FUNDAMENTALS OF PEDAGOGY: BEM 1202

TEACHING AND LEARNING

Key concepts in Pedagogy: - Learning, Teaching, Training and Education.

(i) Teaching: This is the process of showing or telling someone how to do

something by telling, talking, illustrating, demonstrating etc. The ‘something’
is either in the form of content, facts, skills, processes, attitudes etc.
Teaching is indeed a processin its own right but it can also function as a
system.

The teaching process involves a series of steps which the teacher has to go
through so as to allow for effective instruction and dissemination of
knowledge to take place/occur. Some of these steps that the teacher has to
undergo include, inter alia:

(a) Consultation of the syllabus; choice of the topics to teach; interpretation of the
subject objectives; selection of the instructional methods; selection of resource
materials to enhance instruction lesson preparation; actual classroom lesson
presentation and perhaps the assessment/evaluation strategies etc.

J.S Farrant in his book, “Principles and Practice of Education” describes teaching and
learning as being the “opposite sides of the same coin” for a lesson will not be
considered as having been taught until it has been learned. According to him teaching
therefore should be taught of as ‘the process that facilitates learning’.

The teaching/learning process alluded to above involves

i. The teacher
ii. The learner.
iii. The instructional materials (content).
iv. Instructional strategies (methodology).
v. Instructional evaluation/assessment etc.

All these component must act in harmony for teaching/learning to happen. The teacher,
however, must feel adequately motivated to teach and be properly equipped with the
necessary knowledge skills, attitudes, convictions etc. While the learner should also be
in good health, well-motivated, interested in learning of the adage that ‘it takes two to
tango.’

A teacher teaches learners and is therefore assumed to possess information or

message or skill that he/she passes on to the learners.

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For teaching to occur therefore, there must at least be a learner; there must be content
and the task of the teacher will be to facilitate the learning process (backed by his/her
superior knowledge and the selected objectives).

NB: The crucial role of the teacher in the learning process will somehow be played
down when learning is done through a video tape, a computer programme, a radio
programme, correspondence (distance learning) Newspapers and magazines etc. But
can all the above electronic devices. Completely replace the teacher? The human face
of the teacher is able to respond in appropriate ways to the differing learning needs of
individuals and the varying circumstances of particular situations. Electronics will not do
this without the intervention of the teacher.

1. A student

The teacher is a very important and central component in the learning process. He
should therefore be very knowledgeable (a student) in all matters to do with:

(a) The students themselves (learners as individuals).

(b) The society from where the students hail.
(c) The National Education policies that govern all the practices in the education
sector.
(d) The content (subject matter) that will be passed on to the learners, and the levels
at which it is taught.
2. Adaptive
Teachers have to constantly and continuously keep abreast with new areas of
knowledge and acquaint themselves with methodologies of teaching any new
subjects they never studied at college eg. HIV and Aids , life skills, Drug abuse
etc.
3. A Planner
The teacher is also a planner and a decision maker. What he teaches has to be
planned well ahead of time so that it is effective and successful. He/she too has
to make major decisions based on the questions the education process seeks to
satisfy eg;
(i) The meanings and implications of the national Educational aims/goals
and objectives; for instance, what does “ promotion of national unity and
fostering the spirit of nationhood and patriotism” mean in relation to the
content/subject matter. The teacher has to interpret and translate it into
real learning situations and therefore make sound decisions as to what he
will choose to teach.
(ii) What specific activities should be carried out by the teacher and the
students both inside and outside the classroom.

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 (iii) How each form of activity will be carried out and by whoeg. writing,
collecting, observing, mixing etc.
(iv) How long should each activity last? A period a week, a term, a few
minutes etc.
4. Designer/craftsman artist
The teacher is also a designer/craftsman in the manner he plans and delivers
content to the learners. He does this in a variety of ways in styles that re
aesthetic/appealing to the learners.
(a) By presenting learning materials in an interesting way.
(b) By illustrating, demonstrating and explaining to concepts encountered in
asimplistic way.
(c) By asking and answering questions from the learners.
(d) By praising learners/motivating those who behave properly and
helping/punishing those who err.

It is important to note that success in teaching lies in proper and thorough planning in
advance well ahead of time of the teaching exercise.

The decision making process by the teacher (mentioned earlier) can be

diagrammatically illustrated as follows:

Remember that teachers are forever curriculum developers in their own right

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 Consultation of the
syllabus

Interpretation of the
Assessment and learning objectives
evaluation mechanism
Decision making by the
teacher
Choice of the topics to teach
Actual classroom (content)(scheme of work)
presentation of the
lesson

Selection of teaching methods Selection of resource

materials

A diagrammatic representation of the decision making process by the teacher.

“Teaching” as a concept has many sides to it other than just the teacher’s role taken in
isolation. The skill of teaching involves knowing who (the learners) what (the
content/subject matter) and how (methodology to teach and also knowing how to judge
and when (time/period) to perform the tasks involved.

Some to the professional skills of the Good teacher:

1. One who establishes a productive classroom atmosphere from the start by

means of good organization and carefully planned teaching structures.
2. One who creates specific kinds of climate settings for different lessons eg.serious
and businesslike or just relaxed and enjoyable.
3. One who uses friendly humour and creates excellent teacher – pupil relations
(rapport).
4. One who appreciates and uses pupils’ ideas as much as possible to explain
unfamiliar concepts.
5. One who occasionally gives praise generously to pupils/students who do good.
6. One who teaches while relaxed and free from any nervous strain.
7. One who exercises good and democratic class control and discipline.
8. One who explains things/concepts/ideas to the pupils very clearly and free of
ambiguity.
9. One who includes a variety of pupils’ activities in the lessons.
10. One who deals with problems instantly and promptly before they escalate or get
out of hand.
11. One who issues efficient systems in performing routine chores eg.Registration,
issuance of books tidying up after practical lessons etc.

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 12. One who does not ever-reach or become emotional over the learners
misbehaviors but uses appropriate punishments commensurate/proportionate to
the offence.

2.0 LEARNING

According to Psychologists, learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior (or

modification of behavior) or response as a result of some form of experience. But what
is this ‘change in behavior’.

One should be able to distinguish the changes in behavior that will signify/indicate that
learning has occurred. The word ‘change’ implies that the learner goes out of a learning
situation (or experience) as a different person from the one he/she was before he/she
went into it. So he/she will be quite a different person when observed at the two
different ends of a continuum.

The change in behavior does not refer to the change in physical characteristics as a
result of growth and development. But it refers to intellectual, emotional, social and
muscular functioningeg. As a result of some new form of experience, the individual
reasons in a different way and looks at a problem ( or an issue) from a different
viewpoint (perspective) and goes on to interact in a more socially acceptable way with
others in his environment.

This change of behavior is also as a result of some form of experience or exposure but
not as a result of the use of drugs eg. Alcohol, marijuana and bhangIt is also a change
that cannot be attributed to inherited behavioral patterns eg. A quiet person may
become noisy and quarrelsome after drinking beer or smoking marijuana (bhang) or an
individual can change in behavior as a result of fatigue. This will not be termed as
learning as it is but a temporary condition.

The “experience” used in the learning process should enable one to:-

i. Realize that any one given activity can be carried out in a variety of ways.
ii. Realize that it is possible to arrive at a solution to some given problem by
adopting a new approach/method.
iii. See the other side of an argument, occurrence or a phenomenon.
iv. Appreciate the beauty of a poem, a piece of music a work of art drama etc.

Our emphasis and focus will therefore be on the positive and desirable change in
behavior as a result of learning eg. A violent child or one who is withdrawn as a result
of drugs is counselled and becomes friendly to other people. This new friendly
relationship with others is a positive change in behavior.

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The encounter with a new experience will involve interacting with other persons by way
of listening, talking, and acting, asking and answering questions or perhaps by engaging
in arguments with other people.

Interactions may also be as a result of using the senses of sight, hearing, touching
(feeling), tasting and smelling.

