CHAPTER 12

Electrostatics
 Electrostatics
The branch of Physics which deals with the study of charges at rest
under the action of electric force is called Electrostatics. SI unit of charge
Electric charge: An intrinsic property SI unit of charge is coulomb
of fundamental particles which takes Negative
parts in conduction process is called Charges
Positive
electric charge. Either they repel or
attract each other.

Electric force: The force which hold the positive and negative charges to
make up atoms and molecules is called electric force.
Types of electric force ONE 6.25*1018
 Repulsive force: The force b/w two same charges (The force b/w two COULOMB ELECTRONS
electrons)
 Attractive force: The force b/w two different charges(The force b/w
electron and proton)

Basic Law Of Electrostatics For Knowing The Nature Of Charge

“Like/same charges repel each other, while unlike/different charges attract each other”
Q. STATE AND EXPLAIN COLOMB LAW. DISCUSS ITS VECTORIAL FORM AND GIVE EFFECT OF MEDIUM ON IT.

In 1784, French military engineer Charles Coulomb deduced a law

Statement:
known as Colomb law which measure the force b/w two charges.

The force of attraction or repulsion b/w two charges is directly

proportional to the product of the magnitude of charges and F  q1 q 2 and F  1 ……..> F = K q q 1 2
inversely proportional to the square of distance b/w them.
K (Colomb Constant): …..2 …….2

K is called Colomb constant, whose value is 9*109 Nm2C-2

The value of K depends upon: - a) the system of units b)
Nature of medium b/w charges
If medium is free space then K = 1 , εo is permittivity of free
4pe o
8.85*10-12N-1m-2c , so Colomb law becomes F= 1 q1q2 ,
2

space its value in SI unit is 4pe r2

o

This is Mathematical form of Colomb law.

 Vectorial form of Colomb law:
let us consider two point charges q1 and q2,
if q1 exert a for on q2 then q2 also exert a force
on q1 which is equal in magnitude but opposite
in direction as shown in fig

r = 1 q1q2 rˆ- - - - - (1
F12 4peo r 2 12
r = 1 q1q2 rˆ - - - - - (2
F21 4pe r 2 21
o
Both forces are equal but oppositein direction so
r r
F12 = -F21
This is called Vectorial form of Colomb Law.
Effect of medium on Colomb force:
Coulomb force is reduced when medium is placed b/w two charges. Formula
The insulating medium placed b/w two charges is called dielectric like Teflon etc.

relative permittivity, its value is different for different dielectrics, and its value is greater than r= 1 q1 q2
4pe o εr r2
one other than vacuum. For air εr=1.0006, for vacuum εr=1.
 Limitation of Colomb law:
Colomb law is applied only on point charges.

What is point charge, source charge and test charge?

The charges whose sizes are very small as compared to the
distance between them are called point charges. The charge
which produce field is called source and charge which
detect the presence of field is called test charge.

What is Electric field and electric field intensity? Derive its formula.
Electric field:
“The space or region around a charge within which another charge
experience a force is called electric field”.
Michal Faraday introduced the concept of electric field.
Electric field intensity:
The force experience by unit positive chrarge placed a point in
electric field is called electric field strength or field intensity, its Formula
unit N/C. it is vector quantity and its direction along the
direction of force
E=F
q
Electric field intensity due to a point charge q:
The force experienced by test charge qo placed in the field of
charge q is calculated by Colomb law and electric field intensity
is calculated by putting in formula of field intensity.
r
E = F - - - - - -(1
qo
r 1
F= qqo rˆ - - - (2 put thisvalue in equation (1) Points
4peo r 2
r 1 * 1 qqo rˆ = 1 q rˆalso written as E = K q rˆ
E= qo 4peo r 2 4peo r 2 r2 o Michal Faraday introduced the concept of
Electric field intensity depends upon a) magnitude of charge b) field lines.
medium c) distance from charge o The field due to positive point charge is
directed radially outward
What are Electric field lines? Write its properties.
o The field due to negative charge is
Definition: directed radially inward
“The direction of electric field intensity is represented by lines o The middle region b/w two same charges
which are called electric field lines”. has no field due to repulsion of like
charges, is called zero field sport or
neutral zone.
 Properties of Electric field lines:
i) Electric field lines starts from positive charges and end on negative charges.
ii) The tangent to a field line at any point gives the direction of the electric field intensity at that point.
iii) The lines are closer where the field is strong, the lines are farther apart where the field is weak.
No two lines cross each other because at a single point electric field has only one direction.
What is inkjet printer? Write principle and working.
Inkjet printer:
Such a printer which uses electric charge in its working is called inkjet printer.
Principle:
“It eject a thin stream of ink when shuttling back and forth
across the paper and ink i ejected from small nozzle and break
into small droplets”.
Working:
An inkjet print head eject a steady flow
Of ink droplets. The charging electrodes are used To charge the
droplet
that are not need on the paper Charged droplets are deflected into a
gutter by the
Deflection plates, while uncharged droplets fly straight Onto the paper.
Inkjet printer also produce colored images.
Q. Write A Note On Xerography?
There are two applications of Electrostatics:
a) Xerography
b) Inkjet printers
Xerography (Photo copier):
It is Greek word, Xero mean dry, graphos mean writing, and
Xerography mean dry writing. The copying process is called
Xerography.
Photocopier works on the following principle:
“The lamp transfer image of page to the drum which leaves the
static charge. The drum collects the toner dust and transfer it to
the paper, the toner is melted on page”.
Main parts of photocopier:
1) Drum
2) toner
3) heated rollers
Drum is the heart of photocopier machine. Dum is an aluminum
cylinder coated with layer of selenium.
Such materials which show conduction only when light falls on
them, otherwise they are insulators in absence of light are called
photoconductors like selenium.
 Working:
If the drum is exposed to an image of document to be copied, the dark and light areas of document produce
same dark and light areas on the drum.
The dark areas retain their positive charge but light areas becomes conducting, in this way a positive charge
image of document remains on the selenium surface, then a special dry black powder called
“Toner” is given a negative charge and spread over the drum, where it sticks to the positive charge areas, the
toner from the drum is transferred on to a sheet of paper on which document is to be copied, heated pressure
rollers then melt the toner into the paper to produce permanent image of document.

