Railway (RRB)

Assistant Loco Pilot (ALP)

Railway Recruitment Board (RRB)

Volume - 3

CBT - I

Science
 Table of Content
S Page
Chapter Title
No. No.

1 Structure of the Human body 1

2 Blood Group and Rh Factor 48

3 Food and Nutrition 52

4 Basics of Everyday Physics 59

5 Basics of Everyday Chemistry 81

 1 Structure of Human Body
CHAPTER

Cell ➢ Has the ability to duplicate itself on its

own.
➢ Simplest and most basic unit of life. ➢ aka "building blocks of life."
➢ Discovered: Robert Hooke (1665) Cell Structure and its components
➢ All living things made up of cells- Cell Organelles
structural, functional, and biological ➢ Present within a cell & perform certain
unit of life. specific functions to carry out life’s
processes.
Plasma / Cell ➢ Outermost covering of the cell
Membrane ➢ Separates contents of cell from its external environment.
➢ A selectively permeable membrane as it allows entry and exit of some
materials in and out of the cell.

Cell Wall ➢ ONLY in plants

➢ Outside the plasma membrane.
➢ Mainly composed of cellulose.
✓ Cellulose: A complex substance - provides structural strength to
plants.

Cytoplasm ➢ Jelly-like substance present between cell membrane & nucleus.

➢ Fluid content inside plasma membrane.
➢ Contains many specialised cell organelles (mitochondria, golgi bodies,
ribosomes, etc)

Nucleus ➢ Contains chromosomes that contain information for inheritance of features

from parents to next generation in form of DNA
➢ Plays a central role in cellular reproduction.
➢ Nuclear membrane- a double-layered covering on nucleus.
✓ Allows transfer of material from inside nucleus to its outside, i.e.,
to cytoplasm.

Nucleolus ➢ Ribosome synthesis site regulating cellular activity and reproduction.

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Gene ➢ Unit of inheritance in living organisms.

Protoplasm ➢ Entire content of a living cell [cytoplasm + nucleus].

➢ aka living substance of the cell.

Chromosomes ➢ Rod-shaped structures

➢ Visible only when the cell is about to divide.
➢ Contain information for inheritance of features from parents to next
generation in the form of DNA (deoxyribo nucleic acid)
➢ Composed of DNA and Protein.

DNA molecules ➢ Contains information necessary for constructing and organising cells.
➢ Functional segments of DNA - genes.

Vacuoles ➢ Empty structure in cytoplasm

➢ Act as storage sacs for solid or liquid contents.
➢ Common in plant cells.
➢ Smaller in animal cells.
➢ Substances stored- amino acids, sugars, various organic acids and some
proteins.

Endoplasmic ➢ A large network of membrane-bound tubes and sheets.

Reticulum ➢ 2 types :
1. Rough endoplasmic reticulum [RER]
✓ Has ribosomes attached to its surface.
✓ Ribosomes - sites of protein manufacture.
2. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
✓ Helps in the manufacture of fat molecules, or lipids, important
for cell function.
✓ Some of these proteins and lipids help in building the cell
membrane k/a membrane biogenesis.
➢ Serve as channels for transport of materials between various regions of
cytoplasm or between the cytoplasm and the nucleus.
➢ Also functions as a cytoplasmic framework providing a surface for some
biochemical activities of cells.
Golgi Apparatus/ ➢ A system of membrane-bound vesicles arranged parallel to each other
Complex in stacks called cisterns.

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 ➢ Packages and dispatches material synthesised near ER to various
targets inside and outside the cell.
➢ Stores, modifies and packages products in vesicles.
➢ Involved in the formation of lysosomes.
✓ Membrane-bound sacs filled with digestive enzymes.
✓ Kind of waste disposal system of the cell.
✓ Help to keep the cell clean by digesting any foreign material as
well as worn-out cell organelles.
Mitochondria ➢ Aka powerhouse of the cell.
➢ Energy required for various chemical activities is released by
mitochondria in the form of ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) molecules.
➢ 2 membranes:
✓ Outer membrane- porous
✓ Inner membrane - deeply folded.
■ Folds create a large surface area for ATP-generating chemical
reactions.
ATP ➢ aka energy currency of the cell.
➢ Body uses energy stored in ATP for making new chemical compounds
and for mechanical work.
Ribosomes ➢ Site of protein synthesis.
➢ Polyribosomes or Polysomes: Several ribosomes may attach to a single
mRNA and form a chain.
➢ Prokaryotes- ribosomes are associated with the plasma membrane of the
cell.
Cilia and ➢ Hair-like outgrowths of the cell membrane.
Flagella Cilia ➢ Cilia - small structures which work like oars, causing the movement
of either the cell or the surrounding fluid.
➢ Flagella - comparatively longer and responsible for cell movement.
➢ Prokaryotic bacteria have flagella but structurally different from
eukaryotic flagella.
Centrosome and ➢ Centrosome- an organelle usually containing 2 cylindrical structures
Centrioles called centrioles.
➢ Surrounded by amorphous pericentriolar materials.
➢ Both the centrioles in a centrosome lie perpendicular to each other