We can therefore conveniently define learning as the process by which an individual

acquires and retains knowledge, skills, attitudes, values etc which cannot be attributed
to ‘natural’ growth and development.

The ‘natural’ changes referred to above will include crawling before walking in babies;
maturation (coming of age) of body organs in preparation for their designated functions
etc. Now, these cannot be said to be part of learning but can aid in the learning
process eg, the legs of a toddler must be strong enough for him to learn how to walk.

Theories of learning – (to be dealt with later)

It is important that a classroom teacher focuses more on;

i. A clear understanding of what learning is

ii. A clear idea of the factors which makes learning easier process to
comprehend/understand.

Relationship between Teaching and Learning

Teaching is basically facilitating learning, where learning is as defined elsewhere above.

The dynamic relationship between two concepts lies in:-

(a) Teaching is promoting and facilitating learning.

(b) Teaching in itself involves some amount of learning by the teacher.
(c) The teacher uses the foundational knowledge already acquired by the learners
through incidental learning experiences i.e from known to unknown in his tasks.
(d) Both teaching and learning are processes which are continuous in nature.
(e) Both the teacher and the learner can transpose positions as each one of them
influences the other.

3.0 TRAINING

This is the process of teaching someone how to perform a given task efficiently through
some repeated practice. This normally involves the learner being taught how to perform
a task which involves both knowledge skills. The teacher serves as the trainer and the
learner becomes the trainee. The two will go through the skill, performing it repeatedly
(over and over again until such time they are satisfied the skill is fully acquired. In this
learning situation, the learner is seen to go beyond just listening and understanding as

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is in other forms of learning. Instead he involves himself in repeating the motions of
performing a certain task or skill as shown or demonstrated by the teacher. Eg.the
ability to use the log-table in mathematics is a skill; in chemistry, the learners need to
learn the skill of titration while in Biology they require the skill of dissection. The skill to
use surveying equipment in Geography is essential just as it is essential to learn the
skill of playing the guitar or the piano in music.

Teachers who will serve as trainers will need to be specially trained themselves so as to
make them competent enough to guide the learners in acquiring these skills. To
achieve this, the teacher would need to emphasize the following principles in addition to
the content selected:-

i. Planning and preparing to teach.

ii. Specially selected methods of teaching.
iii. Classroom management and control.
iv. Ensuring good command and understanding of subject matter/content.
v. Choice of instructional materials and support materials.
vi. Evaluation/assessment/measurement of learning outcomes.

The teacher will also need to be competent in performing the skills himself/herself and
by going through several teaching tasks over and over again.

In the process of undergoing training to become a teacher of skills(trainer), the student

teacher will be:-

(a) Shown how the task is performed through demonstration by the Trainer
(teacher/tutor).
(b) Put in a situation (simulated) where he/she will be guided through the subtasks
until one has mastered them (at times using one’s own peers for purposes).
(c) Required to perform the subtasks together (integrating all the sub skills) to
perform a teaching task on the peers (peer teaching or micro-teaching).
(d) Perform the teaching task in an actual situation such as classroom under the
direct supervision of the teacher/tutor – during Teaching Practice.
(e) Once the task has been performed to the satisfaction of the tutor/lecturer, then
one will be described as a trained teacher who will have acquired key skills in
classroom instruction.

The following is a simplified format of the training process:-

1. Trainee gains
2. basic information and knowledge about the task to be performed.
3. Perform the task repeatedly until perfected
4. Demonstrated performance of the skill by the trainer.

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 5. Instructing/applying using the learned/acquired skills in real situations.

It is important to note that the knowledge or the skills acquired through training should
be properly channeled and put into good use for the purpose of developing the society
(not destructive).

EDUCATION:

Education goes beyond teaching, learning or even training. It involves the individual
using the acquired knowledge, attitudes, value systems, skills to increase, adjust, and
enrich the self and the society in all aspects of life. An educated person therefore
should be seen as one whose interaction with others is socially acceptable and useful,
resourceful, responsible; one who is happy to live with others.

Dr. Apoluoch identifies three forms/dimensions of Education in his book, “Essentials of

a school’s curriculum:. These are:-

1.
(i) The formal dimension: its characteristics are :
(a) It is carried out in organized institutions of learningeg. schools, colleges,
universities etc.
(b) It is highly structured, has syllabuses, schemes of work, course outlines and is
usually timetabled and requires teachers.
(c) It is normally inspected/supervised/monitored by officers from the Directorate of
Quality Assurance and Standards (ESQAC).
(d) There are occasional assessment tasks that are followed by terminal
examinations at the end of a given level of learning ie. Primary level, secondary
level, training level etc.
(e) There is some award of academic certificates to successful learners at the end of
each level of learning eg. KCPE, KCSE, PTE etc.
(f) It is this dimension that is usually used to determine promotions/retentions to the
next level of learning etc.

2(ii) the non-formal dimension: its characteristics are:

(a) It involves certain organized activities which are done outside the structured
programmes of study eg. Clubs, societies, education tours/trips/excursions.
(b) Involvement in these activities depends on individual interests and needs of a
particular group of people. Age may not be a factor here eg. Swimming club.
(c) Activities that involve formative ‘barazas’ by experts in particular fields belong to
this dimensions.
(d) Certificates of participation (non-academic) may be issued after an organized
programme is ended eg. boy scouting, debating Christian union etc.

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(e) Involvement in these activities serves to enrich the quality of an individual’s
school leaving certificate and other forms testimonials.
(f) The presence of instructors (teachers) except for being patrons/matrons is not
really very necessary etc.
(g) The activities are not examinable nor are they supervised by external agencies.

3. The informal dimension – its characteristics are:-

(a) Learning takes place unconsciously and at all times and places eg. At home,
at school, during play among peers and emulating adults.
(b) It is not a structured and adult or peer models because the sources of
knowledge happen all the time except when one is asleep.
(c) It is, in most cases, environmental learning since much of what is acquired
comes from the environment through the senses of a child’s entry behavior at
the time of enrolling for schooling.
(d) The presence of role models for copying, imitating or emulating is an
essential component.
(e) Informal learning pursues its own course, at its own pace and in a
spontaneous way throughout one’s life.
4. The emerging or the hidden curriculum/education compromising of the
contemporary issues in society may come under the spontaneous that cuts
across all the other three dimensions above.
5. The social dimensions – involves interrelationships, morals, ethics, socialization
processes, social interactions human relations. This dimensions is based on
premise on understanding that human beings, learners included, are basically
social animals who have need to co-exist and to depend on each other.

AIMS, GOALS AND OBJECTIVES IN EDUCATION

GENERAL

All the above terms refer to target or preferred outcomes at some time in the
continuum of time and space. But to avoid confusion, there is need to understand
the distinction between their references.

Societies the world overview education as a central vehicle of enabling people to

acquire the desired attributes of knowledge, skills, values, attitudes etc. Education
therefore can simply be described as the process through which the learner is
helped/or assisted to acquire the most desirable change for comfortable living. To
be able to offer these desirable attributes, education is guided by a set of national
aims (goals) that serve as points of focus (targets) to be chased after/ to be pursued.

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  Aims are the desired/preferred outcomes/targets that are long term in nature.
At time aims exist only as ideals that serve to give the nation or society a
sense of direction. They may be achieved or never at ll.
 Goals on the other hand are the preferred/desired outcomes/targets that are
medium term in nature. They can be achieved within a relatively acceptable
space of time eg. Within a month, a school term, one year, a level of learning
(primary, secondary, college etc). Goals are also stated for different subjects
in the school curriculum.
 Objectives are also in the category/cadre of the desired outcomes/targets but
which are short term in nature. They are expected t be achieved within a
stipulated time line eg. Within a lesson at the end of a sub-topic, a topic, a
series of topics, etc.

In any cycle/level of education the desirable outcomes as a result of education are

fashioned/crafted/designed through a set of subjects or disciplines such as Biology,
mathematics, history, religious education, geography.