Q. DEFINE ELECTRIC FLUX. CALCULATE THE ELECTRIC FLUX THROUGH A SURFACE ENCLOSING A CHARGE
Definition: Total number of electric field line passing normally through certain area is called electric flux.
OR: The scalar or dot product of electric field intensity and vector area is called electric flux.
Equation with unit:je = E.A ,= EA cosq its unit is Nm2C-1 , it is scalar quantity. ɸ is Greek letter.
Cases of electric flux: When angle b/w electric field and vector area ɵ=0°
ɸ=EAcos0°=𝐸A= maximum electric flux

Vector area: An area whose magnitude is equal to surface area A of the element but its direction is normal to
this area is called vector area.
ELECTRIC FLUX THROUGH A SURFACE ENCLOSING A CHARGE
Consider a closed surface in the form of sphere of radius r having charge q. The surface is divided into n
small
patches of vector area are ΔA1, ΔA2,ΔA3…..ΔAn so that each patch is a flat. Electric intensity for
each patch are E1,
E2, E3,En respectively. R
for first patch j = r .ΔA ,
e1 E1 r 1
for 2nd patch j = r .Δ r
e2 E2 A2
for 3rd patch j = r .Δ r
e3 E3 A3
and so on. similarly
for nth patch jen = En .Δ An

Totalelectric flux through closed surface will be

jtotal = j1 + j2 + j3 + .................. jn puttingvalues
j = E1.Δ A1 + E2 .Δ A2+ E3 .Δ A3 + ........... .Δ En An
total

j total = E1ΔA1 cos q + E2ΔA2 cos q + E3ΔA3 cos q + EnΔAn cos q

As the direction of electric intensity and vector area is same at each patch so q = 0o
j total = E 1ΔA1 cos 0o + E2 ΔA 2 cos 0o + E3 ΔA3 cos 0o + ...........E nΔA ncos 0o cos 0o =1
 jtotal = E1ΔA1 + E2ΔA2 + E3ΔA3 + ...........EnΔAn As we know that E1 = E2 = E3... = En = E for each patch
j total = E1ΔΔ1 + E2Δ Δ2 + E3ΔΔ3 + EnΔΔn
j total = E(Δ( 1 + ΔA2 + ΔA3 + ΔAn ) = E( TotalArea of sphere)
As E = 1 q surface Area of sphere = 4p r2
4pe o r2
j =1 q (4p r2 ) = q
4pe o r2 eo

j = q Req Result, shows that electric flux through closed

eo
surface depends upon medium and charge enclose
State and prove Gauss’s law?
Statement:
“Electric flux through any closed surface is equal to 1/εo times the total
charge enclosed in it”
j e= 1 * Q
eo
Proof: consider a closed surface having n point charges q1,q2,…on, total electric flux is calculated as
flux due to first point charge q = j = q1 - - - - - (1)
1 1 eo

flux due to2nd point charge q = j = q2 - - - - - (2)

2 2 eo

flux due to 3rd point charge q = j = q3 - - - - - (3)

3 3 eo

flux due to nth point charge q = j = qn - - - - - (n)

n n eo
j total = j1 + j 2 + j3 + j n
j = q1 + q 2 + q 3 + q n
total e eo eo eo
o
j = 1 * (q1 + q 2+ q3 + ..........q )
total e
o n

j = 1 * (Total charge enclosed surface) = 1 * Q = Req result

total e eo
o
Applications of Gauss law
To calculate the electric field intensity we take following steps.
Step 01: Construct a Gaussian surface and charge enclosed by it.
“An Imaginary closed surface which passes through point we want to calculate field is called Gaussian surface”.
Step 02: Calculate the electric flux through the surface
Step 03: Calculate the electric field by applying Gauss’s law.
Q.Calculate the Intensity of field inside a hollow charged sphere?

To calculate the field intensity inside a charged sphere.

Step 01: Construct a Gaussian surface of R’
inside the sphere in which there is no charge q=0
Step 02: To calculate the flux use formula j e =
EA (1
Step 03: Using Gauss’s law j total= 1 * q as there is no charge in
eo
surface so flux is zero then

Equation 1) j e =EA -=0 so this result into ⃗𝑬 =0 inside the

sphere.
 Q. CALCULATE THE ELECTRIC INTENSITY DUE TO AN INFINITE SHEET OF CHARGE.
Consider an infinite sheet on which positive charge is uniformly distributed. To calculate the electric intensity at any
point.
Step 01: consider a Gaussian surface in the form of cylinder passing through sheet having Area A and σ is uniform
surface charge density, so the charge enclosed by it is q=σA
Step 02: For calculation of electric flux through each surface of Gaussian cylinder
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 = 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 + 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑡 + 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝜑 = 𝐸⃗ . 𝐴 + 𝐸⃗ . 𝐴 + 𝑛𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑐𝑢𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝜑 = 𝐸𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝐸𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 0 as E and A are parallel so angle Ɵ=0°
𝜑𝑒 = 𝐸𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠0° + 𝐸𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠0° = 𝐸𝐴 + 𝐸𝐴 =2EA (1
Step 03: According to Gauss’s law 𝜑 = 1 * q (2
total eo
Comparing both eqs.
1
2EA= eo * q putting the value of q so
2EA = 1 ( σA) E= s in vectorial form r = s rˆ
eo 2eo 2eo
 Q. CALCULATE THE ELECTRIC INTENSITY B/W TWO OPPOSITELY CHARGED PARALLEL PLATES
Consider two parallel plate of closely spaced having opposite
uniform distributed charge.. Electric field lines start from positive
plate and end on negative plate.
Step01: Consider a Gaussian surface in the form of hollow box
having Area A and σ is uniform surface charge density, so the charge
enclosed by it is q=σA
Step 02: For Calculating electric flux through each surface of hollow
box we follow
Total electric flux= flux through upper surface of box+flux
through lower surface of box+ flux through sides of box
As there is no field through upper end of
box so flux through it will be zero Flux
through lower surface = 𝜑 = 𝐸𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
𝐸𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠0° = 𝐸𝐴
Flux through side of box is zero because they are parallel to field
lines
So total electric flux becomes = 𝜑𝑒=0+EA+0=EA (1)
Step 03: According to Gauss’s law j = 1 * q (2)
total eo

comparing both eqs to get the result

EA = 1 * q  EA = 1 * σA E=σ
εo εo εo
in vectorial for rΕ = σ rˆ
Εo
What is Electric potential and potential difference? Write SI unit with formula.
Electric potential: The electric potential energy per unit charge is called electric potential. Its unit is volt.
Potential difference: The amount of work done in moving a charge from one point to other against electric field
keeping the charge in equilibrium is called potential difference. OR The difference of potential energy per unit
charge b/w two points is called potential difference
DV = DU and unit is volt.
q
Volt:

SI unit of electric potential and

potential difference
Definition: If one joule of work is done in carrying a unit positive charge of 1 coulomb from one point
to other keeping the charge in rest position, then potential difference will be one volt. 1
joule/Coulomb=1 volt

Q. What is Potential gradient? Derive its relation.

Definition: The quantity - DV gives the maximum rate of change of potential with respect to
Dr
distance which is called the potential gradient. Its unit is V/m.
Relation: consider uniform Electric field E b/w two oppositely charged parallel plates and charge is
moved again field.
The potentialdifference b/w twopoints
W rr o
V - V = AB = F.d = qoEd cosq = qoEd cos180= -Ed cos180o = -1
B A q q q q
o o o o

as the distance b/w plates is small so d = Dr then above equation becomes

VB - VA = DV = -E(Dr)
E = - DV
Dr
Prove that =1 newton 1 Volt
1colomb 1 meter
 E = - ΔV = V - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Δr m as we know that 1volt= 1J/C, and joule= Nm
V = J/C = J = Nm = N - - - -
m m Cm Cm C
Required result
Q. What is absolute potential? Calculate the Electric potential due to a point charge.
Defintion:The work done in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to that point keeping
electrostatic equilibrium is called absolute potential or electric potential at a point.
Calculation of potential: Consider a positive point charge q is moved from infinity to that point keeping it in
equilibrium, since electric field intensity changes inversely to square of distance, so it does not remains same
so taken two points A and B close to each other so that E remains same
The distance of point A from charge q = rA The distance of point B
from charge q = rB
Dr = rB - rA - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (1)
The mid point b/w A and B is given as r = rA + rB , and the magnitude of field at this point
2
E= 1 q, since the pointsare close to each other so we take approximations
4pe r2 r A  rB = r so we can say that r = rxr = rA rB so the field becomes
E=1 q
4peo rA rB
now using the formula of potentialgradient DV = -EDr VB - VA = -E(rB - rA )
it may also written as
VA - VB = -E(rA - rB ) , applyingminus inside the bracket
VA - VB = E(rB - rA ) puttingthe value of field
V -V = 1 q (r - r ) = q ( rB - rA )
A B 4pe r r B A 4pe r r
A B A B

V -V = q ( rB - rA ) = q (1 - 1)
A B 4pe r r r r 4pe r r
A B A B o A B

As the point B is at infinity so r =  and V = 0 and 1 = 1 = 0

B B r 
B

V -0 = q ( 1 - 0) = q 1
A 4pe r 4pe r
o A o A

in general V = q 1 , this is electric potentialdue to a point charge.

4pe o r
 What is eV? Prove that 1eV=1.6*10-19 J.
The amount of energy acquired or lost by an electron as it moves through a potential difference of one volt is called electro
volt. This change in potential energy appears as kinetic energy
q=e=1.6*10-19 C Δ(K.E)=qΔV=(1.6*10-19C)(1volt)
Δ(K.E)=1.6*10-19(CV) =1.6*10-19 J
1eV=1.6*10-19 J is required proof. eV is the unit of energy
Q. Write two similarities b/w electric force and gravitational force.
1) Both forces are conservative
2) Both obey inverse square law
Q. Write four differences b/w electric and gravitational force.

Electric force Gravitational force

Formula F = K q1q 2 Formula F = G m1m2
r2 r2
It is explained by Coulomb law It is explained by Gravitation law
It is stronger than gravitational force It is weaker than electric force
It may be attractive or repulsive It is attractive force only
It is medium dependent It is medium independent

It is short range It is long range

Q. DESCRIBE EXPERIMENT FOR FINDING THE CHARGE ON ELECTRON BY MILLIKAN OIL DROP METHOD.
Definition: Such a technique which is used for finding the charge on electron devised by Millikan in 1909.
Construction: The apparatus of this experiment consists of a evacuated chamber in which two parallel plates P
and P’ are placed at separation d, upper plate has small hole H. A potential difference is applied b/w plates to
produce
E. An atomizer is used for spraying oil drops into the chamber and light source S make the drops visible.
Working: The tiny oil droplets are sprayed into the chamber through small nozzle of atomizer which get charged
negatively due to friction b/w walls of atomizer and oil drops. A potential difference is applied in such a way that
electric force F=qE becomes equal to gravitational force(mg).
 Charge on droplet: When electric force is equal to weight of droplet then
Fe = Fg  also we know Fe = qE, Fg = mg
qE = mg also we know that E = V
d
Q V = mg
d
q = mgd which is the result for charge on droplet
V
Mass and radius of droplet: For calculation of mass of droplet the
electric field is switched off so droplet falls under the action of gravity
through air with terminal speed Vt. In this case weight must equal to drag
force so
F = 6phrvt = mg - - - (1), where r is radius of droplet,if
r is density then r = m/volume
m = r * volume = r * 4/3 π r 3 puttingthe value in
equation (1)
6phrv t = r * 4/3 π r 3 g

