Decentralized wastewater systems (also referred to as decentralized wastewater

treatment systems) convey, treat and dispose or reuse wastewater from small and
low-density communities, buildings and dwellings in remote areas, individual public
or private properties.[1] Wastewater flow is generated when appropriate water supply is
available within the buildings or close to them.

Decentralized wastewater systems treat, reuse or dispose the e luent in relatively

close vicinity to its source of generation. They have the purpose to protect public
health and the natural environment by reducing substantially health and
environmental hazards.

They are also referred as "decentralized wastewater treatment systems" because the
main technical challenge is the adequate choice of a treatment and/or disposal
facility.[2][3] A commonly used acronym for decentralized wastewater treatment
system, is DEWATS.[3]

Background

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Comparison to centralized systems

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Centralized wastewater systems are the most widely applied in well-developed urban
environments and the oldest approach to the solution of the problems associated with
wastewater.[4] They collect wastewater in large and bulk pipeline networks, also
referred as sewerage, which transport it at long distances to one or several treatment
plants. Storm water can be collected in either combined sewers or in a separate storm
water drains. The latter consists of two separate pipeline systems, one for the
wastewater and one for the storm water. The treated e luent is disposed in di erent
ways, most often discharged into natural water bodies. The treated e luent may also
be used for beneficial purposes and in this case it is referred as reclaimed water.[citation
needed]

The main di erence between decentralized and centralized systems is in the

conveyance structure. In decentralized systems the treatment and disposal or reuse
of the e luent is close to the source of generation. This results in a small conveyance
network, in some cases limited only to one pipeline. The size of the network allows for
applications of di erent conveyance methods, in addition to the well-known gravity
sewers, such as pressurized sewers and vacuum sewers. The quantity of the e luent
is low and is characterized by significant fluctuations. [citation needed]
Applications

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In locations with developed infrastructure, decentralized wastewater systems could

be a viable alternative of the conventional centralized system, especially in cases of
upgrading or retrofitting existing systems.[5] This can be easier to accomplish with
decentralized systems, as centralized infrastructures have long lifetimes and are
locked into their location and condition.[6] Many di erent combinations and variations
of hybrid systems are possible.

Decentralized applications are a necessity in cases of new urban developments,

where the construction of the infrastructure is not ready or will be executed in future.
In many regions, the infrastructure development (roads, water supply and especially
wastewater/drainage systems) is executed years after the housing development. In
such cases decentralized wastewater facilities are considered as a temporary
solution, but they are mandatory, in order to prevent public health and ecological
problems. In this context, decentralized solutions are favorable in their ability to be
locally applied as needed, while still carrying the potential to cover large areas at
lower costs.[6]

Decentralized systems allow for flow separation or source separation, which

segregates di erent types of wastewater, based on their origin, such as: black
water, greywater and urine.[5] This approach requires separate parallel
pipeline/plumbing systems to convey the segregated flows and the purpose is to apply
di erent level of treatment and handling of each flow and to enhance the safe reuse
and disposal of the end products.[7]

In the specific case of developing countries, where localities with poor infrastructure
are common, decentralized wastewater treatment has been promoted extensively
because of the possibility to apply technologies with low operation and maintenance
requirements.[8] In addition, decentralized approaches require smaller scale
investments, compared to centralized solutions.[6]

Types

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 Decentralized wastewater system in Torvetua eco-
village in Norway. Wastewater is collected by a vacuum sewer. Greywater is treated
locally.

Based on the size of the served area, di erent scales of decentralization could be
found:[citation needed]

 Decentralization at the level of a suburb or satellite township in an urban area –

these systems could be defined as small centralized systems when applied to
small towns or rural communities. But if they are applied only to selected
suburbs or districts in medium or large population centres, with existing
centralized system, the whole system could be defined as a hybrid system,
where decentralization is applied to parts of the whole drained area.[5]

 Decentralization at the level of a neighbourhood – this category includes

clusters of homes, gated communities, small districts and areas, which are
served by vacuum sewers.

 Decentralization at "on-site" level (on-site sanitation) – in these cases the whole

system lays within one property and serves one or several buildings.

Wastewater treatment options

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Biogas digester for decentralized wastewater treatment

at Meru Prison, Kenya

Treatment/disposal facilities requiring e luent infiltration

[edit]

Usually they are applied at on-site level and are adequate because of the very low
wastewater quantity generated. However, they require suitable soil conditions,
permitting infiltration of the excess water, and low ground water table. If not applied
properly, they may be a serious source of ground water pollution. [9]

 Pit latrines are applied when the water supply is very scarce and wastewater
flow can hardly be generated. They are the most common sanitation technique
in under-developed areas.

