ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS & INSTRUMENTATION

INTRODUCTION:

Instrumentation is a branch of science which deals with measurement & control of physical variables
by using sensors & transducers.

TRANSDUCER: A device or element which converts one form of energy in to another form of
energy is called transducer.
Ex: buzzer, fan, tube light, solar panel, thermocouple, motor, generator, etc…

In particular, TRANSDUCER is the term which is generally used to indicate a device or

element which converts non-electrical form of energy in to electrical form of energy. Transducer draws
insignificant amount of energy or power from the input and converts it in to electrical signal. Another
name for transducer is PICK UP. Ex: THERMOCOUPLE.

A device or element which converts electrical form of energy in to non-electrical form of energy
is called INVERSE TRANSDUCER. Ex: buzzer, fan, tube light, motor, etc.

SENSOR: Sensor gives information about presence or absence of a condition. It gives yes or no
information about presence of an input. In general sensor also converts one form of energy in to another
form of energy by standing aloof from the source of input. Sensor doesn’t draw any energy or power
from the input to convert it in to electrical signal.
Ex: solar panel, proximity speed sensor.

In instrumentation, the words TRANSDUCER & SENSOR are used interchangeably. In fact
sensor is essential element for transduction. The basic difference between them are- transducer converts
one form of energy in to another form of energy by making contact with the source of input, in contrast
senor converts one form of energy in to another form of energy by standing aloof from the source of
input.

PHYSICAL PARAMETERS: These are also called industrial parameters. Examples of

industrial parameters include measurement of force, speed, displacement, velocity, acceleration, pH,
conductivity, humidity, moisture, liquid level, vibration, temperature, pressure etc.

WHY WE NEED SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS?

In instrumentation 99% of all parameters which we measure in industries are indirect measurements.
That means, for the purpose of automation, these physical parameters needs to be converted in to
electrical signals. So, transducers & sensors are used to convert these non electrical parameters in to
electrical signals.
MEASUREMENT & CONTROL: Measurement is an act of determining the magnitude of
measurand in terms of units. Measurements are of two types
 Direct measurement
 Indirect measurement
In direct measurement, the magnitude of measurand is directly determined by comparing it with a
tool or comparing it with standard. For ex: if we want to measure the length of a chalk piece, it can be
placed against a scale to get magnitude in terms of units.

In indirect measurement, the magnitude of measurand cannot be known directly, so we need to

convert input in to some other convenient form. For ex: the temperature of a molten metal cannot be
measured directly. So we need indirect ways to measure temperature of molten metal.

CONTROL: If the output of the system is controlled by varying input, then the system is said to be
in control. We are taking measurements to make system under control.

ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS:

1. Most of the physical quantities can be into the electrical or electronic signals by transducers.
2. An electrical or electronic signal can be amplified, filtered, multiplexed, sampled and measured.
3. The measurement can easily be obtained in or converted into digital form for automatic analysis and
recording.
4. The measured signals can be transmitted over long distances with the help of cables or radio links,
without any loss of information.
5. Many measurements can be carried either simultaneously or in rapid succession.
6. Electronic circuits can detect and amplify very weak signals and can measure the events of very short
duration as well.
7. Electronic measurement makes possible to build analog and digital signals. The digital signals are
very much required in computers. The modern development in science and technology are totally based
on computers.
8. Higher sensitivity, low power consumption and a higher degree of reliability are the important
features of electronic instruments and measurements. But, for any measurement, a well defined set of
standards and calibration units is essential. This chapter provides an introduction to different types of
errors in measurement, the characteristics of an instrument and different calibration standards.
9. Mass inertia problems are absent in electronic measurements
10. The effects of friction are absent.
11. High voltages and currents can be easily controlled by electronic relays which operate on very small
voltage Ex: 24 v dc.
PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS:

