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Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs):

Basics, Types & Applications
Last updated July 14, 2024 by Vidya Muthukrishnan

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• Functionality: PLCs handle tasks like timing and logic Induction: Definition & Formula
operations, significantly streamlining industrial
processes.

• Programming Flexibility: The programming of a PLC

can be altered to meet changing operational needs,
enhancing adaptability in industrial environments.

• Types of PLCs: There are compact and modular PLCs,

with modular versions allowing for expanded control
 options and adaptability.

• Industrial Applications: Programmable logic controllers

are crucial in industries such as manufacturing and water
treatment, where they automate complex processes to
increase efficiency and reliability.

What is a PLC?
What is a PLC? A PLC, or Programmable Logic Controller, is a
computer built to function reliably under the tough conditions of
industrial environments like extreme temperatures or dusty areas. It
automates processes in industries, including manufacturing and
wastewater treatment.

PLCs share many features of the personal computer you have at home.
They both have a power supply, a CPU (Central Processing Unit),
inputs and outputs (I/O), memory, and operating software (although
it’s a different operating software).

The biggest differences are that a PLC can perform discrete and
continuous functions that a PC cannot do, and a PLC is much better
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suited to rough industrial environments. A PLC can be thought of as a
‘ruggedized’ digital computer that manages the electromechanical
processes of an industrial environment.

PLCs play a crucial role in the automation field, forming part of a

larger SCADA system. A PLC can be programmed according to the
operational requirements of the process. In the manufacturing

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industry, reprogramming will be needed due to the change in the
nature of production. To overcome this difficulty, PLC-based control
systems were introduced. We’ll first discuss PLC basics before looking
at the various applications of PLCs.

If you want to learn how to programme PLCs, you should check out
some of the different online PLC training courses. These courses can
help jump-start your career in control engineering.

PLC Basics

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PLCs, created by Dick Morley in 1964, have transformed the industrial
and manufacturing sectors with functions such as timing, counting,
and signal processing.

The main advantage of a PLC over a “hard-wired” control system is

that you can go back and change a PLC after you’ve programmed it, at
little cost (just the cost of the programmer’s time). In a hard-wired
control system, you’re essentially having to rip out wires and start
from scratch, (which is more expensive and takes longer). Let’s look at
an example to better understand this advantage.

Imagine you have a light connected to a switch. In general, the light

operates under two conditions – ON and OFF. Now you are given a
task that when you turn ON the switch, the light should glow only
after 30 seconds. With this hard-wired setup – we’re stuck. The only
way to achieve this is to completely rewire our circuit to add a timing
relay. That’s a lot of hassle for a minor change.

Light Switch

This is where a programmable logic controller comes into the picture,

which doesn’t require any additional wiring and hardware to make
sure of a change. Rather it requires a simple change in code,
programming the PLC to only turn on the light 30 seconds after the
switch is turned ON. So, by using a PLC, it is easy to incorporate
multiple inputs and outputs.

This is just a simple example – a PLC has the ability to control much
larger and more complex processes. A PLC can be customized
depending on the application and needs of the user.

Light operated by a PLC

How Does a PLC Work?

The working of a programmable logic controller can be easily
understood as a cyclic scanning method known as the scan cycle.

Block Diagram of How A PLC Works

A PLC Scan Process includes the following steps

The operating system starts cycling and monitoring time.

The CPU starts reading the data from the input module and
checks the status of all the inputs.
The CPU starts executing the user or application program
written in relay-ladder logic or any other PLC-programming
language.
Next, the CPU performs all the internal diagnosis and
communication tasks.
According to the program results, it writes the data into the
output module so that all outputs are updated.
This process continues as long as the PLC is in run mode.

Physical Structure of PLC

The structure of a PLC is almost similar to a computer’s architecture.

PLC Block Diagram

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Programmable Logic Controllers continuously monitor the input
values from various input sensing devices (e.g. accelerometer, weight
scale, hardwired signals, etc.) and produce corresponding output
depending on the nature of production and industry. A typical block
diagram of PLC consists of five parts namely:

Rack or chassis
Power Supply Module
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
Input & Output Module
Communication Interface Module

Rack or Chassis
In all PLC systems, the PLC rack or chassis forms the most important
module and acts as the backbone. PLCs are available in different
shapes and sizes. When more complex control systems are involved,
larger PLC racks are required.

A small PLC is equipped with a fixed I/O pin configuration. So, they
have gone for a modular-type rack PLC, which accepts different types
of I/O modules with sliding and fit-in concepts. All I/O modules will
reside inside this rack/chassis.
 Breakdown of PLC Rack

Power Supply Module

This module provides the required power to the whole PLC system. It
converts the available AC power to DC power, which is required by
the CPU and I/O module. PLCs generally work on a 24V DC supply,
but few use an isolated power supply.