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Types of Cells

Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell

➢ Primitive/undeveloped nucleus. ➢ Has true or developed nucleus
➢ Size - 0.2 - 2.0 micrometers ➢ Size- 10- 100 micrometers.
➢ Simpler in structure ➢ More complex
➢ Organelles not membrane-bound ➢ Organelles membrane bound & specific in function.
➢ DNA arranged in circular shape ➢ DNA linear in shape
➢ Cytoplasm present, but lacks in most cell ➢ Consists of both cytoplasm and organelles
organelles.
➢ Cell wall present. ➢ Usually, absence of cell wall here.
➢ Made of mucopeptide or peptidoglycan ➢ Made of cellulose
➢ Cell division - binary fission, transduction, ➢ Cell division - mitosis
conjugation, and transformation
➢ Mitochondria absent ➢ Mitochondria present.
➢ Endoplasmic reticulum not present. ➢ Endoplasmic reticulum present.
➢ Ribosome present ➢ Ribosome present
➢ Plasmids commonly found. ➢ Plasmids very rarely found
✓ A small, circular, double-stranded
DNA molecule distinct from a cell's
chromosomal DNA.
✓ Naturally exist in bacterial cells.
➢ Only asexual reproduction. ➢ Both sexual and asexual reproduction.
➢ Have a single origin of replication ➢ Have multiple origins of replication
➢ Only 1 chromosome. ➢ Many chromosomes present
➢ Eg. Bacteria and Archaea. ➢ Eg. Plant and animal cells.

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Plant and Animal Cells

Fig : Animal Cell

Animal Cell Plant Cell

Nucleus Present Present

Cilia Present Very rare

Shape Round (irregular shape) Rectangular (fixed shape)

Chloroplast NO chloroplasts Chloroplasts present

Cytoplasm Present Present

Endoplasmic Present Present

Reticulum

Ribosomes Present Present

Mitochondria Present Present

Vacuole One or more small vacuoles (much One large central vacuole taking up
smaller than plant cells). 90% of cell volume.

Tissues
➢ A group of cells with similar shape and function.
➢ Group of (cells →Tissues → Organs → Organ systems).

➢ Histology: study of tissues.

Types of Tissues

1. Plant Tissues

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On the basis of the dividing capacity, plant b. Intercalary meristem:
tissues are of two types: ✓ Present at the base of leaves
or internodes.
✓ Longitudinal growth of plants.
c. Lateral meristem:
✓ Present on the lateral sides of
the stems and roots.
✓ Increases thickness of stems
and roots.
B. Permanent Tissues
A. Meristematic tissues ➢ Formed when cells from meristematic
➢ Consist of actively-dividing cells. tissues loose the ability to divide.
➢ 3 types: ➢ 2 types:
a. Apical meristem: a. Simple permanent tissue:
✓ Present at the growing tips of ✓ Consist of only one type of
stems and roots.
cells.
✓ Increases the length of stems
✓ Types:
and roots.

Fig : Various types of simple tissues : (a) Parenchyma (b) Collenchyma (c) Sclerenchyma
(i) transverse section (ii) longitudinal section

