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Applied Physics R20 - Unit-5 (Ref-3)

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UNIT-5
SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS

Introduction:

On the basis of conduction mechanism solids are classified in to three categories.

Conductors, semiconductors and insulators. In conductors’ large no. of free electrons are available which
use ful for more electrical conduction mechanism. These materials have very low resistivity and very high
conductivity. In insulators no free electrons are available, hence there are not useful for the electrical
conduction mechanism. These materials have very high resistivity and almost zero conductivity.

The semiconductors have intermediate properties of conductors and insulators. These

materials behave as insulators at low temperatures and as conductors at high temaprature.more over these
materials have two types of charge carriers.i.e, electrons and holes. The inversion of semiconductors open
a new branch of technology “electronics” this leads to the development of ICs, microprocessors,
computers and supercomputers. These materials play a vital role in all most all advanced electronic
devices.

Semiconductors are divided into two types.

1. Intrinsic semiconductors.

2. Extrinsic semiconductors.

INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

Intrinsic semiconductors are those in which impurities are not present and are
therefore called pure semiconductors. In these semiconductors few crystal defects may be present Fermi
level exists exactly at mid way of the energy gap. When a semiconductor is at 0 k.then it behaves as an
insulator and conduction occurs at high temparatures.due to thermal excitation of electrons from the
valence band to the conduction band.

Ex:-germanium, silicon etc.

In order to get in sight view of an intrinsic semiconductor, let us consider silicon, which has four
valence electrons. In order to gain stability it has to make four covalent bonds with four other silicon
atoms as shown in fig.

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In electrons which are participating in the covalent bonds are known as valance electrons.
If some energy is supplied then covalent bonds break electrons will come out and move freely
resulting in the formation of covalent sites in the covalent bond these are known as +ve charge
carrier named as hole.
The electrons which come out of the valence band move freely without any constraints and have
more energy then the electrons in the covalent bonds or valence bond.
The no. of conduction electrons will be equal to the number of vacant sites or hole in the valence
band.
The no. of holes in the valence band is equal to the no. of electrons in the conduction band. So the
Fermi energy level lays mid way in the forbidden gap.

EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

In intrinsic (or) pure semiconductors the carrier concentration of both electrons and holes
at normal temperatures is very low, hence to get appreciable current density through the semiconductors,
a large electric field should be applied this problem can overcome by adding suitable impurities into the
intrinsic semiconductors.

The extrinsic semiconductors are those in which impurities can be either III group
elements (or) V group elements. Based on the impurities present in the extrinsic semiconductors. They are
classified into two categories.

1. N-type semiconductor.

2. P-type semiconductor.

N-Type Semiconductor:

When a pentavalent impurities (or) V group element are doped into a intrinsic
semiconductor then four valance electrons of impurities atom make four covalent bond with four intrinsic
atoms and fifth electrons is left free as shown in fig.

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This electrons is free to move anywhere in the crystal and is known as conduction electron which is
donated by pentavalent impurity. In this way how many donor impurities are doped into an intrinsic
semiconductor that many electrons are donated to the conduction band.

The no. of electrons is more than the number of hole in N-type semiconductor. Hence electrons are
majority charge carriers where as holes are the minority charge carriers. So Fermi energy level shift
towards conduction band.

P-Type Semiconductor:

When a trivalent impurities (or) III group element are doped into a intrinsic
semiconductor then three valance electrons of impurities atom make three covalent bond with three
intrinsic atoms and in the fourth bond one position is vacant. It means a trivalent impurity is donating a
hole to valence of the intrinsic semiconductor (or) accepting an electron from valence band of the intrinsic
semiconductor then trivalent impurity is known as acceptor. Impurity in this way how many acceptor
impurities are doped into an intrinsic semiconductor that may holes are donated to a valence band.

The no. Of holes is more than the no. of electrons in p-type semiconductors. Hence holes are the majority
charge carriers and electrons are the minority charge carriers. So the Fermi energy level shifts towards
valance band.