 Septic tanks are the most common on-site treatment technology used, which
can be applied successfully where an adequate water supply is available and
the soil/groundwater conditions are acceptable.[2][5]

Treatment facilities resembling natural purification processes

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Their application requires significant surface area, because of the slow pace of the
biological processes applied. For the same reason they are more suitable for warmer
climates, because the rate of the purification process is temperature dependent.
These technologies are more resilient to fluctuating loads and do not require complex
maintenance and operation.[10] Constructed wetlands are more suitable for
applications at on-site or at neighbourhood level, while stabilization ponds could be a
viable alternative for decentralized systems at the level of small towns or rural
communities.[citation needed]

Engineered wastewater treatment technologies

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There is a large variety of wastewater treatment plants where di erent treatment

processes and technologies are applied.[11] Small-scale treatment facilities in
decentralized systems, apply similar technologies as medium or large plants. [12] For
on-site applications package plants are developed, which are compact and have
di erent compartments for the di erent processes. However, the design and
operation of small treatment plants, especially at neighbourhood or on-site level,
present significant challenges to wastewater engineers, related to flow fluctuations,
necessity of competent and specialized operation and maintenance, required to deal
with a large number of small plants, and relatively high per capita cost. [13]

Regulations and management

[edit]

Water pollution regulations in the form

of legislation documents, guidelines or ordinances prescribe the necessary level of
treatment, so that the treated e luent meets the requirements for safe disposal or
reuse. E luent may be disposed by discharging into a natural water body or infiltrated
in the ground. In addition, regulations mention requirements regarding the design and
operation of wastewater systems, as well as the penalties and other measures for
their enforcement. Centralized systems are designed, built and operated in order to
fulfil the existing regulations. Their management usually is executed by local
authorities. In hybrid systems and small centralized systems in towns or rural
communities management can be executed in the same way.[12][citation needed]

In the case of decentralization at on-site level and clusters of buildings, the whole
wastewater system is located within private premises. The costs and responsibility for
the design, construction, operation and maintenance is the responsibility of the
owner. In many cases specialized companies might execute the operation and
maintenance procedures. The local authorities issue permits and may provide support
for the operation and management in the form of collecting wastes, issuing
certificates/licenses for standardized treatment equipment, or for selected qualified
private companies. From regulatory point of view, the control of the quality of treated
e luent for reuse, discharge or disposal is entirely the responsibility of local or
national government authorities. This might be a challenge if a large number of
systems must be controlled and inspected. It is in the owner's interest to operate and
maintain the system properly, especially in the case of reuse of the treated e luent.
Most often the operational problems are associated with clogging of the treatment
facilities as result of irregular removal of the sludge or hydraulic overloading due to
increased number of population served or increased water consumption. [9][citation needed]

Urban planning and infrastructure issues

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Wastewater systems are part of the infrastructure of urban or rural communities and
the urban planning process. Urban planning data and information, such as plots of
individual dwellings, roads/streets, stormwater drainage, water supply, and electricity
systems are essential for the design and implementation of a sustainable wastewater
system. In decentralized wastewater systems, which collect and treat wastewater
only, stormwater might be overlooked and cause flooding problems. If planned
decentralized solutions are applied, stormwater drainage should be executed together
with the roads system.[citation needed]

In under-developed population centres where no infrastructure is available, is di icult

to provide sustainable sanitation measures; e.g. pit latrines/septic tanks need
periodic cleansing, usually executed by vacuum trucks, which have to access the
latrine and need a basic road for this purpose. [14] Fecal sludge management deals with
the organization and implementation of this practice in a sustainable way, including
collection, transport, treatment and disposal/reuse of faecal sludge from pit latrines
and septic tanks.[15]

In the cases of new urban/rural developments, or the retrofitting of existing ones, it is

advisable to consider di erent alternatives regarding the design of the wastewater
system, including decentralized solutions. A sustainable approach would require
optimal technical solutions in terms of reliability and cost e ectiveness.[16] [17] From
this perspective, centralized solutions might be more appropriate in many cases,
depending on existing sizes of plots, topography, geology, groundwater tables and
climatic conditions. But when applied adequately, decentralized systems allow for the
application of environmentally friendly solutions and reuse of the treated e luent,
including resource recovery. In this way, alternative water resources are provided and
the environment is protected. Public awareness, perceptions and support play an
important part in the urban planning process for choosing adequate wastewater
systems which fit the specific context.[16][18]

Examples

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BORDA

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One example of decentralized treatment is the "DEWATS technology" which has been
promoted under this name by the German NGO BORDA.[3][8] It has been applied in
many countries in South East Asia and in South Africa. [19][20] It
applies anaerobic treatment processes, including anaerobic ba led reactors (ABRs)
and anaerobic filters, followed by aerobic treatment in ponds or in constructed
wetlands. This technology was researched and tested in South Africa where it was
shown that the treatment e iciency was lower than expected.[21]

Botswana Technology Centre

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A case study of a decentralized wastewater system at on-site level with treated
e luent reuse was performed at the Botswana Technology Centre in Gaborone,
Botswana.[22] It is an example of a decentralized wastewater system, which serves one
institutional building, located in an area served by municipal sewerage. Wastewater
from the building is treated in a plant consisting of: septic tank, followed by planted
rock filter, bio-filter and a surface flow wetland. The treated e luent is reused for
irrigation of the surrounding green areas, but the study registered outflow from the
wetland only during periods of heavy rains. This example shows the need for careful
estimation of the expected quantity, quality and fluctuations of the generated
wastewater when designing decentralized wastewater systems. [citation needed]

EcoSwell

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Founded in 2013, the Peru-based NGO EcoSwell works on rural development projects,
including water supply and sanitation in Peru; they are based in the northwestern
Lobitos district of the Talara region, an arid coastal area that faces water
stress.[23] EcoSwell establishes decentralized wastewater systems with the help of
local residents and interns, including communal biodigesters, dry toilets, and
greywater reuse projects.[24] They also work on reforestation and constructed wetlands
as avenues to naturally treat waste e luent and deactivate pathogens.[24]