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✓ Parenchyma: ■ Protect the plant body by forming an
■ Composed of unspecialised living cells outer layer.
with relatively thin cell walls, ■ 2 types:
intercellular space.  Epidermis:
■ Present in soft parts of the plant. ○ Covers the entire body of
■ Main function - storage. plant.
✓ Collenchyma: ○ Protect plants from injury,
■ Composed of living and elongated cells germs and water loss.
with cell walls irregularly thickened at ○ Cells form a continuous layer
the comers. without intercellular spaces.
■ No intercellular space. ✓ Cork Simple Tissues:
■ Provides mechanical support and ■ Consist dead cells with no
elasticity to plant - helps in bending intercellular spaces.
of leaves and stems. ■ Form the outer layer of old tree trunks.
✓ Sclerenchyma: ■ Cells have a chemical - suberin in
■ Composed of long, narrow, and thick- their walls that makes them
walled cells. impervious to gases and water.
■ Made up of dead cells. ■ Protects plants from injuries, germs
■ No intercellular spaces. and water loss.
■ Present in seeds, nuts, the husk of a ■ Lightweight - used for making several
coconut, fibres of jute etc. products like bottle stoppers and
✓ Protective tissues: shuttlecock.
Difference between parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma
Features Parenchyma Collencyma Sclerenchyma
Cell shape Isodiametric cells Circular, oval or Variable in shape
which are oval, sperical polyhedral Fibres and sclereids
or polygonal shape.
Cell wall Thin cellulosic cell wall Uneven thickeving on Lighified secondary
their cell wall cell wall present.
Cytoplasm Abundant Present Absent
Nucleus Prsent (Living tissue) Present (Living tissue) Absent (Dead tissue)
Vacuoles Large vacuole Vacuolated Absent
Intercellular spaces Present Absent Absent
Occurrence Basically packing Dicot stem, petiole and Dicot hypodermis,
tissue all soft part of beneath the epidermis bundle sheath, pericyct
plant-path ocrtex, Absent in monocot seed, pulp of fruits.
medullary rays and roots
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b. Complex permanent tissue:  Xylem sclerenchyma
➢ Made up of more than one type of ○ Non-living fibres with thick
cells (Conducting tissues.) walls and narrow cavities
➢ Types: provide mechanical support.
✓ Xylem:
Except xylem parenchyma all other xylem
elements are dead.

✓ Phloem:

■ Conducts water and minerals from

roots to different parts of plant.
■ 4 different types of cells:
■ Conducts food material from the
 Tracheids
leaves to the different parts of the
○ Elongated angular dead cells
plant.
mainly involved in conduction of
■ 4 types of cells
water and minerals in  Sieve tubes:
gymnosperms. ○ Slender tube like
 Vessels structures made up of
○ Advance element (generally elongated, thin walled cells
found in angiosperms). placed end to end.

○ Cylindrical tube like structures ○ End walls perforated by

numerous pores, called as
placed one above other end to
sieve plates.
end to form a continuous
 Companion cells
channel for efficient conduction
○ Have dense cytoplasm and
of water. prominent nuclei.
 Xylem parenchyma — ○ Sieve cells +companion
○ Small & thick walled cells = sister cells
parenchymatous cells subjected (originate from single

for storage of starch (food). mother cell).

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  Phloem fibre  Phloem parenchyma
○ Mechanical support to sieve ○ Store food and help in
tubes. radial conduction of food.
Features Xylem Phloem
Cells: Living/ dead Dead Living
Cell walls: Thickness Thick Thin
Material Lignin Cellulose
Permeability Impermealble Permeable
Cross walls None Sieve Plates
Cytoplasm None Yes
Function Carries water and salts Carries sugar
Direction of flow Upwards Down and up
Special features Fibres Companion cells

Animal Tissues

➢ 4 types: ✓ Cells very close to each other and

A. Epithelial tissues: tissue rests on a non-cellular
✓ Always grow on some other basement membrane.
types of tissue. ✓ Consists of single layer of cells.
✓ Blood vessels absent and non-
nervous in nature.

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 ✓ Covers all the organs and lines the ➢ Types:
cavities of hollow organs like ✓ Blood
stomach. ■ Plasma:
✓ Primarily protective in function. o Fluid (liquid) matrix of blood.
✓ Types: o A yellowish liquid like
a. Squamous epithelium: material.
▪ aka pavement epithelium.
o Contains 3 types of blood
▪ Single layer of flat cells.
cells suspended in it:
▪ Location: Lining of the mouth,
■ RBC - Red blood cells
oesophagus, lung, alveoli, etc.
■ WBC - White blood Cells
b. Cuboidal epithelium:
■ Platelets
▪ Found in kidney tubules,
✓ Bones:
thyroid vesicles & in glands
■ Forms the framework that
(salivary glands. sweat glands)
▪ Forms germinal epithelium of supports the body.

gonads (testes & ovaries). ■ A strong and nonflexible tissue.