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DISTINGUISH BETWEEN INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

1. It is pure semi-conducting material and no 1. It is prepared by doping a small quantity of

impurity atoms are added to it. impurity atoms to the pure semi-conducting
material.

2. Examples: crystalline forms of pure silicon and 2.Examples: silicon “Si” and germanium “Ge”
germanium. crystals with impurity atoms of As, Sb, P etc. or In
B, A etc.

3. The number of free electrons in the conduction 3. The number of free electrons and holes is never
band and the no. of holes in valence band is exactly equal. There is excess of electrons in n-type semi-
equal and very small indeed. conductors and excess of holes in p-type semi-
conductors.
4. Its electrical conductivity is low. 4. Its electrical conductivity is high.
5. Its electrical conductivity is a function of 5. Its electrical conductivity depends upon the
temperature alone. temperature as well as on the quantity of impurity
atoms doped the structure.

DISTINGUISH BETWEEN N-TYPE AND P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS

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CARRIER CONCENTRATION IN INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

Let dn be the number of electrons available between energy interval E and E + dE in the conduction band
dn = Z ( E ) F ( E )dE ------------------------ (1)
Where Z ( E )dE = density of states in the energy interval E and E + dE and F(E)=probability of an
electron occurring in an energy state E.
3 1
4π 2
But we know that Z ( E ) dE = 3
(2 me ) 2
E f dE
h
Since E starts from the bottom of the conduction band Ec
3 1
4π
Z ( E )dE = (2 me ) 2
( E − E c ) 2
dE ----------------------------- (2)
h3
Probability of an electron occupying an energy state E is given by
1
F (E) =
E − Ef
1 + exp( )
KT
E − Ef
For all temperatures E − E f >> KT then exp( ) >> 1
KT
1 Ef − E
∴ F (E) = = exp( ) -------- (3)
E − Ef KT
exp( )
KT
From (1),(2) and (3)

∞ 3 1 E f −E
4π ( )
n = dn = (2 me ) 2
( E − Ec ) 2
e KT
dE
Ec
h3
3 ∞ 1 E f − Ec Ec − E
4π ( ) ( )
= 3
(2 me ) 2
( E − Ec ) 2
e KT
e KT
dE
h Ec
E f − Ec
Put KT
=x E f − Ec = KTx
1 1 1
dE = KTdx and ( E − Ec ) 2 = x 2 ( KT ) 2
3 1 ∞ 1
4π
n = 3 (2me ) 2 x 2 ( KT ) 2 e − x dx
h 0
3 E f − Ec ∞ 1
4π ( )
∴n = 3
(2 me KT ) 2
e KT
x 2 e − x dx
h 0
Using gamma function it can be shown that
3 E f − Ec
4π ( ) π
∴ n = 3 (2me KT ) 2 e KT
h 2
E f − Ec
2π me KT 32 ( )
i.e. n = 2( ) e KT
h2

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CALCULATION OF DENSITY OF HOLES:

Let dP be the number of holes in the energy interval E and E+dE in the valence band
dP = Z ( E )(1 − F ( E ))dE
We know that
3 1
4π
Z ( E )dE = (2 mh ) 2
( Ev − E ) 2
dE
h3
E−Ef E−Ef E−E f
1 ( ) ( ) ( )
1 − F (E) = 1 − E−Ef
= 1 − (1 + e KT
) −1 = 1 − (1 − e KT
)=e KT
( )
1+ e KT

Therefore the number of holes in the valence band per unit volume is given by
Ev 3 1 E −E f
4π ( )
p = dp = 3
(2 mh ) 2
( Ev − E ) 2
e KT
dE
−∞
h
3 v E 1 E −E f
4π ( )
p = 3 (2mh ) ( Ev − E ) 2 e
2 KT
dE
h −∞