STATIC CHARACTERISTICS: Some applications involve the measurement of quantities that

are either constant or vary slowly with time. Simply, Static characteristics are the characteristics of
instruments which doesn’t change with time or vary very slowly with respect to time.
1. ACCURACY: It is the closeness with which the instrument reading approaches the true
value of the quantity to be measured. It indicates the ability of instrument to indicate the true
value of the quantity. The accuracy can be expressed in the following ways. Simply, if the
measurement has least error, the measurement is highly accurate. So, always accuracy is
expressed in terms of limits of error, because no measurement is error free. Thus accuracy of a
measurement means conformity to truth.
a. ACCURACY AS ‘PERCENTAGE OF SCALE RANGE’: In case of instruments
Having uniform scale, the accuracy can be expressed as percentage of full scale reading.
For example, the accuracy of a thermometer having the range of 500° can be expressed as ±
0.5% of scale range. This means accuracy of thermometer when reading is 500° is ± 0.5 %
which is negligible, but when reading is 25° (i.e 20% of scale range) error is as high as
(500/25) x (± 0.5) =10%. So specifying accuracy n this manner is very misleading.
b. ACCURACY AS ‘PERCENTAGE OF TRUE VALUE’: This is the best method of
specifying the accuracy. It is to be specified in terms of the true value of quantity being
measured. For example, it can be specified as ± 0.5% of true value. This indicates that in such
cases, as readings get smaller, error also gets reduced. Hence accuracy of the instrument is
better than the instrument for which it is specified as percent of full scale reading.
c. POINT ACCURACY: Such accuracy is specified at only one particular point of scale. It
does not give any information about the accuracy at any other point on the scale. The general
accuracy of an instrument cannot be specified, in this manner.

2. PRECISION: It is the measure of reproducibility of measurements. Thus a precise instrument

may not be accurate. Precision is necessary condition for accuracy but not sufficient condition for
accuracy. Thus the precision means sharply or clearly defined and the readings agree among
themselves. But there is no guarantee that readings are accurate.
The precision is composed of two characteristics:

A) CONFORMITY: Consider a resistor having true value as 5632541Ω, which is being

measured by an ohmmeter. But the reader can read consistently, a value as 5.6 MΩ, due to the
no availability of proper scale. The error created due to the limitation of the scale reading is a
precision error.
B) NUMBER OF SIGNIFICANT FIGURES: The precision of the measurement is
obtained from the number of significant figures, in which the reading is expressed. The
significant figures convey the actual information about the magnitude & the measurement
precision of the quantity. The more significant figures, the greater is the precision in the
measurement.
 Ex: let us take the true value of voltage is 150V, and if we measure it by using a voltmeter, let
us suppose the readings are 149.9V, 150.2V, 149.98V, 151.01V etc. The numbers after decimal
point increases, the value measured will be very near to the true value. These are called
significant figures. The more significant figures, the more is the precision. If the measured value
is 150.00V, then the instrument has very high precision as well as accuracy.

3. RESOLUTION: It is the smallest increment of quantity being measured which can be detected
with certainty by an instrument. So if a nonzero input quantity is slowly increased, output reading will
not increase until some minimum change in the input takes place. This minimum change which causes
the change in the output is called resolution. The resolution of an instrument is also referred to as
discrimination of the instrument. The resolution can affect the accuracy of the measurement. Simply,
resolution means – smallest measurable input.

4. RUGGEDNESS: It is the ability of the instrument to with stand load.

5. REPRODUCIBILITY: It is the closeness of measured values between measurements of the

same thing carried out in different conditions as follows.
1) At different place
2) By different person
3) By different method
4) By different equipment
5) At different time

6. ERROR: Error is the deviation from the true value. The difference between true value &
measured value is called error. If the error is constant throughout the measurement, then it is called
STATIC ERROR.

7. DRIFT: Drift may be classified into 3 categories:

a. ZERO DRIFT: If the whole calibration gradually shifts due to slippage, permanent set, or
due to undue warming setup of components, zero drift occurs.

Characteristics with zero drift

Output

Normal characteristics
zero
drift
Input
 b. SPAN DRIFT: It is the proportional change in the direction all along the upward scale; this
drift is called span drift
Characteristics with span drift

Output

Normal characteristics

Input

c. ZONAL DRIFT: In case the drift occurs only over a portion of span of an instrument, it is
called zonal drift.

