UNIT-1 SCIENCE OF

MEASUREMENT
Measurement System
 A Collection of units of measurement and rules relating
them to each other is called as Measurement System.
There are two basic requirements to make the
measurement meaningful.
(i) The standard used for comparison purposes must be
accurately defined and should be commonly accepted
(ii)The apparatus used and the method adopted must be
provable.

Measurement Methods
 The measurement methods can be classified as
(i) Direct Comparison methods
(ii) Indirect Comparison methods
Direct Comparison Methods:
 In this method the unknown quantity (also called the
measurand) is directly compared against a standard
one and the result is expressed as a numerical
number and a unit.
 Ex: physical quantities like length, mass and time.

Drawbacks:
(i)Measurement by direct methods is not always
possible, feasible and practicable.
(ii)These methods in most of the cases are inaccurate
because they involve human factors.
(iii)They are also less sensitive
Indirect Comparison Methods:
The indirect method of level measurement
involves converting readouts and data of a
known quantity, such as pressure ratio to
the volume.
Classification of Instruments
 Instruments are classified into two categories: -
 (i) Absolute Instruments
 (ii) Secondary Instruments.

Absolute Instruments:
 An Instrument whose calibration can be determined by means of
physical measurements on the instrument is called absolute
instrument.
 Example: Absolute electrometer, Tangent Galvanometer and etc.

Characteristics of Absolute instrument:

 Accuracy
 Sensitivity
 Repeatability
 Reproducibility
Secondary Instruments:
An instrument in which the value of the
electrical quantity is measured and it is
determined from the deflection of the
instruments.
Example: Ammeter, Voltmeter and etc.

Analog and Digital Modes of Operation:

Secondary instruments work in two modes
Analog mode
Digital mode.
 Types of Instrument:
 Mechanical, Electrical and Electronic Instruments:
 The first instruments were mechanical in nature and the principles
on which these instruments worked are even in following today. The
earliest scientific instruments used the same three essential
elements as our modern instruments.
 These instruments are
1. A detector
2. An intermediate transfer device
3. An indicator, recorder or a storage device.

The history of development of instruments encompasses three phases

of instruments,
 i. Mechanical Instruments
 ii. Electrical Instruments
 iii. Electronic Instruments
Mechanical Instruments:
 The action of measuring something the size, amount or degree (of
something) by using an instrument or device marked in standard
units. The branch of engineering dealing with the design,
construction and use of machines are called mechanical
instruments.

Electrical Instruments:
 Electrical instruments measure the various electrical quantities
like electrical power factor, power, voltage and current etc

Electronic Instruments:
 An electronic instrument produces an electric signal that is
transmitted to an amplifier and then broadcast through a
loudspeaker. Using a process called synthesis; electronic
instruments imitate acoustic instruments or create their own noises.
Functional Elements of Instruments and Measurement Systems:
 The measurement systems and the instruments may be classified based upon the
functions they perform. There are four main functions performed by them: indicating,
signal processing, recording and control.

i) Indicating Function:
 This indicating function includes supplying information concerning the variable
quantity under measurement. Several types of methods could be employed in the
instruments and systems for this purpose. Most of the time, this information is
obtained as the deflection of a pointer of a measuring instrument.

ii) Recording Function:

 In the recording cases the instrument makes a written record, usually on paper, of the
value of the quantity under measurement against time or against some other
variable. This is a recording function performed by the instrument.
 For example, a temperature indicator / recorder in the HTST pasteurizer give the
instantaneous temperatures on a strip chart recorder.

iii) Signal Processing:

 This function is performed to process and modify the measured signal to facilitate
recording / control.
 Classification and Characteristics of Transducers:
 Transducer can be defined as a device, which when actuated
by the energy in one form, supplies energy either in the same
form or in another form to a second transmission system.

 Examples of transducer

 A mechanical force or displacement being converted into an
electrical signal.
 A thermistor reacts to temperature variations.
 A photo cell changes in light intensity.
 Measurement of electrical noise.
 Telemetering system—when input and output are in electrical
form.
Active Transducer:
These transducers do not need any
external source of power for their
operation. Therefore they are also called
self-generating type transducer.
Examples: Piezoelectric, Photo Voltaic,
Electromagnetic.