3 vE 1 E −E
4π ( ) (
f
)
p= 3
(2 mh ) 2
( E v − E ) 2
e KT
e KT
dE
h −∞

3 −E E 1 E
4π (
f
)
v
( )
p= 3
(2 mh ) 2
e KT
( Ev − E ) 2
e KT
dE
h −∞

Ev − E
Let =x Ev − E = xKT
KT
i.e. dE = − KTdx
Ev E E E
− =x = v −x
KT KT KT KT
3 1 −E 0 1 E
4π (
f
) 2 ( v )
∴ p = − 3 (2mh ) e
2 KT
x 2 ( KT ) e KT e − x dx
h ∞

3 Ev − E f 3 ∞ 1
4π ( ) 2
2 −x
∴ p = 3 (2 mh ) 2 e KT
( KT ) x e dx
h 0

3 Ev − E f ∞ 1
4π ( )
∴p= 3
(2 mh KT ) 2
e KT
x 2 e − x dx
h 0

3 Ev − E f
4π ( ) π
p= 3
(2 mh KT ) 2
e KT
h 2

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3 Ev − E f
2π ( )
p = 2( 3
mh KT ) 2
e KT
h

Since n = p = ni
3 −E
2π KT 3 (
g
)
ni2 = np = 4( 2
) ( m m
h e ) 2
e KT
h
−E
2π KT 32 3
(
g
)
ni = 2( 2
) ( m m
h e ) 4
e 2 KT
h
Show that in an intrinsic semiconductor Fermi level is at middle of valance band and conduction
band:
In an intrinsic semiconductor
n= p
E f − Ec Ev − E f
2π me KT 32 ( ) 2π 3
( )
2( ) e KT
= 2( 2 mh KT ) 2 e KT
h2 h
3 E f − Ec Ev − E f
2π KT 32 ( ) 2π 3 3
( )
2
m e( 2 ) e KT
= m h ( 2 mh KT ) 2 e
2 KT
h h
2 E f − Ev − Ec
m 3 E − Ec − Ev + E f = exp( )
( h ) 2 = exp( f ) KT
me KT

Taking logarithm on both sides we get

3 m 2 E f − Ev − Ec
log h =
2 me KT
3 m
2 E f = Ev + Ec + KT log h
2 me
Ev + Ec 3 m
i.e.E f = + KT log h
2 4 me

But mh = me

Ev + Ec
Ef =
2
i.e. Fermi level is located half way between valance band and conduction band and the position is
independent of temperature.

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CONDUCTIVITY IN INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS:

Since n = p = ni
3 −E
2 2π KT 3 (
g
)
n = np = 4( 2 ) (mh me ) e
i
2 KT
h
−E
2π KT 32 3
(
g
)
ni = 2( 2 ) (mh me ) e
4 2 KT
h
Where E g is the energy gap and it is equal to E g = Ec − Ev

Therefore electrical conductivity σ = neµe + peµh = ni e( µe + µh )

− Eg
( )
σ = Ae 2 KT
And as T increases σ increases.

CARRIERCONCENTRATON IN N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS.

The energy level diagram of an N-type semiconductor is shown in the fig. At very low
temperatures all the donor levels are filled with electrons. With increase of temperature more and more
atoms get excited and the density of electrons in the conduction band increases.
Density of electrons in the conduction band
E f − Ec
2π me KT 32 ( )
ne = 2( ) e KT
--------------- (1) but the number of vacancies per unit volume in the donor
h2
Ed − Ef Ed − Ef
1 ( ) ( )
level is given by N d (1 − F ( E ) = N d 1 − Ed − Ef
= N d 1 − (1 − e KT
) = Nd e KT
---------(2)
( )
e KT
+1

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But the number of electrons in the conduction band is equal to the number of vacancies in the
donor level.
E f − Ec Ed − Ef
2π mKT 32 ( ) ( )
2( ) e KT
= Nd e KT
h2
Taking log on both sides