8. REPEATABILITY: Repeatability measures the variation in measurements taken by a single

instrument or person under the same conditions.

1) At the same place

2) By the same person
3) By the same method
4) On the same equipment
5) Over short period of time

9. SENSITIVITY: Sensitivity of a system or element is the ability of system to respond for small
changes in the input and produces output. Sensitivity of an instrument is the ratio of magnitude of the
output signal to the magnitude of input signal. If we plot the input output characteristics of the system
and if the sensitivity is same at all points, then the system is linear.

Infinitesimal change in output ∆qo

Sensitivity = =
Infinitesimal change in input ∆qi
 ∆qo
∆qi
Output ∆qo Output ∆qo
qo qo
∆qi ∆qi

Input, qi Input, qi
Sensitivity is SAME at all points Sensitivity is DIFFERENT at all points

10. LINEARITY: If the output changes proportional to the variations in the input, then the system /
instrument is said to be linear. Linearity is the essential characteristic.

Output

Characteristic curve

Input
11. HYSTERISIS: Hysteresis is a phenomenon in which the output differs when loading &
unloading. I.e., consider that a voltmeter is used to measure a voltage. Then the voltmeter shows some
value. If the voltmeter is disconnected, then it has to show “zero” on the scale. But this wouldn’t
happen if hysteresis is present. The pointer slowly comes back to zero, then it travel past to zero, and it
will make some oscillations around zero, and then it slowly comes back to zero. This should not
happen. If input was cutoff, then the reading must come to zero immediately, if the input is applied,
then it should show the magnitude of input. Hysteresis occurs when all the energy put in to stressed
parts when loading is not recovered upon unloading.
 Fig: HYSTERISIS CURVE
12. STABILITY: It is the ability of an instrument to retain its performance throughout its specified
operating life.

13. DEAD ZONE: It is defined as the largest change of input quantity for which there is no output
of the instrument.
Accuracy, precision, resolution, ruggedness, sensitivity, stability, repeatability, reproducibility, static
error, linearity, is ESSENTIAL STATIC CHARACTERISTICS. Sensitivity must be optimum. Too
sensitivity of the instrument or system decreases stability and if sensitivity is poor, it introduces
errors. Hysteresis, lag and drift are NOT ESSENTIAL STATIC CHARACTERISTICS.

DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS: The set of criteria defined for the instruments, for
which the input changes rapidly with time, output also varies with time, the behavior of system under
such conditions is described by ‘dynamic characteristics’.
The various dynamic characteristics are:
i) Speed of response ii) Measuring lag iii) Fidelity iv) Dynamic error.
1. SPEED OF RESPONSE: It is defined as the rapidity with which a system responds to changes
in the measured quantity.
2. MEASURING LAG: It is the retardation or delay in the response of a measurement system to
changes in the measured quantity. The measuring lags are of two types:
a) RETARDATION TYPE: In this case the response of the measurement system begins
immediately after the change in measured quantity has occurred.
b) TIME DELAY LAG: In this case the response of the measurement system begins after a dead
time after the application of the input.
3. FIDELITY: It is defined as the degree to which a measurement system indicates changes in the
measured quantity without dynamic error.
4. DYNAMIC ERROR: It is the difference between the true value of the quantity changing with
time & the value indicated by the measurement system if no static error is assumed. It is also called
measurement error. Dynamic error means – error is not constant throughout the measurement. Error
will vary with respect to time.
Speed of response & fidelity are ESSENTIAL DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS, where as lag and
dynamic error are NOT ESSENTIAL DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS.
The errors, which occur during measurement, are known as measurement errors. In this chapter, let us
discuss about the types of measurement errors.
TYPES OF MEASUREMENT ERRORS
We can classify the measurement errors into the following three types.

 Gross Errors
 Random Errors
 Systematic Errors
 Limiting Errors
Now, let us discuss about these three types of measurement errors one by one.
GROSS ERRORS
The errors, which occur due to the lack of experience of the observer while taking the measurement
values are known as gross errors. The values of gross errors will vary from observer to observer.
Sometimes, the gross errors may also occur due to improper selection of the instrument. We can
minimize the gross errors by following these two steps.