▪ Involves absorption, excretion ■ Cells embedded in a hard matrix

& secretion. composed of calcium and
▪ Provides mechanical support phosphorus compounds.
c. Columnar epithelium: ✓ Ligaments:
▪ Consists of elongated or ■ Connects 2 bones.
column-like cells. ■ Flexible or elastic in nature.
▪ Location: Inner lining of the ✓ Tendons:
intestine and gut. ■ Bones connected to muscles by
▪ Function: secretion and
Tendons.
absorption.
■ Fibrous tissue with great
d. Ciliated epithelium -
strength but limited flexibility.
▪ May be cubical or columnar.
✓ Cartilage:
▪ Cilia present on its free surface
■ Widely spaced cells.
▪ Helps in the movement of ova
■ Solid matrix composed of
in the fallopian tube.
proteins and sugars.
B. Connective tissues
➢ Cells are loosely spaced and embedded in ■ Smoothens bone surfaces at

an intercellular matrix. joints

➢ Specialised to connect various body ■ Also present in the nose, ear,

organs. trachea and larynx.

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 ✓ Areolar tissue: ✓ Non-striated / Involuntary / smooth
■ Found in skin and muscles, muscles.
around the blood vessels, nerves, ■ Uninucleated and spindle

etc. shaped.
■ Not enclosed by membrane but
■ Fills space inside organs,
many fibres are joined together
supports internal organs and
in bundles.
helps in repair of tissues.
■ Found in the walls of stomach,
✓ Adipose tissue:
intestine, urinary bladder,
■ Found between the internal bronchi, iris of eye etc.
organs and below the skin. ■ Eg. Peristaltic movements in
■ Stores fats. alimentary canal are brought
■ Acts as an insulator. about by smooth muscles.
C. Muscular Tissue
➢ Long fibre-like cells called muscle fibres.
➢ Capable of contraction or relaxation.
➢ Types:
✓ Striated muscles
■ aka voluntary muscles - under the
control of one's will.
■ Muscle fibres or cells are
multinucleated and unbranched.
■ Each fibre is enclosed by thin
membrane which is called as
sarcolemma.
■ Cytoplasm k/a sarcoplasm.
■ Get tired and need rest.
✓ Cardiac muscles
D. Nervous Tissue
■ Involuntary muscles.
➢ Highly specialized tissue due to
■ Only found in the walls of heart.
which the animals are able to
■ Uninucleated and branched.
perceive and respond to the
■ Branches are united by
stimuli.
intercalated disc.
➢ Functional unit - nerve cell or
■ Rhythmic contraction and
neuron.
relaxation occurs throughout the
➢ Cell body - cyton - covered by
life.
plasma membrane.
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 ➢ Dendron — Short hair like ➢ Synapse- Axon of one neuron is
extensions rising from cyton - very closely placed to the
further subdivided into dendrites. dendrons of another neuron to
➢ Axon — Long, tail like cylindrical carry impulses from one to
process with fine branches at the another neuron in the form of
end - covered by a sheath. electrochemical waves- close
proximity k/a synapse.

Life processes

➢ Process which are necessary to sustain life on earth.

➢ Eg- Digestion, Respiration, Circulation etc.
Nutrition in Human Beings / Digestive System

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Components: ➢ Process of digestion starts in the mouth
1. Alimentary Canal: itself.
➢ Comprises of mouth, oesophagus, ✓ Saliva contains an enzyme k/a salivary
stomach, small intestine and large amylase/ ptyalin that converts starch
intestine. → sugar (sucrose/ maltose).

2. Associated Glands: Oesophagus/ Food Pipe:

➢ Salivary gland ➢ Slightly digested food in the mouth is

swallowed by the tongue.
➢ Gastric Glands
➢ Goes down food pipe called oesophagus.
➢ Liver
➢ Food enters the food pipe - walls of
➢ Pancreas
food pipe start contraction and
1. Ingestion:
expansion movements k/a peristaltic
➢ Food is ingested through the mouth.
movement.
➢ Put into the mouth with the help of
➢ Pushes the slightly digested food into
hands.
the stomach.
2. Digestion:
Stomach
Mouth or Buccal Cavity:
Mouth → Intake of whole food
↓
Teeth → Chewing/grinding of food
↓
Tongue → Rolling of food
↓ +
Tasting of food
+
Salivary → Swallowing/pushing down of ➢ A J-shaped organ.
Glande the food secrete saliva + ➢ Highly muscular walls:
↓ Mucus ✓ Churning the food.
𝑆𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑦 ✓ Secrete hydrochloric acid that kills
Starch → Maltose
germs which may be present in food.
𝐴𝑚𝑦𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑒
(sugar) ■ Makes medium inside stomach

[Saliva] acidic that activates enzyme

pepsin - partial digestion of
➢ Mouth has teeth, tongue & salivary glands.
protein.
➢ Tongue - helps in turning over food so
✓ Mucus secreted by walls of the
that saliva can be properly mixed in it.
stomach saves inner lining of stomach
➢ Teeth - help in breaking down food into
from getting damaged from
smaller particles.
hydrochloric acid
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Small Intestine Herbivores eating grass need a longer small
intestine to allow the cellulose to be digested
The food from the stomach enters the small
intestine. This is the longest part of the as it is harder to digest

alimentary canal which is fitted into a compact Meat is easier to digest, hence carnivores like

space because of extensive coiling. The length tigers have a shorter small intestine.
of the small intestine differs in various animals
depending on the food they eat.