2π mKT 32 E f − Ec Ed − E f
log 2( 2
) + = log N d +
h KT KT

E f − Ec − Ed + E f 2π mKT 32
= log N d − log 2( )
KT h2

Nd
2 E f − ( E c + E d ) = KT log
2π mKT 32
2( )
h2

( Ec + Ed ) KT Nd
Ef = + log ----------- (3)
2 2 2π mKT 32
2( )
h2
( Ec + Ed )
At 0K E f =
2

E f − Ec
2π me KT 32 ( )
DENSITY OF ELECTRONS IN CONDUCTION BAND: We know that n = 2( ) e KT
h2
On substituting the value of E f from equ. (3) In the above equation we get

( Ec + E d ) KT Nd
+ log 3
− Ec
2 2 2 π mKT 2
2( )
h2
2π me KT 23 ( )
n = 2( ) e KT
h2
2π m e KT 32 ( E + Ed ) 1 Nd Ec
n = 2( 2
) exp( c + log 3
− )
h 2 KT 2 2π mKT 2 2 KT
2( )
h2
2π m e KT 32 ( E − Ec ) 1 Nd
n = 2( 2
) exp( d + log 3
)
h 2 KT 2 2π mKT 2
2( )
h2

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1
2π me KT 32 ( E − Ec ) Nd 2
n = 2( ) exp( d + log 1
)
h 2
2 KT 2
2π mKT 34
2 ( )
h2
1
2π me KT 32 Nd 2 ( E − Ec )
n = 2( ) 1 3
exp d
h2 2π mKT 4 2 KT
22 ( 2
)
h
1
2π me KT 34 ( E − Ec )
n = (2 N d ) 2 ( 2
) exp d
h 2 KT

CARRIER CONCENTRATION IN P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS:

The energy level diagram of a p-type semiconductor is shown in the fig.

N a is the acceptor concentration i.e. the number of acceptor atoms per unit volume of the

material and Ea is the acceptor energy level. At very low temperatures all the acceptor levels are empty.

With increase of temperature the electrons move from valance band and occupy the vacant sites in the
acceptor energy level, thereby leaving holes in the valance band.
The density of holes in the valance band is given by
3 Ev − E f
2π ( )
p = 2( 2 mh KT ) 2 e KT
--------- (1)
h
Since E f lies below acceptor level then density of ionized acceptor is given by
E f − Ea
( )
Na F (E ) = Nae KT

Since the density of holes in the valance band is equal to the density of ionized acceptor
3 Ev − E f E f − Ea
2π ( ) ( )
i.e. 2( 2
mh KT ) 2
e KT
= Nae KT
h
Ev − E f − E f + Ea Na
exp( )= 3
KT 2π 2
2( 2
mh KT )
h

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Taking logarithm on both sides we get

Ev − E f − E f + Ea Na
= log 3
KT 2π
2( mh K T ) 2
h2
Ev + Ea KT Na
i.e. E f = − log 3
-----------------(2)
2 2 2π
2( 2 mh KT ) 2
h
Ev + Ea
At 0K E f =
2
i.e. at 0K Fermi level will be exactly at the middle of acceptor level
The density of holes in the valance band is given by
3 Ev − E f
2π ( )
p = 2( 2 mh KT ) 2 e KT
h
On substituting the value of E f from equation (2) we get
3
2π E 1 Ev + Ea KT Na
p = 2( m h K T ) 2
ex p ( v − ( − lo g 3
)
h2 KT KT 2 2 2π 2
2( 2 mh K T )
h
1
3
2π 2 Ev E + Ea N 2
p = 2 ( 2 m h K T ) 2 ex p ( − v ) a
1
)
h 2KT 2KT 3
2π 2
2
2( mh KT )
h2

1
3
2π N 2
a Ev − Ea
p = 2( mh KT ) 2
1
) exp( )
h2 3 2 KT
2π 2
2( mh KT ) 2
h2

1 3
2π E − Ea
p = (2 N a ) ( 2 mh KT ) exp( v
2 4
)
h 2 KT

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HALL EFFECT:

When a piece of conductor (metal or semiconductor) carrying a current is placed in a transverse

magnetic field, an electric field is produced inside the conductor in a direction normal to both the current
and magnetic field. This phenomenon is called Hall Effect and the generated voltage is known as Hall-
voltage.
Let B be the applied magnetic field at right angle to the direction of the current flow. If the
material is N-type and v is the velocity of the electrons then the electrons will experience a force of Bev
due to magnetic field at right angle to both the direction and B. This causes the electron current to be
deflected causing a negative charge to accumulate on one face of the slab, a PD is therefore established
across the faces (1) and (2).This field giving rise to a force eEH on electrons in the opposite directions.

At equilibrium eEH = Bev

EH = Bv
J
But J = nev v=
ne
BJ 1 EH
EH = = RH BJ where RH = =
ne ne BJ
Since all the three quantities EH ,B and J are measurable then Hall coefficient RH and carrier

density can be calculated.

1
For N-type material RH = −
ne
1
For p-type material RH =
ne
Based on this we can identify the type of charge.

Determination of hall coefficient RH

If b is the width of the sample across the Hall voltage VH is measured then

VH
EH =
b

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EH VH
Hence RH = =
BJ BJb
VH = RH BJb
If t is the thickness of the sample then its cross section is bt and current density
I
J=
bt
RH BIb
Hence VH =
t
V t
i.e. RH = H
IB
VH Will be opposite for N-and P-type semiconductors.

Applications of Hall Effect

1. The sign of charge carriers can be determined.
2. The carrier density can be estimated.
3. The mobility of charge carriers can be measured directly.
4. It can be used to determine whether the given material is a metal, an insulator or a semiconductor.
5. The magnetic field can be measured by knowing the values of Hall voltage and Hall coefficient.

Drift current or conduction current in semiconductors:

In semiconductors the electrical conductivity is due to the concentration of electrons and holes.
When an electric field is applied across the semiconductor the applied electric field causes the free
electrons to drift towards positive direction and holes to drift towards negative direction of electric field.
The total current due to holes and electrons in the presence of electric field is called drift current
or conduction current in semi conductors.
Total drift current I drift = I electrons + I holes
i.e. I drift = neµe EAI + peµ H EA = eEA(nµe + p µ H )
in case of intrinsic semiconductors n = p = ni
I drift = ni eEA( µe + µ H )
J drift = ni eE ( µe + µ H )
Therefore electrical conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor due to drifting action of electrons and
holes is given by

σ drift = ni e( µ e + µ H )

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Diffusion current in semiconductors:

The figure shows the variation of holes density with distance in semiconductors. There exists a
dp
concentration gradient
dx
Thus the motion of charge carriers from the region of higher concentration leads to a current
called diffusion current.
dp
Hole current density J pα ∞e
dx
dp
i.e. J p = −eD p
dx
dn
Electron current densityJ nα
dx
J nα e
dn
J n = eDn
dx

The total diffusion current density J diffusion = J p + J n

dp dn
i.e. J diffusion = −e( D p
+ Dn )
dx dx
Therefore current density in semiconductors J diffusion + J drift
dp dn
Ie J = e{ni E ( µ e + µ H ) − D p + Dn }
dx dx

EINSTEIN RELATION:

Semiconductor devices in general operate under non-equilibrium conditions. For example when a bar of
n-type germanium acting as a photo detecting device, is illuminated with a light of sufficient energy,
excess charge carriers are produced in the exposed region of the material. Hence the semiconductor is not
in thermal equilibrium. This leads to a diffusion current creating an internal electric field and drift current
balances the diffusion component.