 Choose the best suitable instrument, based on the range of values to be measured.
 Note down the readings carefully

SYSTEMATIC ERRORS
If the instrument produces an error, which is of a constant uniform deviation during its operation is
known as systematic error. The systematic errors occur due to the characteristics of the materials used
in the instrument.
Types of Systematic Errors
The systematic errors can be classified into the following three types.
 Instrumental Errors − this type of errors occur due to shortcomings of instruments and loading
effects.
 Environmental Errors − this type of errors occur due to the changes in environment such as
change in temperature, pressure & etc.
 Observational Errors − this type of errors occur due to observer while taking the meter
readings. Parallax errors belong to this type of errors.

RANDOM ERRORS
The errors, which occur due to unknown sources during measurement time, are known as random
errors. Hence, it is not possible to eliminate or minimize these errors. But, if we want to get the more
accurate measurement values without any random error, then it is possible by following these two
steps.
 Step1 − Take more number of readings by different observers.
 Step2 − Do statistical analysis on the readings obtained in Step1.
Following are the parameters that are used in statistical analysis.

 Mean
 Median
 Variance
 Deviation
 Standard Deviation
Now, let us discuss about these statistical parameters.
SUSPENSION GALVANOMETER (PERMANENT MAGNET MOVING COIL
GALVANOMETER):
In early days direct current (DC) is measured by suspension galvanometer. Galvanometer is
constructed such that a fine wire is suspended in a magnetic field produced by permanent magnet.
According to fundamental law of electromagnetic force, when a current carrying conductor is placed
in a magnetic field, it experiences torque and deflects. The coil will continue to deflect until its
electromagnetic torque balances the mechanical torque. Therefore, the coil deflection is a measure
of magnitude of current in the coil.
CONSTRUCTION: A coil is suspended in the magnetic field so that it can rotate freely. When
current flows in the coil, the developed electro-magnetic torque causes the coil to rotate. This electro –
magnetic torque is counter balanced by mechanical torque of control springs attached to movable coil.
The coil will deflect till both the torques balance each other. When both the torques balances each
other, coil stops rotating. A pointer is attached to the coil to indicate the reading on scale.

The equation for developed electromagnetic torque is T = B.I.A.N

Where T = Torque(N-m)

B = Magnetic flux density (weber per meter square)

A = Effective area of coil (meter square)

I = Current through the coil ( Ampere)

N = No.of turns in the coil

From the above equation, Since, Magnetic flux density is constant and Coil constants (Effective area of
coil & No.of turns of coil) are also constants, the deflection of coil is directly proportional to current.
Therefore T α I
TOP VIEW OF PMMC SIDE VIEW OF PMMC
Between the two magnets, the soft iron core cylinder is placed inside the coil to effectively utilize
uniform magnetic field in the air gap. The coil & core are light weight materials. The coil is mounted so
that it can freely move in the air gap. A pointer is attached to the coil such that the pointer moves on
scale when coil rotates due to electromagnetic torque. Two phosphor bronze springs are mounted on
the pivot of the coil which creates mechanical torque. When this mechanical torque balances
electromagnetic torque, coil stops rotating and the pointer indicates current through the coil.

PMMC is mostly suitable for dc measurements. Its accuracy is 2 to5 % of full scale reading. PMMC
is unsuitable for AC measurements unless the current is rectified before applying to the coil.

DYNAMIC BEHAVIOUR: Galvanometer is a simple indicating instrument in which deflection

of pointer is directly proportional to current applied to the coil. The dynamic behavior can be observed
by suddenly interrupting the applied current, so that coil swings back from its deflected position as a
result of inertia of the moving system the pointer swings past the zero mark in the opposite direction,
and oscillate back & forth around zero. These oscillations gradually die as a result of damping of
moving element, and the pointer will come to rest at zero.

The motion of moving coil in a magnetic field is characterized by 3 quantities.

