Memory

Memory and Information Processing

• Input – Sensory information in the environment
• Encoding – Turning sensory information into a form that can be stored
• Acoustic Encoding – Storing sounds in memory
• Visual Encoding – Storing visual information
• Semantic Encoding – Storing meaningful information
• Output – Recalling information (e.g., behavioural response)

Short-Term Memory (STM)

• Input initially enters the STM store, a temporary repository lasting about 18
seconds.
• STM capacity is approximately seven items, encoding information acoustically
through repetition.
• Rehearsed information can transition to the Long-Term Memory (LTM), supporting
Daniel Willingham's learning theory.

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

• Encoding in the LTM is predominantly semantic but may also be visual or acoustic.
• LTM holds limitless information and can endure for minutes or even a lifetime.

Forgetting Mechanisms
• In STM, forgetting can occur through displacement, where new information
replaces older data as the STM reaches capacity.
• In LTM, memory decay may happen if the memory trace is unused for an extended
period or overwritten by new information (interference).
Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968): Multi-Store Model of
Memory

The multi-store model of memory comprises the sensory register;

• Short-Term Memory (STM)
• Long-Term Memory (LTM).
• The sensory register briefly holds all incoming sensory information,
• transferring what we attend to into our STM; otherwise, it decays.
o Types of sensory registers include iconic memory (visual), echoic memory
(auditory), gustatory memory (taste), olfactory memory (smell), and tactile
memory (touch and texture).

o Encoding Duration Capacity

Sensory sense-specific 0.5 seconds limited to 1 sensation

STM mainly acoustic 15-30 seconds up to 9

LTM mainly semantic unlimited unlimited

Strengths Weakness

Evidence: there’s evidence of the existence Overemphasis on rehearsal, which is not

of STM and LTM in cases of memory the only factor that determines whether or
deficiency in amnesia patients not something is remembered

Murdock (1962), evidence for serial Specific Impairments: showing there’s not
positioning for the duration aspect of only one STM and LTM store with selective
memory, found that recall is higher with memory impairments in amnesia patients
words at the beginning and end. ex, Clive Wearing
Peterson & Peterson (1959): Short-Term Retention
Aim
• Investigate the duration of short-term memory.
• Examine the role of interference in forgetting.

Background
• Memory processes encompass encoding, storage, and retrieval.
• Interference theory argues that forgetting happens when new information
disrupts the retention of previously acquired material.

Sample
• Participants: 24 psychology students.
• All the students were from the same university.
• The sample had similar characteristics, reducing individual differences.

Procedure
• Participants received trigrams (meaningless three-consonant syllables) intended to
inhibit rehearsal.
• Each trial comprised three phases: encoding, interference task, and recall.
• During encoding, participants received a trigram and were instructed to count
backwards in threes from a three-digit number for varying durations (3, 6, 9, 12,
15, or 18 seconds).
• The interference task, counting backwards, aimed to prevent rehearsal.
• Following the interference task, participants were tasked with recalling the initial
trigram.
• Distinct trigrams were employed for each trial to reduce recognition.

Results
• Experiment 1:
o Longer counting backwards led to decreased accurate trigram recall.
o 80% correct recall after 3 seconds, dropping to less than 10% after 18
seconds.
• Experiment 2:
o Increased time boosted recall frequency.
o A similar decline in recall over time was observed.
Conclusion
• Supported the idea that STM information is lost through interference when
rehearsal is prevented.
o Provided evidence for the limited duration of short-term memory. The
findings reinforced the role of interference in forgetting.
o Understanding memory processes and the factors that affect memory
retention, particularly in the short-term memory stage.

Strengths Weakness

Standardized Procedure: replicability and Lacks Mundane Realism; Trigrams don’t

reliability reflect things that we usually try to
remember

Practical Application: revision in small

chunks

Bartlett’s (1932): War of Ghosts

Aims
• To investigate how cultural schemas influence memory.
• To examine how people recall and reconstruct unfamiliar stories.