Each subject has its own goals; that gives the purpose for which it is taught (why it is
included in the curriculum). A subject consists of very many topics. Each topic may
require several lessons for it to be taught in full. A topic may therefore have a goal that
will be achieved through teaching several lessons each of which having an instructional
objective. Thus, several instructional objectives will eventually add up to one
instructional goal. An instructional objective is supposed to be realized/achieved by the
end of a lesson ie. 35 minutes, 40 minutes, 70 minutes, 90 minutes etc.

It is normally, short term in nature.

AIMS OF EDUCATION

The United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural organization (UNESCO)

provides the Nations of the world with the broad aims that education systems should
seek/strive to achieve. And it is out of these broad aims that each country tries/attempts
to formulate its own aims which will give the general direction to that country’s system of
education. Some of UNESCO’s standard aims of education are that education should:-

(a) Faster international consciousness in the spirit of one Universal Society.

(b) Improve standards of living in the various countries of the world.
(c) Solve continuing problems that affect humanity such as hunger, disease,
unemployment, war, etc.

These aims are very broad but serve to give a general and desirable direction to which
education offered by the individual countries of the world should focus on countries of

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the world endeavor to harmonize UNESCO’s aims with their own through seminars,
conferences, workshops and scientific trainings etc.

In Kenya, the terms ‘aims’ and ‘goals’ appear to be used in free-variation – thus they are
interchangeable and this should not be the case. However, and whatever their
reference is, they still remain the general statements that give a general but desirable
direction to our entire education system. As pointed out earlier, it may be easy to
determine when they will be achieved and actually some of them may never be
achieved – they will remain but ideals/mirages.

In Kenya the aims of education are that it should:-

1. Foster nationalism, patriotism and promote national unity.

2. Promote the social, economic, technological and industrial needs for national
development.
3. Promote individual development and self-fulfillment/self-actualization.
4. Promote sound moral ethical and religious values.
5. Promote social inequality and sense responsibility among the youth.
6. Promote respect for and development of Kenya’s rich and varied cultures.
7. Promote international consciousness and foster positive attitudes towards other
nations and their peoples.
8. Promote positive attitudes towards good health and environmental protection.

From the general aims of education, educational goals are derived and they become
curriculum goals. These are usually medium term in nature. For instance, we have
goals of early childhood education, primary level education and other tertiary
institutions of learning. The key features of the goal statements are that:

(a) They are stated in general terms that are not immediately measurable,
observable or even achievable and are stated without any specified criteria.
(b) They are difficult to state behavioral terms because they relate to many human
activities, situations and standards of performance etc.
(c) They can only be attained over a relatively longer period of time – a week, two
weeks, one month, two months, one term, one year or even a course of study
(primary, secondary etc). What needs to be emphasized is that they are
achievable at some point, time/stage in the education system.

NB; Subjects or disciplines also have their own goals as purposes for their inclusion
in the school curriculum. These goals are attainable over the period of time the
course is studied eg. Geography in the secondary school cycle (Form 1-4). A
scheme of work will give goal statements for each subject that are attainable within
the term.

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INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES

These are the learning/outcomes/targets that a teacher intends to achieve within a

single period of 40 min or within 80 min of a double lesson. They guide the teacher
in organizing his/her instructional procedures including the selection of content,
identification of resources and planning of learners activities. They also facilitate for
relevant assessment and serve as the basis for sound curriculum implementation.
At the level of the learners, instructional objectives enable the learners to evaluate
their own progress and to plan how to perform better in a given subject. The
instructional objectives are stated:-

(a) In terms of the learners expected behavior.

(b) Such that they are measurable.
(c) Such that they are attained with a given time.
(d) Such that the level of performance is specified.
(e) Such that the conditions prevailing are specified.
(f) Such that they are concise and clear.

Why it is necessary to set instructional educational objectives?

At the beginning of any teaching task, the teacher needs to know very clearly what
he should accomplish by the end of what he intends t teach (the rationale for the
teaching).

Reasons for setting (instructional educational objectives are:

i. To be able to determine with some precision whether or not the teaching has
brought about the anticipated behavioral change in the learner at the end of
the learning process. Whether it is by the end of one lesson; a number of
related lessons covering one topic or even a whole curriculum.
ii. To give direction and establish criterial for measuring success/failure.
iii. To plan some orderly learning activities in which the order consist of the
systematics progressive learning processes.
iv. To have foresight in advance for possible determination of the number of
lessons necessary to complete a topic.
v. To influence the steps taken to reach the end results (outcomes) i.e. influence
the choice of content materials, methods and strategies etc.

(Long term) (Medium term) (Medium short term) (Short term)

Aims Goals General objectives specific objectives

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 (National ) (Curriculum) (Topic/subject) (Lesson plan)
Societal Educational

NB: It should be noted that all these are targets that a teacher endeavors to
achieve. The difference comes in the length of time each takes to be achieved but
they all form a support system – thus each one helps to achieve the other ie from the
specific objectives of a lesson to the most general aims of the nation.

Examples of lesson (specific) objectives;

(a) By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to distinguish between a
metaphor and a simile.
(b) Given thermometers with the two temperature scales, the learner should be able
to read and record temperature in both Fahrenheit and Celsius degrees.
(c) By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to label the human alimentary
canal in a given diagram.

Elements of a good instructional (lesson) objective;

 It should clearly state who will perform the learning tasks; and what he/she
will be able t do at the end of that lesson.
 It should have an overt behavior or action word (verb) which will be
observable.
 The objective must be stated in a very clear language (not vague).
 It should be short and to the point (specific) and precise.
 It should indicate or imply the standard of performance expected
(measurable)
 Sometimes, it is necessary to give the conditions under which the action or
behavior will be performed.

The Domains of knowledge and the statement of instruction objectives Benjamin

Bloom et al (1956)

The three domains of knowledge as identified are:

i. The cognitive domain

ii. The affective domain
iii. The psychomotor domain.
iv. There is now a forth one referred to as the social domain (morals ethics,
values, inter personal –relationships etc)

When a teacher sets out to state an instructional objective, it should be borne in mind
that the statement of the objective should be seen to revolve around any one of the

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domains stated above; without necessarily indicating which specific domain one intends
to satisfy.

1. The cognitive domain

This domain comprises those objectives that have to do with the functions of the mind ,
memory, recall or recognition of knowledge and the development of mental/intellectual
abilities and skills. This domain is further classified into sic (6) major categories (known
as the cognitive taxonomy) as follows;

Taxonomy of Knowledge:

(i) The knowledge level

(ii) Comprehensive level
(iii) Applications level
(iv) The Analysis level
(v) The synthesis level and
(vi) The evaluation level

i. Knowledge level- deals with the ability to recall or recognize. This includes
the recall of principles, generalizations, theories, methodologies etc. others
are facts, ideas and so on eg. An instructional objective in this taxonomy may
be stated as follows:
by the end of the lesson the learner should be able to:
 Define digestion and excretion or
 Name six capital cities in Africa etc.
ii. Comprehension – this involves some thinking abilities higher than simple
knowledge and will include such abilities as translating or explaining
information eg. By the end to the lesson.
 The learner should be able to explain the function of the human heart
or
 The learner should be able to describe the human growth process in
her/his own words.
iii. Application – the thinking processes in this taxonomy are higher than in
comprehension. If a learner has been able to or has understood information,
he then can apply it eg.
 The learner should be able to translate simple word problems into
algebraic equations or
 The learner should be able to convert yards into meters accurately.
iv. Analysis - this is also a category higher thinking/reasoning application. It
involves seeing and understanding different parts of an element as parts of a
whole and establishing their relationships eg.