1. The moment of inertia (J) of moving coil about its axis.

2. The opposing torque (S) developed by coil suspension
3. The damping constant (D).

Damping is the dissipation of energy of rotation. This is partially due to mechanical effects & usually
due to electromagnetic effects from the coil circuit.
Three different types of dynamic behavior are shown below

Curve -1 of above figure shows overdamped case in which coil returns slowly to rest without
overshoot or oscillations. The pointer moves in a sluggish manner and approaches to steady state.
Instrument should not posses this characteristic.

Curve -2 of above figure shows critical damping case in which pointer comes to steady state much
promptly & fast without oscillations.

Curve-3 of above figure is under damped case in which motion of coil is subjected to damping
sinusoidal oscillations. The rate at which these oscillations die away is determined by damping constant
(D), opposing torque (S) & damping constant (D).

Ideally galvanometer response should be such that the pointer should travel to its final position without
overshoot; hence the movement should be critically damped. In practice galvanometer is usually
slightly under damped, causing the pointer to overshoot a little before coming to rest.
DC VOLTMETERS: A basic D’Arsonval movement can be converted into a dc voltmeter by
adding a series resistor known as multiplier. The multiplier limits the current through the movement so
that the current does not exceed the full-scale deflection current ( Ifsd ). The dc voltmeter measures the
potential difference between the two pints in dc circuit and is therefore connected across a source of
emf or a circuit component. While connecting, correct polarities should be observed.
Im=full scale deflection current ( Ifsd)
Rm=internal resistance of the
movement
Rs=multiplier resistance
V=full range voltage of the
instrument

V=Im (Rs+Rm )

𝑉 − 𝐼𝑚𝑅𝑚
𝑅𝑠 =
𝐼𝑚
𝑉
= – Rm
𝐼𝑚

MULTIRANGE VOLTMETER: The addition of no.of resistances in series with the meter
together with range switch forms multi range voltmeter. Below figure shows a multirange voltmeter
using a 4 position switch and 4 resistors R1, R2, R3, R4 for 4 voltage ranges V1, V2, V3, and V4.

DC AMMETER: The basic movement of dc ammeter is PMMC galvanometer. Since coil winding
of PMMC is small & light, it can carry only small currents. When large currents are measured, it is
necessary to bypass the major part of current through a resistance, called shunt.
The resistance of shunt can be calculated as…
Rm = internal resistance of coil. Rsh = resistance of shunt.
Im = full scale deflection Ish = shunt current
I = full scale current of ammeter including shunt.
Since shunt resistance is in parallel with meter resistance, voltage drop across shunt is equal to voltage
drop across meter.
Vshunt = Vmeter
Ish.Rsh = Im.Rm
𝑰𝒎 .𝑹𝒎
𝑹𝒔 =
𝑰𝒔𝒉
𝑰𝒎.𝑹𝒎
Since, Ish = I – Im, 𝑹𝒔𝒉 =
𝑰−𝑰𝒎

Ex: A 1-mA meter movement with an internal resistance of 100Ω is to be converted

into a (0 – 100)mA ammeter. Calculate the value of shunt resistance required.
Sol. Ish = I – Im = 100 -1 =99 mA
𝟏𝒎𝑨 .𝟏𝟎𝟎Ω
𝑹𝒔𝒉 = = 1.01 Ω
𝟗𝟗𝒎𝑨
MULTIRANGE AMMETER: The current range of dc-ammeter is further extended by a number
of shunts which is selected by a range switch. Such a ammeter is called multi range ammeter.

The above circuit has 4 shunt resistors, R1, R2, R3, R4 which can be placed in parallel with the meter
with 4 different current ranges, with the help of a switch S, which is called make before break type
switch, so that meter will not be damaged .

The universal shunt shown below eliminates the

possibility of having meter in the circuit without a
shunt.
Ish . Rsh = Im . Rm
 When switch is in position-1,
Then I1. R1 = Im (R2+R3+Rm)
 When switch is in position-2,
Then I2( R1 +R2)= Im (R3+Rm)
 When switch is in position-3,
Then I3( R1 +R2 +R3)= Im Rm

The following precautions are taken while using an ammeter.