r 2 = 18hvt = 9hvt
4rg 2rg
 r = 9hvt , this is the value of radius by knowing it we can find the
2rg mass of droplet
Conclusion: Millikan measured the charge on many droplets and found each droplet is
the integral multiple of 1.6*10-19C and concluded that the minimum
value of charge in nature is the charge on an electron.
WHAT IS CAPACITOR? CALCULAT THE CAPACITANCE OF PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR.
Definition: A Device which is used to store charge as well as electrical energy is
called capacitor.
Construction: A capacitor consists of two parallel plates having opposite charge
connected to potential difference
V. let the Q charge on either of plate. So
Q  V Q = CV, C is constant of proportionality called capacitance of capacitance
Capacitance: The ability of capacitor to store charge is called capacitance. C=Q/V, its
unit is farad.
Farad: If a charge of one coulomb given to plates of capacitor produces a potential
difference of one volt b/w them then capacitance is 1 farad.1 Farad= 1C/1V.
Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor: Let us consider a parallel plate capacitor
consisting of two metal plates each of area A separated by small distance d as shown in
fig
Case A: When medium is air or vacuum b/w plates:
If Q is the charge on the capacitor and V is the potential difference then
C = Q - - - (1) , the magnitude of electric intensity E is related with distance and potential
vac
V
E = V , V = Ed also we know that Electric field intensity b/w twooppositelyplates is E = s e
d o
V= s d also we know s = Q
eo A
Q = sA puttingthese values in eq (1)
C = sA ,
vac s d
eo
C = Ae o this is thecapacitance of parallel platecapacitor when air is placed b/w plates
d
case B : If insulating medium called dielectric of relative permitivity e r is placed b/w plates then
capacitance is
increased by thefactor e and theformula for this is C = Ae o e r
med d
Dielectric constant:
The ratio of capacitance of parallel plate capacitor with dielectric as medium to its capacitance when
air as medium b/w plates is called dielectric constant.
 Its formula is e = Cmed having no unit.Cmed = Ae o e r
Cvac Cvac d A eo
d
Q.What is ELECTRIC POLARIZATION OF DIELECTRIC and also define electric dipole.
Electric Dipole: Two equal and opposite charges placed at small distance d formed an electric dipole.
Polarization and polarized: A process in which the molecules of the dielectric under the action of external
electric field becomes dipoles is called electric polarization and dielectric is called polarized.
OR The phenomenon in which negative and positive charges of atoms/molecules of dielectric are slightly
displaced when a dielectric is placed in an electric field is called polarization.
Q. What is the effect of polarization on capacitance of capacitor?

Ans: When the dielectric is placed b/w plates then capacitance of capacitor is increased.
Because dielectric material decrease surface charge density on plates which decrease electric
field intensity E = s eo, with this potential

difference V is decreased V=Ed and capacitance is increased C=Q/V.

 Q. CALCULATE THE ENERGY STORED IN CAPACITOR IN TERMS OF ELECTRIC FIELD.
Capacitor is device which is used for storing charge as well as electric energy.
When a capacitor is uncharged, the potential difference b/w plates is zero and finally it becomes V when charge q
is deposited on each plate.
Average potential = 0 + V = V
2 2
electric potentialenergy = Average potentialx charge
P.E = V q Also we know that q = CV
2
Energy = V (CV ) = 1 CV 2 - - - - - - - - - - - -(1)
2 2
Energy storedin an electric field
As we know that capacitance of capacitance C when medium is placed C = Ae o e r , V = Ed
d
then Equation (1) becomes Energy = 1 Ae o e r (Ed) 2 = 1 (E 2e o e r )(Ad)
2 d 2
Energy = 1 (E 2eo e r )(volume)
2 r
Energy/Volume = Energy density = 1 E 2eo e r , This is required result
2
 Q. DISCUSS CHARGING AND DISCHARGING OF CAPACITOR.
RC circuit: The circuit consist of capacitor of capacitance C and resistor of resistance R is called RC circuit.
Charging of capacitor: When the switch S is set at terminal A connected to battery V which starts charging
the capacitor through R. capacitor is not charged immediately and charges take some time to attain
maximum value on capacitor qo=CVo

Time constant: The time required by capacitor to charge 63% of its maximum value is called time constant. OR
the product of resistance and capacitance is called time constant t=RC. Its unit is second.
For small value of time constant capacitor rapidly/fastly charge and discharge.
Discharging of capacitor: When switch is set at a point B, charge on positive plate start to discharge
through R and neutralize the negative plate and graph of discharging is shown in fig

Graph of charging and discharging of capacitor is exponential

Useful information and tid bits
 Write the principle of working of windshield wipers of cars?
Charging and discharging of capacitor enable windshield wipers to be used. The time of the on-off cycle is found by
the time constant of resistor capacitor combination.
 If a surface encloses a positive as well as negative charge of same value. Then what is the value net flux?
The net value of flux will be zero.
 Why electronic circuits such as T.V and computer are often enclosed within metal boxes?
To eliminate stray electric field interference circuits of such devices are enclosed within metal boxes.
 What is ECG?
ECG stands for electro cardio gram. An ECG records the voltage b/w points on human skin generated by electrical
process in the heart.
 What is EEG?
EEG stands for electro enephalo graph, in this potential difference created by the electrical activity of brain are used
for diagnosing abnormal behavior.
 What is ERG?
ERG stands for Electro retino graphy, in which electrical activity of the retina of eye generates the potential difference.
 How shark and other sea creatures locate their prey very precisely?
Fish and other sea creatures produces electric field in variety of ways, sharks have special organ called ampullae
of lorezini that are sensitive to field and can detect potential difference of nanovolt and can locate their prey very
precisely.
 EXERCISE SHORT QUESTIONS
The potential is constant throughout a given region of space. Is the electric field zero or non-zero in this
region? Explain

Electric field will be zero in this region, because E= - DV

Dr

for constant potential ΔV=0 then E=0

Suppose that you follow an electric field line due to a positive point charge. Do electric field and
the potential increases or decreases.
Both electric field and potential will decrease as we know that when we
move away r increase and E and V will be decreased