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  The learner should be able to spot inconsistencies in the explanation.
 The learner should be able to identify the major themes of a novel or
 The learner should be able to determine logical fallacies in an
argument.
v. Synthesis – this is a category still higher than the other four. It involves the
ability to produce unique communication or put together ideas in a
constructive manner e.g.
 The learner should be able to propose a suitable method for
determining the chemical content of a compound.
 The learner should be able to design a plan for community participation
in a District/County.
 The learner should be able to create a logical outline of describing the
biological problem.
vi. Evaluation – this is the highest level in the cognitive taxonomy. It involves the
ability to make assessments and judgments e.g. by the end of the lesson the
learner should be able to;
 Distinguish between a well-developed character and a stereotyped one
in a Bantu culture.
 Write a critique of the English literature programme for secondary
schools.
 Distinguish between decision-making and problem solving.

The above various levels in the cognitive domain increase in the thinking demand on
the learner as one moves progresses up the ladder from knowledge to evaluation.

2. The effective domain

This domain has been put at five levels by Krathwohl and associates (1956) as follows:-

 Receiving
 Responding
 Valuing
 Organizing and characterization by an inbuilt complex value found within ghe
person eg. by the end of the lesson;
- The learner should be able to show interest in literature by doing extra
reading.
- The learner should be able to participate wholeheartedly in the biology class
discussion.
- The learner should be able to find pleasure in studying environmental
education.
3. The psychomotor domain – Simpson (1972) et al

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 In this domain, six major physical behaviors have been named and isolated. Reflex
movements, psyche and muscle coordination, manual dexterity, psyche-muscle
speed and precision, motor kines-thesis and ambidexterityeg.

 The learner should be able to play golf.

 The learner should be able to swim 100 meters in under four minutes etc.
4. The social domain

This domain mainly deals with social effects such as values, attitudes, ethics, morals,
mores and ethos, dos and don’tsetc which affect society. Issues to do with
environmental pollution, cloning of human beings etc fall under this domaineg.

 The learner should be able to outline the main effects of gaseous emissions
to the environment.
 The learner should be able to describe the uses of forests to the population.

It is worth noting that it is possible for more than one of these domains to be involved in
one single learning session.

CONSTRUCTING INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES

(a) Essential parts

i. Start with an action word (verb) (which will form the observable behavior)
such as to name, to operate to arrange, to compare etc.
ii. Follow this up with the subject content in reference such as to name 11 parts
of speech used in a sentence.
The essential parts indicate what the learner is expected to achieve the
learning outcomes.
(b) The optional parts
i. The level of achievement (measurability); this is an indication of the minimum
acceptable accomplishment in measureable terms (eg. how well, how much,
how accurate the achievement will be). At least 8 out of 10 sums within five
minutes.
ii. Under one or more conditions; the limitations or specifications under which
learning shall take place eg. Provision of special equipment/specimens;
reference materials/maps/charts and the time limits etc.

Some action words (verbs) are not measurable and are thus not suitable for use in
stating instructional objectives. These include understand, show, know,
demonstrate, comprehend etc. They however can be used for statements in the
affective domain. It is also in this domain that we are able to estimate the change of
learners behavior by inferring from what can be observed and hence the term

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 “approach the tendencies” in inhibiting positive attitudes towards a situation or
“avoidance tendencies” to reflect negative attitudes are often used.

3.0 THE SYSTEMS APPROACH TO EDUCATION

In the systems approach of performing tasks, certain inevitable steps will need to be
followed in a logical, meticulous way, some of them being almost indispensable.
Workers in the field of technology cannot avoid putting in use the systems approach in
their operations.

Romszonki (1981) defines a system as a set of elements or components or objects

which are interrelated and work towards an overall objective. This definition was further
supported by Ted Groenewegen (193) who saw a system as a complex of factors
interacting according to an overall plan for a common purpose or goal.

Examples of common systems include:

1. Biological systems
- The digestive system, the circulatory system.
- The respiratory system, the nervous system etc.
2. Mechanical systems:

Refrigeration system, music system, computer system, power generating

systems, engines systems etc.

3. Social systems
Educational system, political economic system, religious, churches, trade unions
etc.
4. Natural systems
E.g. Rivers, forests, grasslands and so on.What is important to note is that each
system has a goal, or a mission which must be achieved.

A system can either be closed or open. An open system is one which can interact
withits environment freely. Its behavior demonstrates a phenomenon called ‘the
principle of equifinality’ which states that an open system can reach its final state in a
number of different ways because it can interact with its surroundings by receiving ideas
and inputs from the environment. A school is a good example of an open system since
it takes/receives from the environment (society) and gives back to the same
environment.

A closed system on the other hand is one that operates in isolation from its
environment. It does not get any input from its surroundings. It final state is highly
dependent on its initial stage. An example of a closed system is the circulatory system,

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engine combustion system. It is however, worth noting that most systems are open
since it is extremely difficult to completely isolate a system from all outside influences.

COMPOUNDS OF A SYSTEM

1. Goals- every system has a goal which becomes the target that is to be
achieved. All members (parts) of the system then work towards this set goal.
2. Elements – a system comprises of more than one element and which must work
at tandem (together) since they are inter-related and inter-active.
3. Harmony – this involves the coherent interaction in performance of the
interrelated tasks for the purposes of attaining the set goal. All the elements
work in harmony, but each has its own specialized function which is its unique
contribution to the achieving of the set goal of the system.
4. Feedback – this is a provision for assessing the suitability of the success
realized in the interaction process leading to the attainment of the intended goal.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF A SYSTEM

 Each system works towards the accomplishment of a given mission/purpose.

 A system exists in a hierarchy of relationships. Each functional unit forms a
subsystem with elements that cannot work independently.
Such interdependent subsystems of a major system belong to the class known
as supra (system)
 A system has boundaries which distinguish each part from the other parts to
ensure that each specific task is performed at a particular point but remains
dependent of others.
 Each system has an environment. This environment of the system contains
resources for use. However, some environmental constraints also that can
interfere with the normal functions of the system.
 Systems can be linked to living things because they receive inputs and act
onthem to produce outputs (process). In this context, open systems receive
ideas and inputs from the environment. System goals (objectives) operate within
environmental constraints and there is a critical point at which a system may
collapse altogether. Entropy or interval disorder is achieved if the operational
objectives of a system are not adequately flexible and should be avoided at all
costs.
 Feedback- these are indicators in the system that give information about the
achievement (output) for purposes of re-examining the system.
 Growth – a system is said to grow through either transformation or diversification
or multiplication.

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  Dynamic stability – each system is dynamically in harmony with the
environment and exhibits levels of balance among its elements and subsystems
based on common expectations.
 Equifinality– this is to state that the same final point can be reached from
various starting points or original points or (original points) or initial conditions.

Systems function in environments. Any changes in the environment will essentially

(obviously) have a bearing (effects) on the performance of the system. The behavior
of a system will also in turn affect the objects surrounding it. There are certain
systems that function within the main and larger system which are also referred to as
the target system.

There is always a close relationship between the system and its environment, such
that:

 The environment provides the system with the inputs such as human
resource, money, raw materials etc and which will determine the quality of the
operation of the system.
 The environment also consists of resources and constraints that affect the
system either positively or negatively as will be apparent from the system’s
products/outputs.

THE SYSTEM APPROACH AS APPLIED IN EDUCATION

Hooper (1971) says that education is itself a system in that it has a set of inputs
(students) which are subject to a process in order to attain certain objectives which
appear to serve as (outputs) ‘educated students’.

Education can also be viewed again as a system again because of self adjusting
combination of people and things (objects) designed by human beings to accomplish
some predetermined purpose.

A SCHOOL AS A SYSTEM

1. THE GOALS

The school receives raw materials (the learners) whose behavior is expected to be
transferred through the processof education. The output is then assessed in the
ultimate (consummate) adults whose behavior has been transformed through the

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process and the quality controller – being useful and responsible and happy citizens of
a country. The school receives its goals from the society which is the school’s human
environment –these goals/aims are stated elsewhere.

The goals/aims of education are normally stated in all syllabuses (written by the KIED)
or in any major report on education at the time of its publication. The teachers have the
immense task of defining the most appropriate objectives for the different subjects found
in the school curriculum/syllabus. Whatever is done in the school system, must address
the National Aims/goals, however remotely.