1. Always connect ammeter in series with a load. Never connect ammeter across source of emf,
because its low resistance it would draw high currents so that ammeter will be destroyed.
2. Observe correct polarity. Reverse polarity causes meter to get damage.
3. When using a multirange meter, first use the highest current range, the decrease the current
range until substantial deflection is obtained.
VOLTMETER SENSITIVITY: The sensitivity of voltmeter is defined as the reciprocal of full
scale deflection current.

1 Ω
𝑆=
𝑰𝒇𝒔𝒅 𝑉

Where S= sensitivity of voltmeter (Ω / V)

V = Voltage range as set by switch

Rm = Internal resistance of meter ( plus previous series resistance)

Rs= resistance of multiplier.

So for the above circuit, RT = S x V.

And RS = (S x V) – Rm

LOADING EFFECT: Loading effect of the voltmeter is the difference between actual voltage that
exists in the circuit without connecting the voltmeter and the voltage that appears after connecting
voltmeter.

A voltmeter is placed across a resistor to measure its voltage. When a voltmeter connects across any
resistance its internal resistance impacts the overall resistance of the circuit. This effect of change in
overall resistance is known as the loading effect of the voltmeter.

To understand this, consider a series circuit containing two resistors (R1 and R2) of 5 MΩ and 10 MΩ.
Ideally the resistor R2 dissipates 6.66 volts across it (Using voltage divider rule).

Let’s consider that a voltmeter having an internal resistance of 10 MΩ is connected across R2. The
internal resistance of voltmeter appears in parallel to the R2 resistance. Now using voltage divider rule:
The real voltage that appears across the voltmeter is 5 Volts. This difference of voltage after adding
voltmeter in the circuit is the loading effect of the voltmeter.

Types of Rectifier based AC Voltmeters

Following are the two types of rectifier based AC voltmeters.

 AC voltmeter using Half Wave Rectifier

 AC voltmeter using Full Wave Rectifier
Now, let us discuss about these two AC voltmeters one by one.

AC Voltmeter using Half Wave Rectifier

If a Half wave rectifier is connected ahead of DC voltmeter, then that entire combination together is
called AC voltmeter using Half wave rectifier.
The block diagram of AC voltmeter using Half wave rectifier is shown in below figure.

The above block diagram consists of two blocks: half wave rectifier and DC voltmeter. We will get the
corresponding circuit diagram, just by replacing each block with the respective component(s) in above
block diagram. So, the circuit diagram of AC voltmeter using Half wave rectifier will look like as
shown in below figure.

The rms value of sinusoidal (AC) input voltage signal is

Vrms=Vm /1.414
Where,
Vm is the maximum value of sinusoidal (AC) input voltage signal.
The DC or average value of the Half wave rectifier’s output signal is
Vdc=Vm / π
Vdc=0.45Vrms
Therefore, the AC voltmeter produces an output voltage, which is equal to 0.45 times the rms value of
the sinusoidal (AC) input voltage signal.

AC Ammeter
Current is the rate of flow of electric charge. If the direction of this electric charge changes regularly,
then the resultant current is called Alternating Current (AC).
The instrument, which is used to measure the Alternating Current that flows through any branch of
electric circuit is called AC ammeter.
Example − Thermocouple type AC ammeter.
Now, let us discuss about Thermocouple type AC ammeter.

Thermocouple Type AC Ammeter

If a Thermocouple is connected ahead of PMMC galvanometer, then that entire combination is called
thermocouple type AC ammeter. The block diagram of thermocouple type AC ammeter is shown in
below figure.
The above block diagram consists of mainly two blocks: a thermocouple, and a PMMC galvanometer.
We will get the corresponding circuit diagram, just by replacing each block with the respective
component(s) in above block diagram. So, the circuit diagram of thermocouple type AC ammeter will
look like as shown in below figure.