How can you identify that which plate of capacitor is positively charged?
To identify the plate of a capacitor a gold leaf electroscope is used
If the disc is touched with any plate of the charged capacitor and the divergence of the leaves increases, the
plate of capacitor is negatively charged
If the divergence of leaves decreases, then that plate of capacitor is positively charged.
Describe the force or forces on a positive point charge when placed between parallel plates: i. with similar
and equal charges.
With opposite and equal charges.
i. Net force acting on the positive charge is zero as electric field intensity due to equal and opposite plate is zero so
F=qE=0
ii. Net force acting on the positive charge will be maximum due to maximum value of field in this case F=qE
Electric lines of force never cross. Why?
Electric lines of force never cross each other. This is because of the reason that electric field intensity has only one
direction at any given pint. If the lines cross, electric intensity could have more than one direction which is
physically impossible.
If a point charge of mass m is released in a non-uniform electric field with field lines in the same direction pointing,
will it make a rectilinear motion
Yes it will make a rectilinear motion, If a point charge q of mass m is placed at any point in the field, it will
follow straight or rectilinear path along the field line due to repulsive force.
Is E necessarily zero inside a charged rubber balloon if the balloon is spherical.
Yes E is necessarily zero inside a charged rubber balloon. Because there is no charge enclosed by it so electric field
will be zero.
je = q = 0
εo εo
je = EA,so EA = 0 then E = 0 asA  0
 Is it true that Gauss’s law states that the total number of lines of force crossing any closed surface in the
outward direction is proportional to the net positive charge enclosed within surface?
Yes it is true statement, as Gauss’s law states that number of electric field lines through any closed surface is
1/εo times the total charge enclosed in it as flux is directly proportional to charge so this statement is true.
Do electrons tends to go to region of high potential or of low potential?
The electrons being negatively charge particle when released in electric field moves from a region of lower
potential (negative end) to a region of high potential (positive end).

Numericals
Compare magnitudes of electrical and gravitational forces exerted on an object (mass = 10.0g, charge =
20.0mC) by an identical object that is placed 10.0cm from the first.
 A point charge q = -8.0 10 -8 C s placed at the origin. Calculate electric field at a point 2.0m from the origin on
the z-axis.

Determine the electric field at the position r = (4iˆ + 3 ˆj)m caused by a point charge q = 5.0 10-6 C placed at origin.

Two point charges, q1= -1.0 10-6 C and q2 = +4.0 10-6 C , are separated by a distance of 3.0m. Find and justify the
zero-field location.
 Find the electric field strength required to hold suspended a particle of mass and 1.0 10-6 kg charge 1.0mc between
two plates 10.0cm apart.

A particle having a charge of 20 electrons on it falls through a potential difference of 100 volts. Calculate the
energy acquired by it in electron volts (eV).

In Millikan’s experiment, oil droplets are introduced into the space between two flat horizontal plates, 5.00 mm
apart. The plate voltage is adjusted to exactly 780V so that the droplet is held stationary. The plate voltage is
switched off and the selected droplet is observed to fall a measured distance of 1.50 mm in 11.2s. Given that the
density of the oil used is 900kgm-3, and the viscosity of air at laboratory temperature is1.80 10-5 Nm-2 s,
calculate...(a) The mass, and (b) The charge on the droplet (Assume g = 9.8ms-2)
 A proton placed in a uniform electric field of 5000 NC-1 directed to right is allowed to go a distance of 10.0cm
from A to B. Calculate.
(a) Potential difference between the two points
(b) Work done by the field
(c) The change in P.E. of proton
(d) The change in K.E. of the proton

(e) Its velocity (mass of proton is 1.67 10-27 kg )

Using zero reference point at infinity, determine the amount by which a point charge of 4.0 10-8 C alters the electric
potential at a point 1.2m away, when (a) Charge is positive (b)Charge is negative.

In Bohr’s atomic model of hydrogen atom, the electron is in an orbit around the nuclear proton at a distance of
5.29 10-11m with a speed of 2.18´106 ms-1 .
(e = 1.60´10-19 C, mass of electron = 9.10´10-31kg).Find
(a) The electric potential that a proton exerts this distance
(b) Total energy of the atom in eV
(c) The ionization energy for the atom in eV
The electronic flash attachment for a camera contains a capacitor for storing the energy used to produce the
flash. In one such unit, the potential difference between the plates of a 750mF capacitor is 330V. Determine the
energy that is used to produce the flash.

A capacitor has a capacitance of 2.5´10-8 F . In the charging process, electrons are removed from one plate and
placed on the other one. When the potential difference between the plates is 450V, how many electrons have
been transferred? e = 1.60´10-19 C .
CHAPTER 13
CURRENT
ELECTRICITY
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY
The branch of physics which deals with the study of charges in motion
through conductors is called current electricity. It is also called
Electrodynamics.
What is electric current? Give its formula, unit.
Lectric current: The time rate of flow of charges through any cross
section of conductor is called electric current.
SI unit is ampere. It is scalar quantity.
I = DQ
Dt
Definition of “ampere”: When one coulomb charge passes through any cross section of a conductor in one
second, the current will be one ampere. 1 ampere= 1 Coulomb/ 1sec.
Charge carriers: Electric current is due to flow of charge particles, these charged particles are called charge
carriers.
Charge carriers in metals: Negatively charged particle i.e electrons
Charge carriers in electrolyte: Positive and negative ions
Charge carriers in gases: Electrons and ions
Charge carriers in semiconductor: Free electrons and holes
What is difference b/w electronic flow and conventional flow of electric current?

ELECTRONIC FLOW OF ELECTRIC CURRENT CONVENTIONAL FLOW ELECTRIC CURRENT

The current which passes from a point of lower The current which passes from a higher potential
potential to high potential is called electronic flow of to lower potential is called conventional flow of
current. electric current.

It is shown by the motion of negative particles. It is shown by motion of positive charges.