2. THE ELEMENTS

These are the parts that must be processed in the system in order for the goals to be
achieved. In the school system, the elements are the head teacher, parents, teachers,
learners, support staff, learning/teaching resources and the physical facilities. All these
must be able to interact with each and work together with each other for the learners to
be processed into finished goods/output/products whose behavior is modified or
changed altogether. All these school elements are also part of the larger system known
as the education system.

3. THE FEEDBACK

This can be either positive or negative. But teachers and learners alike need to get
feedback to test whether the products are being processed in the desired direction/way.
Quality control is what is normally applied by the teacher if the feedback is negative.
This is done by adjusting the teaching methods, resources approaches and class
management to have the learners back in track.

4. THE HARMONY

All the elements in the school system will need to work harmoniously so that the
intended goals are achieved. All should pull towards the common direction without
dissent. The head teacher must provide effective leadership and the necessary
learning/teaching resources in addition to ensuring that the requisite infrastructure is
provided for. Effective learning and instruction have to be seen to be taking place so as
to change the behavior of learners.

Teachers should teach the right materials in class and at the right time while providing
an environment with optimum conditions of learning in classrooms. On their part, the
learners must work harmoniously, with the teachers; be disciplined, obedient and
respectful to the adults etc. for the learning to be smooth all the way.

The relevance of the systems approach to teaching and learning is clearly seen in the
process by which needs are identified/assessed (goals); and problems and

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requirements for solutions to the problems are selected from available alternatives
(content) ; methods and means are obtained and implemented (organization of
experiences by the teachers); revision required to the system , it is done expeditiously
for the needs to be eliminated in total. This approach is similar to the analysis –
synthesis theory where component parts of the system are identified and their
relationships determined vis a vis the whole system.

Synthesis will attempt to design a new system that will ensure that the identified
problem can actually be given a solution.

It is therefore safe to conclude that ‘systems approach is scientific in nature, is orderly,

is a process or a procedure, has elements which are inter-related and has a purpose to
fulfil’

SIMPLE MODE OF A SYSTEMS APPROACH

A model is an abstract representation of a reality. It is a simulation. It is also a picture

or a pictorial representation that effectively tells us at a glance how a system usually
works. The simplest technological model, for purposes of demonstration, consists of
three basic elements.

Input, process and output as is shown;-

INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

The learner is largely ignorant The process is teaching The output is an educated
of the content to be covered /learning/exposures. It is person with increased
at this level. However, the facilitated by the teacher. knowledge (facts, laws,
learner has acquired some The teacher is expected to processes, generalization,
experiences; be qualified experienced. procedures, concepts, ideas
Enthusiastic and etc) highly skilled
“the entry behavior” motivating. The teacher (intellectual skills, motor
-background experience selects the teaching skills, social skills, affective
-knowledge, skills, values methods, resource skills, logical skills,
-attitudes, behaviorsetc which materials, learning observation skills, language
are expected to be improved activities evaluation skills, etc); positive attitudes,
through the teaching/learning procedures etc. positive behaviors as may be
process.
determined by the society or
by evaluation procedures

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In this model, children are the inputs who are put into the education system. They are
then processed at different levels of education and finally coming out as educated
(outputs of the system) individuals whose characteristics are changed transformed or
modified for all to be able to see or tell (as effects of education)

QUALITY CONTROL

H.Ayov and M. Patel (1987)To be able to accommodate the element of product quality,
some aspect of quality control needs to be introduces. This aspect is the terminal or
summative evaluation that is normally administered at the end of an education level eg
primary, secondary etc where the actual outputs evaluated against expected output.
The principle of the feedback mechanism will be applied to determine those who have
acquired the desired outcomes to proceed on; and those who have not acquired the
desired outcomes are relegated back to the society form where they came.

Glaser’s mode of a systems approach to teaching;

Instructional Entering Instructional Performance

objectives behavior procedures assessment

This Glaser’s model functions more or less in the manner a normal classroom lesson
does.

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DEPTMENT OF CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION

UNIT CODE – BEDU 311

INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS

UNIT TITLE – FUNDAMENTALS OF PEDAGOGY

TEACHING STRATEGIES AND METHODS

Teachers should always make efforts to be aware of and awake to the available strategies and
methods of teaching for the purposes of making a suitable choices of the delivery mode when it
comes to instructional situations.

(i) Teaching Strategies (for purposes of instruction)

A strategy can be booked upon as a way and means of carrying out teaching which a
teacher can general plan and design which a teacher can conveniently fit in detailed
instructional procedures. It is also the overall way in which the process of instruction
is organized and executed. In other words a teaching strategy has a broaden
perspective than a teaching method when it comes to instruction.
Two main strategies of teaching can be identified
(a) Expository strategy to teaching (also referred to as transmission strategy and the
(b) Heuristic strategy of teaching (also referred to as discovery or facilitation
strategy)
Expository ---------------------------------intermediary------------------------heuristic

The two strategies do indeed form two extremes of the major forms of classroom instruction as
shown in the continuum above. In between these two extreme forms exist various forms exist
various specific strategies (methods) that run from the very expository on the one side to the
very heuristic on the other. The intermediary methods lie there in between.

However, dependent on the interactive teachers and lecturer behavior, these two main
strategies would appear to bear certain basic characteristics.

The expository strategy (approach) is largely direct instruction with the teacher being the main
actor in the teaching/learning process while the learner remains a passive listener taking down
notes (i.e teachers centred approach). Learners are given only the option to cram (memorize)
and to reproduce knowledge based on the ‘what’ when’ and ‘how’ questions. Learning here is
very shallow indeed as there is a basic assumption that lecturers do not know anything and only
required to reproduce what the teacher has given them during a test.

The Heuristic (discovery) strategy or approach requires that the learner investigate knowledge
him/herself with help of the teacher, who poses searching questions, guides, assists, indicates
sources of information while or the same time sharing ideas, problems and even solutions. This
approach is learners centred since the learner becomes the main actor in the learning process
with the teachers playing a minimal but vital role-facilitating, guiding providing suitable resources
creating conducive opportunities etc for the learner to achieve the set objectives. The main

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question in this approach is ‘why’ and the search for its answers leads to deep learning (indepth
knowledge)

Characteristics of the expository (teacher centred) strategy include, talk & chalk, transfer of
information, role learning by the learners, direct telling (pouring our information (knowledge),
authoritative (knowing it all expert)

Telling, asking questions, checking, correcting, lecturing, dictating, demonstrating etc.the

learners role here is reduced to only role thinking, listening and at the very most asking
questions.

Characteristics of the heuristic approach (strategy) on the other hand include dialogue &
inquiring and leads to discovery and the development of individual potential, self directed
learning that is deep rooted by way of exploring, questioning, reflecting and reasoning etc.
Quite after can be observed during discussions, problem solving situations, self-directed
projects. The teacher’s role in the heuristic approach remains that of a facilitator, developer of
learning materials, monitoring of process being realized and guiding.

Specific modes of instruction are referred to as methods. These fall in between the two
extremes discussed above with some hearing learning towards exposing and some learning
heavily towards the heuristic approach. In all these methods teachers and pupils participate at
varying degrees.

Below is a continuous showing position of some common methods:

Expository mid- point Heuristic

Leacture demonstation discussion problem solving

Supervised project or experiment

Common examples of the expository strategy (approach) will include such methods as lecture,
narrative (story telling), giving or dictating notes, text reading, teacher demonstrations etc

And some common examples of the heuristic (discovery) strategy (approach) include such
methods as group projects, field work/excursions, problem solving etc.

It is however encouraged that methods which are more heuristic in nature be used as often as
possible since learning involves were activities for students than in the expository.

The choice of heuristic methods is usually very ideal and acceptable among teachers, but there
are certain constraints that comes along with the choice eg. Availability of resources needed for
such methods, time allocation, amount of content needed to be covered etc.

What factors do determine the choice of suitable methods to use for instruction by teachers?

(a) The very natural tendency (style) of a teacher, authoritative or facilitative or even duo-
participative, will to a very great extent determine the type of methods a teacher will
choose. Also teacher’s attitude.