Thermocouple generates an EMF, ee, whenever the Alternating Current, I flows through heater
element. This EMF, e is directly proportional to the rms value of the current, I that is flowing through
heater element. So, we have to calibrate the scale of PMMC instrument to read rms values of current.
So, with this chapter we have completed all basic measuring instruments such as DC voltmeters, AC
voltmeters, DC ammeters and AC ammeters. In next chapter, let us discuss about the meters or
measuring instruments, which measure resistance value.
TRUE RMS RESPONDING AC VOLTMETER
As the name suggests, the true RMS responding AC voltmeter responds to the true RMS values of AC
voltage signal. This voltmeter measures RMS values of AC voltages. The circuit diagram of true RMS
responding AC voltmeter is shown in below figure.
The above circuit consists of an AC amplifier, two thermocouples, DC amplifier and PMMC
galvanometer. AC amplifier amplifies the AC voltage signal. Two thermocouples that are used in above
circuit are a measuring thermocouple and a balancing thermocouple. Measuring
thermocouple produces an output voltage, which is proportional to RMS value of the AC voltage
signal.
Any thermocouple converts a square of input quantity into a normal quantity. This means there exists a
non-linear relationship between the output and input of a thermocouple. The effect of non-linear
behavior of a thermocouple can be neglected by using another thermocouple in the feedback circuit.
The thermocouple that is used for this purpose in above circuit is known as balancing thermocouple.
The two thermocouples, namely measuring thermocouple and balancing thermocouple together form a
bride at the input of DC amplifier. As a result, the meter always responds to the true RMS value of AC
voltage signal.
OHMMETERS
The instrument, which is used to measure the value of resistance between any two points in an electric
circuit is called ohmmeter. It can also be used to find the value of an unknown resistor. The units of
resistance are ohm and the measuring instrument is meter. So, the word “ohmmeter” is obtained by
combining the words “ohm” and “meter”.

Types of Ohmmeters
Following are the two types of ohmmeters.

 Series Ohmmeter
 Shunt Ohmmeter
Now, let us discuss about these two types of ohmmeters one by one.

Series Ohmmeter
If the resistor’s value is unknown and has to be measured by placing it in series with the ohmmeter,
then that ohmmeter is called series ohmmeter. The circuit diagram of series ohmmeter is shown in
below figure.
The part of the circuit, which is left side of the terminals A & B is series ohmmeter. So, we can
measure the value of unknown resistance by placing it to the right side of terminals A & B. Now, let us
discuss about the calibration scale of series ohmmeter.
 If Rx=0Ω, then the terminals A & B will be short circuited with each other. So, the meter
current gets divided between the resistors, R1 and R2. Now, vary the value of resistor, R2 in
such a way that the entire meter current flows through the resistor, R1 only. In this case, the
meter shows full scale deflection current. Hence, this full scale deflection current of the meter
can be represented as 0Ω.
 If Rx=∞Ω, then the terminals A & B will be open circuited with each other. So, no current
flows through resistor, R1R1. In this case, the meter shows null deflection current. Hence, this
null deflection of the meter can be represented as ∞Ω.
 In this way, by considering different values of Rx, the meter shows different deflections. So,
accordingly we can represent those deflections with the corresponding resistance value.
The series ohmmeter consists of a calibration scale. It has the indications of 0 Ω and ∞Ω at the end
points of right hand and left hand of the scale respectively. Series ohmmeter is useful for
measuring high values of resistances.