Current through metals when battery is connected:

In this case Electric field is setup at every point in the
wire and free electrons experience a force in the
opposite the field and move with drift velocity and a
current begins to flow through conductor
 Current through metals when no battery is connected: Current through
the wire is zero in this case because free electrons passes through it from
right to left is same as the rate at which pass from left to right.
Drift Velocity: Average constant velocity of free electrons inside the
metallic conductors in opposite to electric field intensity is called drift
velocity. Its value is 10-3 m/s.
Steady current: Steady current is maintained in wire when a constant
potential difference is applied across it which produce necessary electric
field along the wire.
What are sources of current? Define them?
Sources of current: A source which provides a constant potential difference across the conductor or ends of
conductor is called source of current like generator, cell etc. OR A device which converts non electrical energy
into electrical energy is called source of current. Some sources of current are as follows
 Cell: The device which convert chemical energy into electrical energy is called cell.
 Electric generator: The device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy is called electric
generator.
 Thermocouple: The device which converts heat energy into electrical energy is called thermocouple.
 Solar cell: The device which converts light energy into electrical energy is called solar cell.
 EFECTS OF CURRENT
The presence of electric current is detected by various effects
which are called effects of current namely.
Explain heating effect?
The effect which is produced due to flow of current through metallic wire in which electrons collide with
atoms of
metals and give some their K.E to these atoms as result the kinetic energy of vibrations of atoms increased
which generated heat is called heating effect H=I2Rt, this effect is used in electric heater, kettles, toasters and
in electrons iron.
Explain magnetic effect?
An effect which is produce around the wire or coil when current flows through it is called magnetic effect and it is
used in galvanometers, motors, fans, drill machines etc.
 Explain chemical effect?
An effect that is produced by certain liquids like sulphuric acid solution conduct electricity due to some
chemical
reactions that placed within them is called chemical effect.
Chemical effect depend: It depends on a) nature of liquid b) quantity of electricity pass through it.
Electrolyte: The liquid which conduct electric current is called electrolyte.
Electrode: The material in the form of wire, rod or plate at which electric current enters or leave the
electrolyte is called electrode.
Anode: The electrode connected with positive terminal of battery is called
anode.
Cathode: The electrode connected with negative terminal of battery is
called cathode.
Voltammeter: The vessel containing two electrodes and liquid is called
voltammeter.
Electroplating: A process in which a thin layer of an expensive metal (gold,
silver) is deposited on cheap metal is called electroplating.
State and explain ohm’s law.
Statement Of Ohm’s Law: Current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference
across its ends provided physical state such as temperature remains same. V=IR, 1/R is the constant in Ohm’s
law.
Resistance: The opposition to the flow of charge through conductor is called electrical resistance. R=V/I and unit
is ohm.
Ohm: If one ampere current is passed through a conductor by applying one volt potential difference, then
resistance will be one ohm. 1ohm= 1volt/1 ampere.
Factors upon resistance depends: Resistance of conductor depends upon nature, dimensions and physical state
(temperature) of conductor.
Ohmic devices: The devices for which Ohm’s law hold
good and graph b/w V and I is straight line are called
ohmic devices. For example metallic conductors silver
gold etc.

Non ohmic devices: The devices for which Ohm’s law not
hold good and graph b/w V and I is not straight line are
called non ohmic devices. For example filament of bulb,
semiconductor diode.

Graphical form of Ohm’s law: Graphical form of Ohm law is

Straight line.
Definition: Such a combination in which resistors are connected end to end such that same current pass
through it is called series combination of resistors. Re=R 1+R2+R3+… They have following properties
I. In series combination total resistance is increased
II. Current is same through each R
III. Voltage is different through each R

Explain parallel combination of resistors.

Such a combination in which resistors are connected side by side with their end connected together at common point
to voltage source is called parallel combination of resistor. 1/Re=1/R1+1/R2+1/R3+… They have following properties
In parallel combination, total resistance is decreased
Voltage is same through each R
Current is different through each R
Write a note on resistivity and its dependance upon temperature.
Resistivity or specific resistance: The resistance of a meter cube of material is called resistivity or
specific resistance.
Mathematically
RL R 1 RL
A A
its unit is ohm m (Ωm).
R=rL r=RA
L L
Difference b/w resistance and resistivity.
Resistance Resistivity
The measure of opposition to flow charge Resistance of one meter of cube of wire
Unit of resistance is ohm(Ω) Unit of resistivity is ohm meter (Ωm)
Resistance depends upon nature, temperature and Resistivity depends upon nature and temperature only
geometry of wire
Conductance: The reciprocal of resistance is called conductance. Its formula is G=1/R and unit is mho or Siemen.
Conductivity: The reciprocal of resistivity is called conductivity, its formula is σ=1/ƍ and its unit is mho m-1.
Effect of temperature on resistance of conductor: The resistance of conductor increased as the
temperature of conductor rises, K.E of atoms increases and they vibrate with greater amplitude so
electrons find it more difficult to pass through them.
R = Resistance of material at 0o C
R = Resistance of material at t o C

Rt-RoRo Rt-Rot Rt-RoRot

Rt- Ro = a Ro t a=Rt-Ro α is temperature co - efficient of resistance

Rot
Temperature co-efficient of resistance: The fractional change in resistance per kelvin is called temperature
co-efficient of resistance. Its formula is a = R t – Ro and unit is k-1
Ro t
Temperature co-efficient of resistivity: The fractional change in resistivity per kelvin is called
temperature co-efficient of resistivity. Its formula is a = rt – ro and unit is K-1.
ro t
Positive and Negative temperature co-efficient of resistance α:
If resistance of conductor increase with increase of temperature then α is positive
If resistance of conductor decrease with increase of temperature then α is negative. Like Si, Ge etc
 Explain color code for carbon resistor.
Carbon resistor: It consist of high grade ceramic rod or cone known as substrate on which thin resistive film of
carbon is deposited.
Color code of carbon resistor: The numerical value of carbon resistors is indicated by a color code which consist
of bands of different colors printed on body of the resistors.
Bands in color code of resistor: There are four bands 1st band: indicates 1st digit. 2nd band: indicates 2nd digit
3rd band: indicates no of zeroes. 4th band: show tolerance.
Tolerance: Possible variation from the marked value of resistance is called tolerance. Tolerance of silver is ±10%
and gold is ±5%. If there is no 4th band then tolerance will ±20%
The color code
Color Value Color Value