 Passive Transducer:
 The transducers need an external source of power for their
operation. So they are not self-generating type transducers.
 Examples: Resistive, Inductive, Capacitive transducers

 Analog and Digital Transducers The Transducer can be
categorized on the basis of the output which may be a
continuous function of time or the output may be in the
discrete steps.

 Passive transducers do not generate any electrical signal by
themselves.
 To obtain an electrical signal from such transducers, an
external source of power is essential.
Analog Transducers:
This type of Transducers converts the input
quantity into an analog signal output, which
is a continuous function of time.A strain
gauge, LVDT, Thermocouples or
Thermostats are called analog transducers.

Digital Transducers:
Digital transducers generate an electrical
output in the form of pulses which form a
unique code. Thereby a unique code is
generated for each discrete value sensed
 Electromagnetic Transducer
 In electromagnetic transduction, the quantity to be
measured is converted into an electromotive force
(voltage) induced in a conductor by a change in the
magnetic flux, in the absence of excitation. Thus these
types of transducers are moving by a magnet to alter the
magnetic flux through a coil thus generating an
electromotive force (EMF) according to Faraday’s law.

 1.3.11 Inductive Transducer
 In inductive transduction, the quantity to be measured is
converted into a change in the self-inductance of a single
coil. This is achieved by displacing the coil’s core, which
is linked or attached to a mechanical sensing element.
Piezoelectric Transducer:
In piezoelectric transduction, the quantity
to be measured is converted into a change
in electrostatic charge, q or voltage, V
generated by crystals when mechanically
get stressed.
Photovoltaic Transduction:
In photovoltaic transduction, light energy is
the quantity to be measured is converted in
the voltage generated when a junction
between dissimilar materials is illuminated.

 Photoconductive Transduction:
 In photoconductive transduction, the measurand is
converted into a change in resistance (conductance) of
semiconductor material by a change in the intensity of
illumination incident on the material. The photoelectric
transducer converts the light energy into electrical energy. It
is made of semiconductor material. The photoelectric
transducer uses a photosensitive element, which ejects the
electrons when the beam of light absorbs through it.

 The discharges of electrons vary the property of the
photosensitive element. Hence the current induces in the
devices. The magnitude of the current is equal to the total
light absorbed by the photosensitive element. The figure
below shows the scheme of semiconductor material.
Characteristics of Transducer
1. Sensitivity:
It can be defined as the ratio of the
incremental output and the incremental
input. While defining the sensitivity, we
assume that the input-output characteristic
of the instrument is approximately linear in
that range.

 . Range:
The range of the sensor is the maximum and minimum values of applied
parameters that can be measured.

 3. Precision:
 The concept of precision refers to the degree of reproducibility of a
measurement. In other words, if exactly the same value were measured a
number of times, an ideal sensor would output exactly the same value every
time. But real sensors output a range of values distributed in some manner
relative to the actual correct value.