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 (b) The nature of learning- shallow or deep-depending on the confidence and the level of
preparedness of the teachers. Teachers who do not prepare adequately will tend to
resort to authoritarian methods while those who are thoroughly prepared will choose
heuristic methods.
(c) The size of the class, amount of time available, teaching/learning resources are hand,
the weather, and socio-economic situations will also influence the choice of the teaching
method.
(d) The lesson objective will more often than nor dictate the choice of method of instruction.
(e) The level of ability (entering behavior) and interest of the learners being taught will also
determine the choice of the method to be adopted.
(f) The nature of the subject – social sciences or natural sciences – will determine the
nature of the instructional approach to be adopted.
(g) The level of the learners eg. Lower primary, middle level and upper primary levels,
secondary school or even tertiary levels, secondary school or even tertiary levels all may
require different methods of instruction.
It is important to note that no method can claim to be superior to others. Any method that
delivers that which is desirable is as good as the other. At times several sub methods
can be seen to apply in one single lesson.

What are the most commonly used methods in schools?

1. The lecture method: - very popular and commonly used in tertiary levels of
instruction/learning. Percival and Elliugton (1988) did define a lecture as ‘ a didactic
instructional method involving one way communication from the active presenter
(teacher) to the mere passive audience (learners), simply an occasion to relax off while
someone talks.
There are three main types of lectures
(i)The formal lecture and which is characterized by more and more talks for most of the
time and allowing only a limited number of questions and comments from the audience.
Formal lecturers are only suitable for colleges and Universities, and
(ii) The not in schools informal lecture that lasts for only between 5 to 10 minutes and
then followed by students questions, responses comments or even watching a visual
aid. It is suitable for high school level.
The brief lectures – these are lectures that are used as preambles, for introducing,
summarizing, explaining or describing an object. They are indeed very short in nature so
as to give way to that other method preferred for use in instruction.

Merits/advantage of the lecture method in instruction

(a) One can cover a lot of content within a short space of time.
(b) It is requires only limited resources and hence economical
(c) It can be inspirational and even motivating if the teacher is eloquent, humorous, jocular
etc.
(d) It will be effective if only simple basic information is needed.
(e) It is always easy to prepare for a lecture exposition
(f) It is very suitable when one is handling large classes.

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Demerits/Disadvantages of the lecture method

(a) It keeps many lecturers in very passive drowsy modes with very little learning taking
place.
(b) It is not quite effective for higher cognitive learning or any other form of complex
(abstract) or skills learning.
(c) Slow or lowly gifted learners will certainly not benefit of all from the lecture method.
(d) It will not be effective when long term learning outcomes are desired. It can only be
used for short memory type of knowledge.
Nevertheless, the lecture method can be improved in the following ways:-
(a) Integrating questions and answers in the lecture.
(b) Selecting and using suitable examples only
(c) Making references to the most appropriate & relevant resources.
(d) Maintaining a strong eye contact with the class.
(e) Voicing in a clear manner and using the most appropriate language for the content &
level of lecturing (articulations)
2. Demonstration Method
Demonstration simply means ‘to show’. It is an expository method of teaching but rather
moderate and skewed towards the midpoint. It is therefore, not purely teacher centred.
In a demonstration, the teacher shows something such as a specimen, a model, a
procedure at even an experiment while the students watch. An upstart student can also
be called upon to show (Demonstrate) in place of a teacher. Demonstrations are
commonly found/used in the skills oriented subjects and in the physical sciences.
When is it necessary to demonstrate?
(a) When the task in hand is see to be dangerous eg. Catching a poisonous snake
(b) When strange complicated an expensive equipment is to be used/utilized.
(c) When the available resources are very limited against the number of users(Students)
learners.
(d) When time is not on the side of both the teacher and the lecturers.

When planning to use the demonstration method one should choose to emphasize
on the following

(i)Preview the demonstration earlier/ahead of use to ensure there is actually works.

(ii) The demonstration should be already visible to all the learners – should e
strategically placed.
(iii) The learners should be involved in one way or the other eg. By way of taking
short notes, reading, making or reporting observations, asking questions etc
(iv) The objective of the demonstration should be very clear in the teachers mind.

Main advantages of the demonstration method are:-

 It minimizes or reduces expensed with regards to resources and time.

 The learning outcomes are usually more accurate as they (Students) are supervised by
a knowledgeable teacher/instructor.

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  The learners are however, disadvantaged in that they remain passive for all the time the
teacher is demonstrating. This is a lesser limitation that can be overcome by
encouraging the learners to ask questions, reading and observing certain features in the
demonstration.

3. The Discussion Method

For purposes of instructional strategies, discussion should refer to Students – to
student talk with occasional verbal intervention by the teachers.
Students are naturally organized in buzz groups (one-on-one) or a range of up to 5
lecturers in a group (known as task of syndicate groups). Tasks to be performed by each
group should be clearly outlined on paper well ahead of time. Learners may be allowed
to copy in their books if for printed materials are not available. The teacher should
ensure that back-up resources in the form of books, models, diagrams, real things etc
are made available to the various groups. Mixed ability groupings are more preferable
during these discussions.
Each group should be able to elect a chairman and a secretary for purposes of
management/directing and recording key points that maybe raised by the members.
The main task of the teacher during discussions is to
(a) Introduce the unit/topic or subtopic to study to the learners
(b) Give clear directions of what is expected from the students/learners during and after
discussions.
(c) Move round among the groups to ensure that the discussions are going on well and
taking the right direction.
(d) Ensure that every student is participating in full
(e) Ensure that his participation is only directional and correctional.

At the end of the discussion sessions, each group leader should be given an opportunity to
present the groups task solutions to the others either verbally or by writing them on the
chalkboard. Finally, the teacher will be required to bring all the important points out and tie them
together using the correct terminology that suits the topic.

MERITS

Discussions are certainly known to increase learner’s participation in the learning process in
addition to creative opportunities for them to share ideas in a relaxed way. This way learning
together as peers becomes very real and effective. Learners too have the opportunity to pool
together and share in some manipulating skills, language skills, processing skills,
organizational skills etc from one another.

DEMERITS

Discussion method is nevertheless known to be very time consuming and demands a lot of
resources that way prove to be too expensive. Teachers will also find it difficult planning to use
this method especially when dealing with very large classes for lack of space for free
movement.

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It also demands a lot patience and resourcefulness on the part of the teacher.

4. FIELD TRIPS OR THE EXCUTION METHOD

This method involves the lecturers visiting a place of some educational value eg. A
factory, a production line, a land formation, a museum, parliament etc. It is indeed an
extension of the learning programme.
Learners, here, have first hand/contact with the real learning experiences/knowledge as
they interact with and observe the real objects. Field trips method helps in translating
theory into realty, thus making it exciting and motivating the learners all the more.
Field trips or excursions have to be planned for well in advance for them to have the
desired effect.
(a) The trip should fit in the general programme of learning as indicated in the
scheme of work. The theory part should be taught before the trip (practical).
- The place to be visited should be informed well ahead of time, indicating the day,
date, time, number of students, staff etc.
- Permission should be granted before the trip can be undertaken. Once permission is
granted, the relevant teacher should proceed to prepare for the trip. The teacher
could also wake an advance visit to the place, if possible, to get familiar with the
various areas of the place to emphasize on. Involve the parents.
- Students should be able to suggest and bring out the activities that should be
observed: before, during and after the trip. List them on the chalk board.

Disadvantages of the Field trip/excursion method.

(a) Too expensive for most schools to afford

(b) It’s too time consuming at least a whole day thus interfering with the teaching of
other subjects
(c) Accidents during these trips have become too frequent thus causing these trips
have become too frequent thus causing concern among the teachers, parents,
education officials, learners etc.
5. The project method: This is a method that is based on an extended defined problem eg.
Beans growing in a patch of land, or a long experiment that has to be observed over a
long period, a field study or even a series of short tasks.
The main purpose for using the project method would be:
 To explore the concerned field more deeply by the learners
 To increase initiative and resourcefulness in the learners
 To develop the need to become innovative in the learners
 To develop creativity and manipulative skills by being fully involved in the
project process

Most projects offer excellent learning experiences but they are time consuming for both the
learner and the teacher.

