, your knowledge of the organization, your family, your
previous employers, people with whom you have worked, civic activities, your personal and
professional goals, and your attitudes on leadership. Thus, you have a responsibility to be well
informed about the organization and need to do some research to find out the following.

About the organization

Full name: What the organization is officially known as.
Location: Where the organization's headquarters, branch offices, and plants are.
Age: How long the organization has been in business.
Products: What goods and services the organization produces and sells.

About the Job

Job title: What you will be called.
Job functions: What the main tasks of the job are.
Job qualifications: What knowledge and skills the job requires.
Career path: What chances for ready advancement exist?

These and the likes can be obtained from:

Annual report: Summarizes year's operations; mentions products, significant events,
names of key personnel.
In house magazine or newspaper: reveals information about company operations, events,
personnel.
Product brochures and publicity releases: Provide insight in to organization's operations
and values (obtain from public relations office).
Former and current employees: To have insight into job and work environment.

How to be interviewed
Every interview will proceed through three stages; the warm-up, the question-and-
answer-session, and the close.

The Warm-up
Of the three stages, the warm-up is most important; although it may account for only
a small fraction of the time you spend in the interview. Psychologists say that 50 percent of
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the interviewer's decision is made within the first 30 to 60 seconds, and another 25 present is
made within 15 minutes. If you have gotten off to a bad start, it is extremely difficult to turn
the interview around.

Body language is very important at this point. Because you won't have time to say
much in the first minute or two, you must sell yourself nonverbally. If the interviewer extends
a hand, respond with a firm but gentle handshake. Then wait until you are asked to be seated.
Let the interviewer start the discussion. And listen for cues that tell you what he or she wants
to hear. Begin by using the interviewer's name if you are sure you can pronounce it correctly.

The Question-and-answer stage

Question and answers will consume the greatest part of the interview. During this
phase, the interviewer will ask you to restate your qualifications and expand on the points in
your resume. You will also be asked if you have any questions of your own.

As questions are asked, tailor your answers to make a favorable impression.

Remember that the interviewer will be observing you and noting every word you say. So don't
limit yourself to yes or no answers and pause to think before responding if you are asked a
difficult question. Consider the direction of the discussion and guide it where you wish with
your responses.

Another way you can reach your goal is to ask the right questions. If you periodically
ask a question or two from the list you have prepared you will demonstrate interest. And
form occasional questions by paraphrasing the interviewer's own words.

Paying attention when the interviewer speaks can be as important as giving good
answers or asking good questions. Listening should make up about half of the time you spend
in an interview. For tips on becoming a better listener, read Chapter 2 and 3.

Remember to listen with your eyes as well as your ears. The interviewer's facial
expressions eye movements, gestures, and posture may tell you the real meaning of what is
being said. If the interview says one thing but sends a different message nonverbally, you may
want to discount the verbal message. Be especially alert to how your comments are received.
For example, does the interviewer nod in agreement or smile to show approval? If so, you
are making progress. If not, you might want to introduce another topic.

The closing stage

The final stage of an interview allows the interviewer to tell the interviewee when the
hiring decision will be made, expected starting time, salary range, if it has not already been
discussed and any other details related to the position.
This phase is an opportunity for the interviewee to ask questions that haven’t been
discussed as well as get information about the next step in the process. The interviewee
should restate interest in the position and thank the interviewer for the opportunity to
interview.

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