CPU Module and Memory

CPU module has a central processor, ROM & RAM. ROM memory
includes an operating system, drivers, and application programs.
RAM is used to store programs and data. CPU is the brain of PLC
with an octal or hexagonal microprocessor.

···

Being a microprocessor-based CPU, it replaces timers, relays, and

counters. Two types of processors a single bit or word processor, can
be incorporated with a PLC. A bit processor is used to perform logic
functions. Word processors are used for processing text and numerical
data, as well as controlling and recording data.

···

The CPU reads the input data from sensors, processes it, and sends the
command to controlling devices. As mentioned in the previous
discussion, a DC power source requires voltage signals. The CPU also
contains other electrical parts to connect cables used by other units.

Input and Output Module

The input and output modules of a PLC are crucial for sensing
physical parameters such as temperature, pressure, and flow, allowing
it to interact with various industrial processes.

Input devices can be either start and stop pushbuttons, switches, etc,
and output devices can be electric heaters, valves, relays, etc. The I/O
module helps to interface input and output devices with a
microprocessor. The input module of PLC is explained in the below
figure.

PLC Input Module

Circuit Diagram of PLC Input Module

The input module of PLC has four main functions.

1. The input module interface receives the signal from process

devices at 220 V AC
2. Converts the input signal to 5 V DC that can be used by PLC
3. Isolator block is used to isolate/prevent PLC from undergoing
fluctuation
4. After which the signal is sent to the output end i.e. the PLC

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There are two main sections in the input module, namely the power
section and the logical section. Both sections are electrically isolated
from each other. Initially, the push button is closed. So, 220 V AC
supply is given to the bridge circuit through the resistors R1 and R2.

A bridge rectifier (such as a diode bridge rectifier) is used to convert

the AC signal into DC and Zener diode is used to provide a low
voltage supply to LED. When the light from the LED falls on the
phototransistor, it works in the conduction region. Finally, a 5V DC
supply is given to the processor.

The output module of PLC works similarly to the input module but in
the reverse process. It interfaces the output load and processor. So
here, the first section would be the logic session, and the power section
comes next. The working of the output module is shown in the figure
below

PLC Output Module

So, when the program logic high signal is generated from the
processor, the LED will turn ON and allow the light to fall on a
phototransistor. When the transistor goes to the conduction region, it
generates a pulse to the gate of the Triac. The isolator block is used to
isolate the logic section and control section.

Communication Interface Module

···
Intelligent I/O modules are used to transfer information between CPU
and communication networks. These communication modules help to
connect with other PLCs and computers which are placed at a remote
location.

Types of PLCs
The two main types of PLC are fixed / compact PLC and modular
PLC.

Compact PLC
Within a single case, there would be many modules. It has a fixed
number of I/O modules and external I/O cards. So it cannot expand
the modules. The manufacturer will decide on every input and output.

Modular PLC
This type of PLC permits multiple expansions through “modules”,
hence referred to as Modular PLC. I/O components can be increased. It
is easier to use because each component is independent of each other.

A Modular Type PLC

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PLCs are divided into three types based on output, namely Relay
output, Transistor output, and Triac Output PLC. The relay output
type best suits AC and DC output devices. Transistor output type PLC
uses switching operations and is used inside microprocessors.

According to the physical size, a PLC is divided into Mini, Micro, and
Nano PLC.

Some of the manufacturers of PLCs include:

 ···

Allen Bradley
ABB
Siemens
Mitsubishi PLC
Hitachi PLC
Delta PLC
General Electric (GE) PLC
Honeywell PLC

Each of them has its own specific features, strengths, and compatible
software for programming and managing their PLC systems.

PLC Applications
PLCs have a variety of applications and uses, including:

1. Process Automation Plants (e.g. mining, oil &gas)

2. Glass Industry
3. Paper Industry
4. Cement Manufacturing
5. In boilers – Thermal Power Plants

PLC Programming
When using a PLC, it’s important to design and implement concepts
based on your particular use case. To do this, we first need to learn
more about the specifics of PLC programming.

A PLC program consists of a set of instructions either in textual or

graphical form, which represents the logic that governs the process the
PLC is controlling. There are two main classifications of PLC
programming languages, which are further divided into many sub-
classified types.

1. Textual Language
Instruction list
Structured text
2. Graphical Form
Ladder Diagrams (LD) (i.e. Ladder Logic)
Function Block Diagram (FBD)
 Sequential Function Chart (SFC)

Although all of these PLC programming languages can be used to

program a PLC, graphical languages (like ladder logic) are typically
preferred to textual languages (like structured text programming).