Shunt Ohmmeter
If the resistor’s value is unknown and to be measured by placing it in parallel (shunt) with the
ohmmeter, then that ohmmeter is called shunt ohmmeter. The circuit diagram of shunt ohmmeter is
shown in below figure.
The part of the circuit, which is left side of the terminals A & B is shunt ohmmeter. So, we can
measure the value of unknown resistance by placing it to the right side of terminals A & B.
Now, let us discuss about the calibration scale of shunt ohmmeter. Close the switch, S of above circuit
while it is in use.
 If Rx=0Ω, then the terminals A & B will be short circuited with each other. Due to this, the
entire current, I1I1 flows through the terminals A & B. In this case, no current flows through
PMMC galvanometer. Hence, the null deflection of the PMMC galvanometer can be
represented as 0Ω.
 If Rx=∞Ω, then the terminals A & B will be open circuited with each other. So, no current
flows through the terminals A & B. In this case, the entire current, I1 flows through PMMC
galvanometer. If required vary (adjust) the value of resistor, R1 until the PMMC galvanometer
shows full scale deflection current. Hence, this full scale deflection current of the PMMC
galvanometer can be represented as ∞Ω.
 In this way, by considering different values of Rx, the meter shows different deflections. So,
accordingly we can represent those deflections with the corresponding resistance values.
The shunt ohmmeter consists of a calibration scale. It has the indications of 0Ω and ∞Ω at the end
points of left hand and right hand of the scale respectively.
Shunt ohmmeter is useful for measuring low values of resistances. So, we can use either series
ohmmeter or shunt ohmmeter based on the values of resistances that are to be measured i.e., high or
low.

Multimeter
In previous chapters, we discussed about voltmeters, ammeters and ohmmeters. These measuring
instruments are used to measure voltage, current and resistance respectively. That means, we
have separate measuring instruments for measuring voltage, current and resistance.
Suppose, if a single measuring instrument can be used to measure the quantities such as voltage, current
& resistance one at a time, then it is said to be multimeter. It has got the name multimeter, since it can
measure multiple electrical quantities one at a time.
Measurements by using Multimeter
Multimeter is an instrument used to measure DC & AC voltages, DC & AC currents and resistances of
several ranges. It is also called Electronic Multimeter or Voltage Ohm Meter (VOM).

DC voltage Measurement
The part of the circuit diagram of Multimeter, which can be used to measure DC voltage is shown in
below figure.

The above circuit looks like a multi range DC voltmeter. The combination of a resistor in series with
PMMC galvanometer is a DC voltmeter. So, it can be used to measure DC voltages up to certain
value.
We can increase the range of DC voltages that can be measured with the same DC voltmeter by
increasing the resistance value. the equivalent resistance value increases, when we connect the resistors
are in series.
In above circuit, we can measure the DC voltages up to 2.5V by using the combination of resistor, R5
in series with PMMC galvanometer. By connecting a resistor, R4 in series with the previous circuit, we
can measure the DC voltages up to 10V. In this way, we can increase the range of DC voltages, simply
by connecting a resistor in series with the previous (earlier) circuit.
We can measure the DC voltage across any two points of an electric circuit, by connecting the switch, S
to the desired voltage range.
DC Current Measurement
The part of the circuit diagram of Multimeter, which can be used to measure DC current is shown in
below figure.

The above circuit looks like a multi range DC ammeter. The combination of a resistor in parallel with
PMMC galvanometer is a DC ammeter. So, it can be used to measure DC currents up to certain value.
We can get different ranges of DC currents measured with the same DC ammeter by placing the
resistors in parallel with previous resistor. In above circuit, the resistor, R1R1 is connected in series
with the PMMC galvanometer in order to prevent the meter gets damaged due to large current.
We can measure the DC current that is flowing through any two points of an electric circuit, by
connecting the switch, S to the desired current range

AC voltage Measurement
The part of the circuit diagram of Multimeter, which can be used to measure AC voltage is shown in
below figure.

The above circuit looks like a multi range AC voltmeter. We know that, we will get AC voltmeter just
by placing rectifier in series (cascade) with DC voltmeter. The above circuit was created just by placing
the diodes combination and resistor, R6R6 in between resistor, R5R5 and PMMC galvanometer.
We can measure the AC voltage across any two points of an electric circuit, by connecting the switch, S
to the desired voltage range.

Resistance Measurement
The part of the circuit diagram of Multimeter, which can be used to measure resistance is shown in
below figure.

We have to do the following two tasks before taking any measurement.

 Short circuit the instrument

 Vary the zero adjust control until the meter shows full scale current. That means, meter indicates
zero resistance value.
Now, the above circuit behaves as shunt ohmmeter and has the scale multiplication of 1, i.e. 10 0. We
can also consider higher order powers of 10 as the scale multiplications for measuring high resistances.