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The method is also considered to be expensive on resources especially when he project
involves science related experiments. Projects ca be done by individuals or in groups. When
done in groups, projects enhance the skill to work with others and the need for cooperation in
doing things but makes it rather difficult to evaluate individuals inputs into the project.

When planning to use the project method, the following points should be considered very
seriously

(I) The objective of eh project should be achievable within the available time frame.
(II) The topic of the project should be directed towards solving a certain existing
problem.
(III) Ensuring that all the required resources are available
(IV) Arranging for regular consultations as the project progresses.
(V) Ensuring that there is adequate safety awareness in the case of laboratory
experiments etc.

NB: Any teaching methods that involve the problem techniques solving as is the case with
laboratory experiments, the following outline may need to be followed:-

 Identifying the problem first and foremost.

 Defining the problem( by way of making a statement) and by formulating hypotheses
(predictions)
 Explore several possible strategies (methodologies) and settle on the preferred
one/most appropriate one.
 Collect the available data and analyse it for results
 Use patterns of information given by the data to draw conclusions and making
recommendations.

It is important that the teacher makes a preview of an experiment to ensure that it is working
even before he sets the students to work on it. All the rest of the time, the teacher’s task will be
to move round the class guiding and advising were needed.

6. The role playing method: This is one of many methods of learning describes as the
dramatic methods which include mining, mimicry , plays and skits, masks and puppets,
marionettes etc.

Role play is described as the spontaneous acting out of a situation. It is a form of an

improvisation in which students assume and act out roles that were performed by others,
imitating them. The method is characterized by invention and spontaneity with emphasis on
the individual performance and the role played i.eIt is the way each individual peforms
his/her role that should be the focus of the drama. Role play should come out
naturally(should be a nature expression0 (spontaneously) and should not be rehearsed at all
should it be used until it becomes tedious monotonous. The teacher to briefly describe the
roles to be played for students to know what is expected of them.

A. Advantages of role playing method.

(a) The method presents a would be emotional subject matter in an impersonal manner.

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 (b) It is provides a realistic situation in an interesting and simulated manner
(c) It enabled the students acting to identify themselves with the real people they are
role playing.
(d) It helps the students to see and appreciate that other people have
experiences(problems) like theirs.
(e) It provides a means to understand human relations and group behavior. Desirable
social behaviors can be dramatized without making the situation too
instructive/pedagogical.

B. Disadvantages of role play

(a) At times students are unable to wholly identify with the character and the behaviours
the are role playing
(b) The purpose role play is intended to serve, maybe overshadowed if the performance
(acting) is emphasized.
(c) Only extroverts and talented learners may appear to monopolise role playing or the
expense of the introverts
(d) The targeted experience may be clouded by too much humour or student mockery
(causing laughter) of the whole episode.
(e) Roleplay requires a little more time than normal lessons and tendency is that it may
run out of time before its fully acted. It should be deliberately timed and players given
free latitude to recreate a realistic scene.
Teacher and students should summarize the key points observed in the role
presentation through discussion or question an answer method.

INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE APPROACHES

These two approaches are based on the process or order of the steps followed in
learning new materials or content. The learner either derives a new principle
(inductive) or applies an already established principle, law or a rule in anew situation
(deductive).
The Inductive Approach
Learners are expected to use some logical reasoning through a process of events or
activities. They start with some particular examples of the same type of events or a
process and his is repeated several times to determine a pattern, consistency or a
rule. When similar observation s are made, then conclusions are drawn and
generalizations made. The main theme here is moving from examples to rules or
from specific to generals eg. Measure several triangles,, make observations, draw
conclusions and then make generalization thus:

Use Of Examples (Observations) Formation Of Rules, Laws Principles

Draw Conclusions Make generalisation(S)

Make use of other geometrical examples to demonstrate this important feature of the
inductive approach.

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 Eg. The sum of angles at a point on a straight line always add up to 180⁰ or the sum
of angles in a triangle will always add up to 180⁰etc

= a +b+c=180⁰

To note:

It is worth noting that the inductive approach gives an opportunity to the learners to generate
rules themselves. The knowledge acquired through this approach is more or less.

THE DEDUCTIVE APPROACH:

This method is the reverse of the inductive approach. Generalizations (or general rules) are
provided for and then learners are asked to verify (confirm) them by using some examples or
activities. The move here of the process is from the general principle to the specific principle or
from the rule to the example eg.

“The sum of angles as a point on a straight line is equal to 180⁰. “ This is then followed by
several examples to verify this rule generalization) by finding the sum of angles.

Eg. All living things die ---Examples of animals, humans, insects, plants, worms etc. If they all
die, then the generalization holds true.

HOW TO ORGANIZE FOR EFFECTIVE CLASSROOM TEACHING

(a) Always look for ways to improving teaching under whichever method you choose to use.
(b) Ensure that you plan your work well ahead of time to be sure of the content methods.
(c) As much as possible, try to link & relate your lesson to the environment & to the
experiences already known by the learners for ease in explaining any new concepts
encountered during the lesson.
(d) Always try to use simple language, clear explanations and terminologies that are easy
to understand. Difficult words should be explained spontaneously.
(e) Keep the learners always interested and well-motivated to learn what you have selected
for them.
(f) Give feedback to the learners enquiries, answer all questions immediately they are
asked and reinforce all desirable forms of behavior.

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 (g) Always try to create the correct types of opportunities which are conducive to creative
and enquiring learning.
(h) Create some acceptance rapport with the learners by warming up to them and being
friendly.
(i) Encourage the learners to always copy the summarized notes (main points0 of the
lesson in their books.
(j) Evaluate every lesson through snap questions, short tasks or even a short assignment.

Conclusion

To summarize, it is important to require of the teacher to note that learning is more enhanced by
methods that encourage active and independent learning thus (heuristic methods). In the
selection of the method to use, one should consider the objectives of learning the topic, the
class size, available resources and the learner abilities. One should go to teach always feeling
that they are prepared to teach.

Activities to reflect on

1. Give three conditions that will compel you to use the demonstration method. (3mks)
2. Give two reasons for preferring inductive to deductive approach of teaching (2mks)
3. Give two advantages & two disadvantages of the role-playing method of teaching (4mks)

FUNDAMENTALS OF PEDAGOGY
INSTRUCTIONAL PROCEDURES

There are some three very important documents that a teacher must have as he/she prepares
for the teaching exercise. These are (i) The syllabus (ii) The scheme of works and (iii) The
lesson plan.

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 (a) The syllabus: This is a document which shows the content to be covered in a given
subject in a given time at a particular level
The syllabus will help busy teachers to have a broad view of his subject and to select
appropriate content that will go into his teaching at a particular level of learning.
The syllabus also contains a summary of the objectives in a particular course of a
programme eg. Objectives of primary school education or objectives of primary teacher
education etc.
Other items that are featured in the syllabus include:-
(a) The National aims/goals of Education
(b) The general objectives of teaching a particular subject.
(c) Instructional objectives for teaching syllabus topic.
(d) The subject content/matter presented as topics and subtopics.

Topics that the teachers intend to teach over a given period of time will be selected ad extracted
from the syllabus. It will be an only task of the teachers to pick the most essential topics or
subtopics and these which will be formidable representations of the unpicked topic.

These topics are then transferred to the document known as ‘the scheme of work’ which
involves listing down a series of topics to be taught in the course of a term in the order or
sequence in which they are to be learnt from known to unknown and from simple to complex.

The preparation of a scheme of work involves breaking up the content of the syllabus in
meaningful components, subtopics or units and arranging them in a logical sequence or order
for ease in teaching and knowledge delivery.