Ladder Logic
Ladder logic is the simplest form of PLC programming. It is also
known as “relay logic”. The relay contacts used in relay-controlled
systems are represented using ladder logic.
The below figure shows a simple example of a ladder diagram.

PLC Ladder Logic

In the above-mentioned example, two pushbuttons are used to control

the same lamp load. When any one of the switches is closed, the lamp
will glow.

The two horizontal lines are called rungs and the two vertical lines are
called rails. Every rung forms the electrical connectivity between the
Positive rail (P) and the Negative rail (N). This allows the current to
flow between input and output devices.

Functional Block Diagrams

Functional Block Diagram (FBD) is a simple and graphical method to
program multiple functions in PLC. PLCOpen has described using
FBD in the standard IEC 61131-3. A function block is a program
instruction unit that, when executed, yields one or more output
values.

It is represented by a block, as shown below. It is represented as a

rectangular block with inputs entering on the left and output lines
leaving on the right. It gives a relation between the state of input and
output

Function Block

The advantage of using FBD is that any number of inputs and outputs
can be used on the functional block. When using multiple inputs and
output, you can connect one function block’s output to another’s
input. Whereby building a Function Block Diagram.
 Example Functional Block Diagram

The figure below shows various function blocks used in FBD

programming.

Functional Block Programming

The figure below shows a ladder diagram and its function block
equivalent in Siemens notation.

Ladder to functional block [Source]

Ladder to functional block diagram [Source]

Structured Text Programming

Structured text, a programming language for PLCs, uses simple
statements to dictate operations. It is similar to conventional
programming but isn’t case-sensitive, using operators to express logic
and relationships.

Structured Text Programming

PLC Programming Examples

A signal lamp is required to be switched on if a pump is running and
the pressure is satisfactory, or if the lamp test switch is closed. In this
application, if there should be an output from the lamp inputs from
both the pump and pressure sensors are required. Hence, AND logic
gates are used.

OR logic is used for the test input condition, it is required to give an

output of lamp on regardless of whether there is a signal from the
AND system. By using END or RET instruction in the ladder diagram,
we can tell PLC has reached the end of the program. The function
block diagram and the ladder diagram are shown below in the figure.

PLC Program to Test Lamp Glowing

As another example, consider a valve that is to be operated to lift a

load when a pump is running and either the lift switch is operated or
a switch operated indicating that the load has not already been lifted
and is at the bottom of its lift channel.

OR logic is used for two switches and an AND logic is used with two
switches and the pump. The valve will be operated only if the pump is
ON and two switches are operated.
 PLC Program to Operate Valve

Consider a drinks machine that allows the selection of tea or coffee,

milk or no milk, sugar or no sugar, and will supply the required hot
drink on the insertion of a coin. From the figure, it is seen that either
tea or coffee is selected using the first OR logic gate.

The first AND gate gives an output when either Tea or coffee is
selected and a coin is inserted into the machine. The output from this
AND gate is given to the second AND gate. The second AND gate
operates only when hot water combines with tea. Milk and sugar are
optional additions that can occur after a coin has been inserted.

FBD for Drinking Machine

Ladder Logic for Drinking Machine Application

History of PLCs
Initially, early PLCs couldn’t graphically represent logic, so they used
Boolean algebra to depict logical expressions.

··· ···

As programming terminals evolved, ladder logic became more

common because it was a familiar format used for electromechanical
control panels. More modern formats, such as state logic and Function
Block diagrams, exist, but they are still not as popular as ladder logic.
A significant development in standardizing PLC programming
languages was the introduction of IEC 1131-3, which provided a
framework for using multiple languages, including ladder logic,
within the same controller.

A possible reason for this is that programmers prefer the more visual
appeal of ladder logic over structured text programming.

Until approximately the mid-1990s, PLCs were programmed using

proprietary programming panels or special-purpose programming
terminals, which often had dedicated function keys representing the
various logical elements of PLC programs.

Some proprietary programming terminals displayed the elements of

PLC programs as graphic symbols, but plain ASCII code
representations of contacts, coils, and wires were common.

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 ···

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About Vidya Muthukrishnan

Vidya Muthukrishnan, with a B.Tech in Electronics and

Instrumentation from SASTRA University and an M.Tech in
Biomedical Engineering from VIT University, is the Team Lead for
Digital Training Services at a notable IT company. She oversees E-
learning initiatives and Web-Based Training programs, leveraging
her extensive background in Learning and Development, which
includes a previous role as an Assistant Professor in
Instrumentation and Control Engineering at Sri Krishna College of
Technology, Coimbatore.

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0 thoughts on “Programmable Logic Controllers

(PLCs): Basics, Types & Applications”

Jose A Ventura
April 2, 2024 at 1:53 am

Every topic is interesting, I am grateful for refreshing my

mind and keep going.

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