Black 0 Green 5

Brown 1 Blue 6

Red 2 Violet 7

Orange 3 Gray 8

Yellow 4 White 9
 What is rheostat? Give its uses.
Rheostat: A wire wound variable resistors which consist of bare mangnin wire over an insulating cylinder and
its resistance can be changed is called Rheostat.
Uses of Rheostat: Rheostat can be used as
i. Variable resistor: A rheostat acts as variable resistor when terminal A and sliding terminal C are connected in
circuit are used and this sliding terminal shifted increase or decrease the resistance. As shown in fig a
ii. Potential divider: A potential difference V is applied across the ends A and B of rheostat and R is the
resistance of wire and r is the resistance b/w B and C then potential b/w the portion BC of wire AB will be
VBC= V/R*r or VBC=r/R*V this can be shown in fig b
What is thermistor? Write construction, advantage and uses.
Thermistor: A heat sensitive resistor is called thermistor. It is resistor whose resistance changes with
temperature. It has positive as well as negative temp. Co-efficient.
Construction: Thermistor are made from ceramics which are mixture of metallic oxides, magnese,
nickel, cobalt, copper and iron etc. by heating them under high pressure.
Shapes of thermistor: They may be in the form of beads, rods or washers.

Advantage of thermistor: Thermistor with high negative temperature co-efficient are very accurate for
measuring low temperature especially near 10K.
Application/Use of thermistor: Thermistor are temperature sensors so they convert change in
temperature into electrical voltage.
What is electrical power and power dissipation in resistors.
Electrical power: The rate at which battery is supplying energy is called electrical
power. Its unit watt.
Power dissipations in Resistors: If a circuit consisting of battery and Resistance R the
work done in moving a charge through potential difference V in time Δt.
W = V * ΔQ
Electrical power = P = DW = V * ΔQ = V * ΔQ = VI
Dt Dt Dt
P = (IR)I = I2 R or P = V(V/R) = V2 /R
Definition of watt.
If one ampere current is passed through wire by applying one volt potential then power will be one watt 1
watt= 1 volt x 1ampere
Explain electromotive force and potential difference.
EMF: The energy supplied by the battery to a unit positive charge is called emf. Consider a
battery which is connected across resistance to maintain steady current then E=Energy
supplied/ charge= ΔW/ΔQ, SI unit of emf is J/C also known as volt.
Terminal potential difference: The potential difference across the terminals of cell or battery when current is
drawn from it is called terminal potential difference.
Internal Resistance: The resistance officered by electrolyte present b/w the electrodes of cell is called internal
resistance denoted by r.
Internal Resistance: The resistance officered by electrolyte present b/w the electrodes of cell is called internal
resistance denoted by r.
Expression b/w terminal potential difference and emf:
Consider a cell of emf E having internal resistance r connected as shown in fig and V is the terminal potential
difference across the external resistance R. The current flowing through circuit is
I = E  E = IR + Ir  E = Vt + Ir
R+r
Vt = E - Ir This is the relation for terminal potentialdifference
if internal resistance r = 0 then Vt = E in special case
Difference b/w emf and potential difference.
Emf Potential difference
Emf is cause Potential difference is effect
Emf is always present even no Potential differenc
current passe through battery across the conductor is zero
when no current pass through it
MAXIMUM POWER OUT PUT
If current I flows through the resistance R, the charges flow from a point of higher potential to lower and loss of
potential energy per second across R is VI. The loss of energy per second appear in the form of power delivered
to R by current.
Power delivered to R = Pout = VI = (IR)I = I2 R As we I= E
R+r
E R = E2 R - E2 R ( a+b )2 = ( a-b )2 -4ab
(R+r) (R+r)2 (R+r)2+4Rr
If r = R then maximum power out put relation Pmax = E2
R
 KIRCHOFF RULES:
State Kirchhoff first rule:
Statement “Sum of all the currents meeting at a point in a circuit is zero. ∑I=0”
Proof:
consider four wire carrying current I1 , I 2 , I3 and I 4 Current flowing
towards point A which take as positive is equal to current flowing away
from the point A taken as negative I1 + I 2 + (-I3 ) + (- I 4 ) = 0
I1 + I 2 = I3 + I 4 , this law is accordance to law of conservation of charge

State Kirchhoff 2nd rule:

Statement: “Algebraic sum of voltage changes in closed circuit or loop is equal to zero ∑V=0”.
Explanation: Consider a circuit which consist of two cell of emf E1 and E2 and two resistors R1 and
R2. The direction of current depends upon the cell of larger emf. If E1 is greater than E2 then current
flow in anti clock wise direction.
First of all for finding potential changes following rules should be applied
i. Potential change is positive if source of emf is traversed from negative to positive terminal
otherwise it negative.
ii. Potential change is negative if resistor is traversed in the direction of current.
 Proof: As Kirchhoff 2nd rule is according to law of conservation of energy so across each terminal we find
energy gain and lost and then adding to get the result
Energy gained across E = E DQ (1 1 1

Energy lost across E = -E DQ (2 2 2

Energy lost across R = - IR DQ (3 1 1

Energy lost across R = - IR DQ (4 2 2

Adding all equations

E DQ + (-E DQ) + ( - IR DQ) + (-IR DQ ) = 0
1 2 1 2

DQ(E - E - IR - IR ) = 0
1 2 1 2

E - E - IR - IR = 0 This is required Result

1 2 1 2

Write procedure of solution of circuit problems.