Background
Schema theory says people rely on their existing knowledge and cultural schemas to
interpret and recall information. Bartlett, intrigued by this idea, explored how cultural
schemas influence memory, particularly in the context of unfamiliar stories.

Sample
• 20 British participants in his study (Cambridge University).
o the participants were not familiar with Native American folk stories (War of
Ghosts)
Procedure
• Participants read the War of the Ghosts (WOG) story twice.
• They were then required to recall the story using serial reproduction and repeated
reproduction.
• Serial Reproduction:
o A technique involving participants retelling stories to each other, creating a
chain, and then participants retelling the story 15-30 minutes later.
 • Repeated Reproduction:
o This involves participants repeatedly retelling a story and then participants
write out the story 15 minutes later.
o Recall is tested after minutes, days, hours, months, and years.

Results
• Participants exhibited changes and connections (rationalization) in serial and
repeated reproduction.
• Example: 'Something black came out of his mouth' transformed into “a man's
dying breath.'
• Omissions occurred for unfamiliar or simplified details, such as 'canoe' becoming
'boat' and 'hunting' turning into 'fishing.'
• In repeated reproduction, rewrites often adhere to a similar form or the initial
reproduction's outline.

Conclusion
• Memory is a reconstructive process in which individuals modify unfamiliar
information to align it more closely with their schemas.
o Our pre-existing knowledge and cultural understanding influence
interpretation and reconstruction.

Strengths Weaknesses

Ecological Validity; remembering a story is Qualitative Analysis; may have biases

representative of everyday activity, however
the story was unfamiliar and illogical which
can also be a weakness

Qualitative Analysis; rich in detail Lacks standardized procedure; lower

reliability as participants were given the
flexibility to read at their own pace
Issues & Debates: Reductionism & Holism
• Reductionism:
o The theory explains phenomena by breaking it down into basic constituent
parts.
o Associated with scientific methods, allowing isolation and control of factors
affecting behavior.
o It is desirable for scientific practice but may result in overly simplistic
conclusions by ignoring other potential causes (e.g., attributing aggression
solely to an inherited gene without considering upbringing or gene
interactions).

• Holism:
o Theory explaining phenomena as a whole.
o Linked to qualitative methods for in-depth understanding of individual
behavior causes.
o Regarded as unscientific and challenging to achieve.
o Findings are specific to an individual and lack generalizability.

• Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Multi-store Model of Memory:

o Reductionist as it describes memory in distinct parts with specific functions.

• Bartlett's Work:
o A holistic approach using qualitative analysis.
o Considerable emphasis on establishing participant character and
background to understand schema formation.

Bartlett’s (1932): Theory of Reconstructive Memory

• War of the Ghosts Story:
o Bartlett utilized this story to examine the process of active reconstruction in
memory.

• Memories as Interpretations:
o Memories are not precise replicas of events but interpretations influenced
by our schemas.

• Active Reconstruction:
o Memory is reconstructed and shaped by existing schemas or mental
frameworks from life experiences.
 • Four Ways Schemas Influence Memory:
o Schemas impact memory through:
▪ Omissions: Leaving out unfamiliar or unpleasant information.
▪ Transformation: Changing details to make them rational or familiar.
▪ Rationalisation: Adding details to justify something initially
incongruent.
▪ Familiarisation: Altering details to align them more closely with our
schemas.

Strengths Weakness

Real-World Application: understanding Subjective Analysis on memory

distorted memories and eyewitness reconstruction: forming bias concerning
testimonies the accuracy of the results

Ecological validity reflected real-life

experiences

Understanding Amnesia
• Amnesia: Memory loss often caused by disease, accident, or injury.

• Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new long-term memories. Intact short-

term memory but impaired transfer to long-term memory.

• Retrograde Amnesia: Impaired recall of memories before a brain injury. It may be

limited to a traumatic incident or specific time frame, and patients may forget
personal identity and origin.

• Henry Molaison's Case:

o Underwent brain surgery for epilepsy-related seizures.
o Damage to the hippocampus resulted in both anterograde and retrograde
amnesia.
o Could recall childhood memories but not experiences a few years before
surgery.