 4. Resolution:
 The smallest difference between the measurand values that can be able to
discriminated with the original one.
 For example, it corresponds to the last stable figure on a digital display. This
specification is the smallest detectable incremental change of the input
parameter that can be detected in the output signal. Resolution can be
expressed either as a proportion of the reading (or the full-scale reading) or in
absolute terms.
Static characteristics:
 i) Accuracy:
 It is the closeness with which an instrument reading
approaches the true value of the quantity being
measured. Thus accuracy of a measurement means
conformity to truth. It is the important static
characteristic of electrical measuring instruments.
 Accuracy can be specified in terms of inaccuracy or
limits of errors and can be expressed in the following
ways:
 ii. Point accuracy:
 This is the accuracy of the instrument only at one point
on its scale. The specification of this accuracy does not
give any information about the accuracy at other
points on the scale.
 iv) Stability:
 Stability means the ability of the measuring system to maintain a
standard of performance over prolonged periods of time. Zero
stability defines the ability of an instrument restore to zero
reading after the input quantity has been brought to zero, while
other conditions remain the same.
 v) Resolution:
 If the input to an instrument increases slowly from some arbitrary
non-zero value, it will be observed that the output of the
instrument does not change at all until there is a certain
minimum increment in the input. This minimum increment in
what is input is called resolution of the instrument. Thus, the
resolution is defined as the smallest incremental of the input
quantity to which the measuring system responds. This is the
third most important static characteristic of electrical measuring
instruments.
 vi) Threshold:
 If the instrument input is increased very gradually
from zero there will be some minimum value below which
no output change can be detected. This minimum value
defines the threshold of the instrument. In specifying
threshold, the first detectable output change is often
described as being any noticeable measurable change.
 vii) Drift:
 It is a slow variation in the output signal of a
transducer or measuring system which is not due to any
change in the input quantity. It is primarily due to
changes in operating conditions of the variation of the
different types of the components which is inside the
measuring system.
viii) Repeatability:
 It is the characteristic of precision
electrical measuring instruments. It
describes the closeness of the output
readings when the same input is applied
repeatability over a short period of time,
with the same measurement conditions,
same instrument and the observer, same
location and the same conditions to be
maintained throughout the experiment.
Reproducibility:
 It is the closeness with which the
same value of the input quantity is
measured at different times and under
different conditions of usage of the
instrument and by different instruments.
The output signals and indications are
checked for consistency over prolonged
periods and at different locations. Perfect
reproducibility ensures interchangeability of
instruments and transducers.
Dead Zone:
 It is the largest change of input
quantity for which there is no output of the
instrument. For instance, the input applied
to the instrument may not be sufficient to
overcome the friction.
 It is due to static friction (stiction),
backlash or hysteresis. Dead zone is also
known as dead band dead Space. All elastic
mechanical elements used as primary
transducers exhibit effects of hysteresis,
creep and elastic after- effect to some
extent.
 xi) Backlash:
 The maximum distance or angle through which any part
of the mechanical system may moved into one direction without
applying appreciable force or motion to the next part in a
mechanical sequence.
 xii) Hysteresis:
 Hysteresis is a phenomenon which depicts different output
effects when loading and unloading whether it is a mechanical
system or any electrical system or any other system. Hysteresis
is the difference in the readings of an instrument, which fixed
value of the input signal, which depends on whether that input
value is approached from increasing or decreasing values of
input. That is upscale and down scale deflections do not coincide
when the measurement is made of the same value by the
method of symmetry. The non-coincidence between the loading
and unloading curves is known as hysteresis.
 xv) Bias:
 Bias describes a constant error which exits over the full
range of measurement of an instrument. The error is
normally removable by calibration.
 xvi) Tolerance:
 It is a term which is closely related to accuracy
and defines the maximum error which is to be expected in
some value. While it is not, strictly speaking, a static
characteristic of measuring instruments, it is mentioned
here because the accuracy of some instruments, is
sometimes quoted as a tolerance figure. Tolerance, when
used correctly, describe the maximum deviation of a
manufactured component from some specified value.
Electric circuit components such as resistors have
tolerances of perhaps 5%.
Dynamic characteristics:

 1. Dynamic error:
 It is the difference of true value of the quantity changing with the time the value
indicated by the instrument provided static error is zero. Total dynamic error is the
phase difference between input and output of the measurement system.
 2. Fidelity:
 It is the ability of the system to reproduce the output in the same form as the input.
In the definition of fidelity any time lag or phase difference is not included. Ideally a
system should have 100% fidelity and the output should appear in the same form as
the input and there is no distortion produced by the system. Fidelity needs are
different for different applications.
 3. Bandwidth:
 The range of frequencies for the dynamic sensitivity is satisfactory. For measuring
systems, the dynamic sensitivity is required to be within 2% of its statics
sensitivity. For other physical systems, electrical filters electronic amplifiers, the
above criterion is relaxed with the result that their bandwidth specification extend to
frequencies at which the dynamic sensitivity is 70.7 % of that at zero or the mid-
frequency.
 4. Speed of response:
 It refers to its ability to respond to sudden changes of amplitude of input signal. It is
usually specified as the time taken by the system to come close to steady state
conditions, for a step input function. Hence the speed of response
 5. Time constant:
 It is associated with the behavior of a first order system and is defined as the time
taken by the system to reach 0.632 times its final output signal amplitude. System
having small time constant attains its final output amplitude earlier than the one
with larger time constant and therefore, has higher speed of response.
 6. Measurement lag:
 This lag is usually small but quite significant where high-speed
measurements. Measurement lag is of two types. In retardation type, the response
of the instrument begins immediately after a change in the measurand has
occurred. In time delay type, the response of the system begins after a delay time
after application of the input.
 7. Settling time:
 It is the time required by the instrument or measurement system to settle
down to its final steady state position after the application of the input. For
portable instruments, it is the time taken by the pointer to come to rest within -
0.3% to +0.3% of its final scale length while for panel type instruments, it is the
time taken by the pointer to come to rest within -1 to +1% of its f.s.d. Smaller
settling time indicates the highest speed of response. Settling time is also
dependent on the system parameters and varies with the conditions under which
the system operates. This is also the important dynamic characteristics of
electrical measuring instruments.
Errors in Measurement