Following steps should be taken to solve the circuit problem
 Draw the circuit diagram
 Choose the loop which contain at least one resistance
 Assume a loop current in each loop which may be clock wise or anti clock wise
 Write the loop equations for selected loops according to Kirchhoff voltage rule
 Solve these equations for unknown quantities.
 What is wheat stone bridge? Write its construction and working. Derive formula.
Definition: An electrical circuit that is used to measure the value of unknown resistance is called
Wheatstone bridge.
Construction: This circuit consists of four resistance R1, R2,R3 and R4
connected in such a way that form a loop ABCDA. A battery of emf E is
connected b/w A and C and sensitive galvanometer is connected b/w B and D.
Working: If the key is closed a current will flow through galvanometer. We are
to find the under which no current will flow through galvanometer even the
key is closed.
Derivation: Using Kirchhoff voltage rule we consider two loop ABDA and
BCDB and assume clock wise current I1 and I2 through the loop
Across the loop ABDA - I1R1 - (I1 - I 2 )R g - I1R 3 = 0 (1)
Across the loop BCDB - I 2 R 2 - (I2 - I1 )R g - I 2 R 4 = 0 (2)
under the balance condition I1 - I 2 = 0 so I1 = I 2
Eq (1) becomes - I1R1 - (0)R g - I1R 3 = 0  - I1R1 - I1R 3 = 0
- I1R= = I1R 3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - -(3)
Eq (2) becomes - I 2 R 2 - (0)R g - I 2 R 4 = 0  -I 2 R 2 - I 2 R 4 = 0
- I 2 R 2 = I 2 R 4 - - - - - - - - - - - - - (4)
 Dividing 3 and 4
- I1R1 = I1R 3  - I1R1 = I1R =  R1 = R3
- I2 R 2 I2 R 4 - I1R 2 I1R 4 R2 R4
R = R 2 * R3  X = R 2 * R3
R1 R1
This is the formula for unknown resistance
TID BITS/USEFUL INFORMATION
How electric eel save from danger?
When electric eel senses danger, it turns itself into a living battery, anyone who attacks this fish is likely
to get a shock of 600V and eel remains safe.
What is value of potential difference b/w head and tail of an electric eel?
600 volt.
Which effect is used in electric kettle.
Heating effect is used in it.
How inspectors can easily check the reliability of a concrete bridge made with carbon fiber?
Because the fiber conduct electricity, if sensors show that electrical resistance is increasing over time the
fibers are separating because of cracks.
How zero ohm is indicated. A Zero ohm resistor is indicated by single black color band
around the body of conductor.
What measured by voltmeter across the terminals of cell. Emf of a cell on open circuit and
Terminal potential difference on closed circuit.
What is potentiometer? Explain its construction and working.
Definition: It is an electrical instrument which is used to measure and compare the potential difference b/w
two points without drawing any current from the circuit is called potentiometer.
Principle: When a steady current flow through a wire then potential difference across any length of wire is
directly proportional to its length Vαl.
Construction: A potentiometer consists of a resistor R in the form of wire on which terminal C can slide.
As the sliding contact moves from A to B, the resistance b/w A and C changes from 0 to R.
Working as Potential divider: Let emf of cell is E, and current flowing through resistor R is I=E/R (1)
If r is the resistance b/w A and C then potential drop b/w these points will be VAC=Ir putting the value of
current VAC=𝐸 r = 𝑟 E
a a
Potential drop can be changed by change the value of r.
Measurement of unknown emf:
A potentiometer is used to measure the unknown emf of a cell by using The
relation.
VAC =  r 
E
R

Ex =  r E

 R
As resistance is directly proportional to length R  L and r  l so above equation can be written as
Ex =  l  E as (R = rL/A r = rl/A ....r/R = l/L)
 
r
L is the length of totalwire and l is length of wire b/w A and C.

Comparison of emf of cells: let l1 and l2 are balancing lengths for emf of two cells E1 and E2 respectively
then
 Uses of potentiometer: There are following uses of
potentiometer
 To measure the emf of a cell
 To compare the emf of two cells
 As potential divider
To measure the internal resistance of cell
Why potentiometer is preferred instead of voltmeter?
Because it draws no current from the circuit and potential
difference is measured accurately with this so it is used.
Exercise short Questions
1.A potential difference is applied across the ends of a copper wire. What is the effect on the drift velocity
of free electrons by i. increasing the potential difference ii. Decreasing the length and the temperature of
the wire
•Drift velocity of electron increases with increase in potential difference
•Drift velocity of electron also increases by decreasing the length and temperature of wire.
Do bends in a wire affect its electrical resistance? Explain.
The resistance of the conductor is described by the formula: R = r L ,Where L is the length and A is the cross-
section A
area of conductor. the electrical resistivity of the material which depends upon the nature of conductor. Hence
the resistance of conductor depends upon the geometry and nature of conductor. Hence the bends in conducting
wires don’t affect its electrical resistance.
What are the resistances of the resistors given in the figure A and B. What is the tolerance of each?
Fig A Fig B
Brown 1 (First Digit) Green 5 Yellow 4 (First Digit) White 9
(Second Digit) Red 2 (Number of (Second Digit) Orange 3 (Number
Zero) Resistance = 1500 And of Zero) therefore Resistance =
Tolerance = T = 5% Actual R= 49000 And Tolerance = T = 10%
1500±5% Actual R= 49000±10%
Why does the resistance of conductor rise with temperature?
The resistance offered by a conductor to the flow of electric current is due to collisions which the
free electrons encounter with atoms of the lattice. As the temperature of the conductor rises, the
amplitude of vibration of atoms increases and hence the probability of their collision with free
electrons also increases which result increase of resistance of conductor.
What are the difficulties in testing whether the filament of a lighted bulb obeys ohm’s law?
The main difficulty is the rise of temperature of filament with increase of in current. Because for obeying Ohm’s
law temperature must be remained constant and in filament temperature is changed so ohm’s law is not applied
on it.
Is the filament resistance lower or higher in a 500 W, 220 V bulb than in a 100 W, 220 V bulb?
1st case R = V2 = (220 )2 =96.8 W
P 500
2nd case R = V2 = ( 220 )2 = 484 W
P 100 so100watt bulb has greater resistance
 Describe a circuit which will give a continuously varying potential.
A potentiometer can be used as potential divider to give a
Continuously varying potential. It consists of resistor R in the Form of wire
on which terminal C Can slide and battery is connected In which current
I=E/RSo VAC=Ir
Er/R .it varies from 0 to R
Explain why the terminal potential difference of a battery decreases when
current drawn from it is increases.
The terminal potential difference of the battery of emf is described by the
formula: Vt = E - IR Where is the internal
resistance of the battery and I is the current flowing through outer circuit. It is
clear from equation that when I is large, the factor becomes large and becomes
small. Hence terminal potential difference of a battery decreases when current
drawn from it is increased.
What is Wheatstone bridge? How can it be used to determine unknown resistance?
It is an electrical circuit which can be used to find the unknown resistance of a wire.
R1 = R3 , X = R2 * R3
R2 R4 R1
X is unknown resistance.