➢ A highly coiled tube-like structure. ➢ From stomach, partially digested food

➢ Longer than large intestine but its lumen enters small intestine.
➢ Largest part (about 6.5m) of the
is smaller than large intestine.
alimentary canal.
➢ 3 parts:
➢ Very narrow and arranged in the form of
✓ Duodenum a coil .
✓ Jejunum ➢ Site of complete digestion of food (like
carbohydrates, proteins and fats)
✓ Ileum.
➢ Receives secretion of two glands:

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1. Liver ➢ Secretes pancreatic juice containing

➢ Secretes bile - a greenish yellow enzymes like pancreatic amylase for

breaking down starch, trypsin for
liquid made in the liver and stored in
digesting proteins and lipase for
gall bladder.
breaking down emulsified fats.
➢ Functions of bile: ➢ Walls of small intestine contain

✓ Makes acidic food from stomach glands which secretes intestinal

juice. Enzymes present convert
alkaline - pancreatic enzymes can
proteins into amino acids, complex
act.
carbohydrates into glucose and fats
✓ Break fats present in food into into fatty acids and glycerol.
small globules making it easy for ➢ Convert large and insoluble food

enzymes to act and digest them. molecules into small water soluble
molecules.
2. Pancreas

3. Absorption: ➢ Inner surface of small intestine has

➢ Small intestine - site of absorption numerous finger-like projections k/a villi.
of digested food. ➢ Digested food absorbed through walls of
small intestine goes into our blood.
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 Villi: ✓ Breathing: Intake of oxygen and
➢ Finger like structures in the inner wall release of CO2.
in ileum. ✓ Breakdown of simple food in order to
➢ Increase surface area inside ileum - release energy inside the cell.
facilitate optimum absorption. ➢ An oxidation reaction in which
➢ Reduce lumen of ileum so that food can carbohydrate is oxidized to produce
stay for a longer duration in it, for energy.
optimum absorption. ➢ Mitochondria - site of respiration
➢ Digested food is absorbed by villi. ➢ Steps:
4. Assimilation: 1. Breaking down of glucose into pyruvate:
➢ Blood carries digested and dissolved ➢ In the cytoplasm.
food to all parts of body. ➢ Glucose (6 carbon molecule) broken down
➢ Assimilated as part of the cells and into pyruvic acid (3 carbon molecule).
is utilised for obtaining energy, 2. Breaking down of Pyruvic Acid:
building up new tissues and the repair ➢ In mitochondria
of old tissues. ➢ Molecules formed depend on type of
5. Egestion: respiration:
➢ Unabsorbed food sent into large 1. Aerobic respiration:
𝐺𝑙𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑠𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑦𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑚
intestine - reabsorb water & salts. 𝐺𝑙𝑢 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑒 → 𝑃𝑦𝑟𝑢𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑂𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛(𝐾𝑟𝑒𝑏′𝑠𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒)𝐼𝑛𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑎
➢ Rest is removed from the body via → 6𝑂2
𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒
the anus. + 6𝐻2 𝑂 + 38𝐴𝑇𝑃
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
➢ The exit of this waste material is
➢ Occurs in the presence of oxygen.
regulated by the anal sphincter.
➢ Pyruvic acid → carbon dioxide.
Large Intestine:
➢ Products: Energy+ water molecule
➢ Smaller than small intestine.
2. Anaerobic respiration:
➢ Undigested food goes into the large 𝐺𝑙𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑠𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑦𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑚
𝐺𝑙𝑢 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑒 → 𝑃𝑦𝑟𝑢𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑒
intestine. 𝐼𝑛𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑜𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛(𝑌𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡)(𝐹𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
→ 2𝐶2 𝐻5 𝑂𝐻
➢ Absorb excess water and salt. 𝐸𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙
+ 2𝐶𝑂2 + 38𝐴𝑇𝑃
➢ Undigested food then goes to the 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒
rectum - expelled out through the ➢ Occurs in the absence of oxygen.
anus. ➢ Products:
✓ Pyruvic acid → ethyl alcohol or lactic
Respiration
acid.
➢ Involves 2 process:

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