Sources of Errors
In the process of measurement, the errors
are bound to occur. If the sources of errors
are known, then the efforts can be made to
reduce the errors and partly to eliminate
them. The various possible sources of
errors are,
1. Faulty design of the instrument which
directly leads to the serious measurement
errors.
2. Due to insufficient knowledge of the
quantity to be measured and design
conditions can cause errors
Classification of Errors:
The static error is defined earlier as the
difference between the true value of the
variable and the value indicated by the
instrument. The static error may arise due
to number of reasons.
The static errors are classified as:
1. Gross errors
2. Systematic errors
3. Random errors
 Gross errors:
 The gross errors mainly occur due to carelessness or lack of
experience of a human being in reading, recording and calculating
results. These errors also occur due to incorrect adjustments of
instruments. These errors cannot be treated mathematically.
These errors are also called personal errors. Some gross errors
are easily detected while others are very difficult to detect.
 Example:
 For example – The experimenter reads the 31.5ºC reading while
the actual reading is 21.5Cº. This happens because of the
oversights. The experimenter takes the wrong reading and
because of which the error occurs in the measurement. Such type
of error is very common in the measurement. The complete
elimination of such type of error is not possible. Some of the gross
errors easily detected by the experimenter but some of them are
difficult to find.
 Systematic errors:
 The systematic errors are mainly resulting due to the
shortcomings of the instrument and the
characteristics of the material used in the instrument,
such as defective or worn parts, ageing effects,
environmental effects, etc.
 A constant uniform deviation of the operation of an
instrument is known as a systematic error.

 There are three types of systematic errors as
 Instrumental errors
 Environmental errors
 Observational errors
Environmental Errors
These errors are due to the external
condition of the measuring devices. Such
types of errors mainly occur due to the
effect of temperature, pressure, humidity,
dust, vibration or because of the magnetic
or electrostatic field. The corrective
measures employed to eliminate or to
reduce these undesirable effects are
The arrangement should be made to keep
the conditions as constant as possible.
Using the equipment which is free from
these effects.
 Observational Errors
 Such types of errors are due to the wrong observation of the
reading. There are many sources of observational error. For
example, the pointer of a voltmeter resets slightly above the
surface of the scale. Thus an error occurs (because of
parallax) unless the line of vision of the observer is exactly
above the pointer. To minimize the parallax error highly
accurate meters are provided with mirrored scales.

 1.5.7 Random errors:
 The error which is caused by the sudden change in the
atmospheric condition, such type of error is called random
error. These types of error remain even after the removal of
the systematic error. Hence such type of error is also called
residual error.
Error Analysis:
The most important static characteristics of
an instrument is its accuracy, which is
generally expressed in terms of the error
called static error.
Mathematically it can be expressed as, e =
At – Am. J
Where e = error
 Am = Measured Value of
Quantity
 At = true value of the Quantity
 Errors in Measurements:
 Measurements done in a laboratory or at some other place always
involve errors. No measurement is free from error. If the precision of the
equipment is adequate, no matter what its accuracy is, a discrepancy will
always be observed between two measured results. ·

 1.True Value
 The true value of quantity to be measured may be defined as the
average of an infinite number of measured values when the average
deviation due to the various contributing factors tends to zero. ·Such an
ideal situation is impossible to realize in practice and hence it is not
possible to determine the true Value of a quantity by experimental
means. The reason for this is that the positive deviations from the true
value do not equal the negative deviations and hence do not cancel each
other. Thus, normally an experimenter would never know that the value
or quantity being measured by experimental means is the True value of
the quantity or not.

Static Correction
It is the difference between the true value
and the measured value of the quantity, or
C=At-Am

 Where C= static
correction = -

 Standard :
 All the instruments are calibrated at the time of
manufacturer against measurement standards.
 A standard of measurement is a physical representation of
a unit of measurement.
 A standard means known accurate measure of physical
quantity.

 The different size of standards of measurement are
classified as
 i) International standards
 ii) Primary standards
 iii) Secondary standards iv) Working standards