A scheme of work is an individual teachers efforts at planning and organizing his work
conveniently and systematically. As the teachers embarks in the preparation of a scheme of
work, a few things will need to be considered. These are:-

- Change in time – each time has its own challenges

- Changing nature of students – each succeeding generation of students have their
own tastes, likes and dislikes, interests needs etc.
- Changing nature of subject content /matter – knowledge is continuous and constants
growing/expanding and space should be created for this expansion.
- Availability teaching – learning resources and other facilities at the time of scheming
– for purpose of enriching the process of learning.

In addition to the above considerations, there are certain essential guidelines that will need to
be observed. These will include:-

(a) Familiarity with the topics and subtopics (content) in the syllabus.
(b) Determination of the available teaching weeks in the school term.
(c) Establishing the periods(lessons) allocated to teaching the particular subject each week
throughout the term. In doing this, the teacher will also need to know the amount of time
to set aside for tests, revision, examinations, half term, games, athletics, drama, music
and other incidental school activities.

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 (d) Distribute the topics and sub-topics across the remaining available time. Arrange the
topics in order of the difficulty of concepts involved each time showing the methodology
and the amount of information.
(e) Arrange the topics such that teaching progresses from simple to complex and from the
familiar to the unfamiliar with the known being used to explain the unknown.
(f) Confirm what is already known by the learners as the “entry behavior” and use it as the
foundation slab for the new knowledge. Entry behavior includes such essentials as
knowledge or information already learnt learners and logical competence, their
manipulative (mater) and process skills etc.
(g) Consult all the available relevant resources, including text books; equip oneself with the
necessary information and to make a choice of the most suitable methods to adopt for
knowledge delivery.
(h) The topics to be taught through the project method should appear early in the term to
allow for the projects maturation.

ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF A SCHEME OF WORK

These are:

1. Administrative details such as the name of the school, the class to be taught; the subject
the term(I,II or III) and the year (2015 or 2016)
These particulars should be written on the top page of the scheme of work.
2. Long term objectives (the goals for teaching the topics). These are the expected learning
outcomes as a result of interacts with the topics that have been schemed for.
3. Weeks column
A school term has about 13 or 14 weeks. However, not all weeks are available for
teaching as some of them will be used for tests, half terms, co-curricular activities etc.
Only time (weeks) available for teaching should be factored in the scheme of work.
4. Content subject matter (learning experiences)
This is the subject matter to be covered in the term with the learner. It includes
knowledge, skills, attitudes, facts, principles, illustrations, definitions, values, behaviors
etc. In the scheme of work, content is entered in the form of topics or subtopics that are
intended to be taught for the weeks and periods available. Content comes from syllabus
personal notes by the teachers, any available textbooks relevant to be the subject.
5. Instructional objectives – in the construction of the instructional objectives the teacher
will be guided by the following enquiring questions:-
(a) What is it that we wat the learners to learn, to know or to understand?
(b) How do these objectives relate (align themselves) with the longer term objectives
(goals) for teaching the subjects?
(c) Are the objectives in any way related however remotely to the National goals of
Education?
6. Learning Activities: These are quantified or described as the things the learners will
do during the process of interactions between themselves, the content and the teachers.
The activities included in the scheme of work will later be transferred onto the lesson but
in a more refined form/manner. Learning activities should bear these qualities:-

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 (a) They should be varied and involved the use of most of the senses.
(b) They should be relevant and enhance in the achievement of the objectives of the
topic or subtopics.
(c) They should be appropriate enough to keep the learners meaningfully engaged in
the skill-knowledge acquisition process.
(d) They should be very carefully selected and organized such that they underline the
truth reality that actual learning actually takes place during this actual/time.
(e) The activities should be systematically and appropriately sequenced so as to allow
for unbroken continuity of the scheme of work.
7. The Resource materials: These are the materials that a teacher may need to enrich
and simplify teaching the content at hand. The materials will include charts, maps,
pictures, atlases, real objects live species etc. The availability of these resources in the
institution or in the environment should be established well ahead of time.
The time factor should be considered especially were real life objects will require to be
used.
8. References: these include all the printed materials used by both the learners and the
teacher for the experiences to be learned. They are class textbook, teacher’s
guidelines, newspapers, journals, encyclopedia, notes, manuscripts etc.
9. The remarks column: This the column used by the teacher to indicate each
topic/subtopic was adequately covered or not: the successes and failures or
inadequacies of the teachers. The comments entered in this column should aid the
teachers in adjusting his teaching strategies and methods of knowledge delivery.
PRELIMINARIESSchool_________; Form /Class_______; Subject___________;
Term_______; Year______; Name of Teacher__________.

Week Lesson Content Objectives Learning Teaching Reference Remarks

Teachers Resources s Books
1 1
2
3
4
2 1
2
3
4
3 1
2
3
4

NB: The column that deserves or demands more information than others should be given for
space. This will involve some little foresight in the teachers.

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NB: the above is a scheme of work format that is for a subject allocated four periods in a week.
Use the ‘landscape’ paper layout for a good and non-congested scheme of work.

PURPOSES SERVED BY A SCHEME OF WORK

1. A scheme of work will guide the teachers in writing a lesson plan relevant to the selected
topics.
2. A teacher will be in position to allocate adequate time to each topic in accordance to its
requirements
3. It makes it possible and easy for the teacher to rearrange the selected topics in order of
their prerequisition and difficult; with the simple ones coming first.
4. It makes it easy for the teacher to know what topics are yet to be covered at aglance.
5. Enables the teacher to assemble all the relevant teaching/learning resources early
enough; or even think about them ahead of the teaching time.
6. In the event the teacher is transferred, the replacement teacher will take over without a
break in the continuity of teaching.
7. During the preparation of the scheme of work, the teacher is accorded opportunity to
reflect over the topics to select, interpret their essence and position himself appropriately
translate them into real action.
8. Topics, subtopics or even themes that go into the lesson plans are usually gotten/picked
from the scheme of work.

BEM 1202

FUNDAMENTALS OF PEDAGOGY/EDUC. ADMIN & MGT

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QUALITIES THAT MAKES EMPLOYMENT A PROFESSION

(i) A profession is an employment just like any other. Law, medicine , piloting , engineering
etc
(ii) It is an employment that is respected by other people (society) as being honorable or
noble.
(iii) It is a grouping (an association) of some educated or learned people, not any others.
(iv) These people should also have gone through some specific formal training in certain
skills
(v) They also should have some common goals and objectives to pursue/achieve.
(vi) Membership is drawn from people who share similar skills values and knowledge etc.
(vii) The grouping has a set of rules and regulations that govern the behavior of its
members.
(viii) The group leadership is naturally elected by the members from amongst membership
itself.
(ix) Members hold meetings on regular basis to discuss issues or matters that affect
them and the profession.
(x) A profession has something unique in terms of knowledge and skills that they can
always give back to the society at a little fee.
(xi) Some selfless professions will offer some problem services to the less privileged
members of society at no fee at all.
(xii) Teaching (in Kenya) may fail to satisfy the above criteria(condition) to qualify as a
profession since teachers do not have a nationally recognized professional body that
unites or binds them together as one solid group.
(xiii) Teaching is unique in that it always deals with real life situations not imitations,
simulations unlike professions such as medicines etc.
- Teaching is unique and different from other profession since it deals with real life
situations at all times. It’s a profession for mouldinglife’s unlike others that have to
simulate or experiment with dead or unreal situations eg. Medicine, law ( court)
Piloting etc
- All other professions are composed of people who at one time or the other gone
through the hands of a teacher. It is therefore safe to say that teaching is the mother
of all other professions. “a profession extra ordinaries”
- Teaching is an employment (a profession) that boarders verges on charitable work
in that the compensation (rewards) given to teachers as salaries are really negligible
as compared to what is paid to other professionals.
- Teaching also may be said to contain or possess elements of a “calling “ to serve
given the nature of treatment given to teachers by the powers that be. Teachers will
never give up on their “call to duty” of moulding the youth to becoming useful and
responsible adults.

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