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Let ∆n be the number of charge carriers increased in a particular region then

∂∆n
∆neE µe = eDn ---- (1)
∂x
The force F on excess carriers restoring equilibrium is given by
eDn ∂∆n
F = ∆neE = -------- (2)
µe ∂x
According to kinetic theory of gasses increased pressure = ∆nKT
∂∆n
i.e. Force = KT -------- (3)
∂x
from (2) and (3) we get
∂∆n eDn ∂∆n
KT =
∂x µe ∂x
eDn µ e KT
= KT Dn =
µe e
µ h KT
Similarly D p =
e

These are called Einstein Relations.

QUESTION BANK
UNIT-VII
1. a. Derive an expression for the number of electrons per unit volume in the conduction band of an N-type
semiconductor.
b Explain the effect of temperature and dopant on Fermi level in N-type semiconductor
2. a Explain Hall effect. Derive the expression for Hall coefficient of N-type semiconductor.
b Explain the applications of hall effect.
3. a what is intrinsic semiconductor? Derive an expression for electron concentration in an intrinsic
semiconductor.
b Distinguish between direct and indirect band gap semiconductors.
4. a What is intrinsic semiconductor? Derive an expression for hole concentration in an intrinsic
semiconductor
b Explain drift and diffusion currents.
5. a Derive an expression for the number of holes per unit volume in the valence band of P-type
semiconductors
b Derive Einstein relation.

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UNIT-5
SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
The sudden disappearance of electrical resistance in materials below a certain
temperature is known as superconductivity. The materials that exhibit superconductivity and
which are in superconducting state are called superconductors. The temperature at which a
normal material turns into a superconductor is
called critical temperature Tc.

Metals are good conductors of electricity as they

have plenty of free electrons. However they offer
resistance to the flow of current. Because the
scattering of conduction electrons by thermal
vibrations of atoms and the presence of impurities
or imperfections in crystal.
When temperature increases the amplitude of
lattice vibrations increases. This leads to more
scattering of electrons and to more resistance.
Fig. shows the resistance of the metal varies with temperature. Even at 0k metals offer some
resistance.

The curve B of fig. shows the behavior of a superconductor at high temperature. Its behavior is
same as that of metals. At a particular temperature called critical temperature Tc the resistance
drops suddenly to zero. The value of critical temperature differs from material to material.

PROPERTIES OF SUPERCONDUCTORS :

1. Zero Electrical Resistance:

Superconductor possesses zero electrical

resistance below the transition
temperature. Fig.a shows when the
superconductor is in normal state. When
the material is in normal state a voltage
drop is observed across its ends. When
the material is cooled below its critical temperature Tc the potential difference disappears, as
shown in fig.b

2. Effect of Temperature:

When the temperature of a superconductor is increased, the material transforms into a

normal material above the critical temperature Tc. The transition is reversible. when the
material is cooled below the Tc. It regains its resistivity and goes into the superconducting state.

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3. Effect of Magnetic Field (Hc):

Krammerlingh ones observed that superconductivity

vanishes if strong magnetic field is applied. The
minimum magnetic field to which the superconductivity
vanishes is called critical magnetic field Hc.
When the applied magnetic exceeds the
critical value Hc the superconducting state is destroyed
and the material goes into the normal state. At any
temperature T<Tc the material remains superconducting
state until a corresponding critical magnetic field is
applied.
When the magnetic field exceeds the critical value the material goes into the normal state. The
critical field required to destroy the superconducting state decreases progressively with
increasing temperature. For example a magnetic field of 0.004 Tesla will destroy the
superconductivity of mercury at T 0k where as a field of 0.02 Tesla is sufficient of destroy its
superconductivity at about 3k. The dependence of critical field on temperature is governed by
the following relation.

2
T
Hc (T) = Hc (0) 1 ---------- (1)
Tc

Where Hc(0) is critical magnetic field at 0k

4. Critical Current

An electric current is always associated with a magnetic field hence when current flows in a
superconductor magnetic field induced and if the magnetic field produced by this current is equal
to critical magnetic Hc, the superconducting state disappears.
The current density at which superconductivity disappears is called the critical current density.

Ic = 2 r.Hc
Where ‘r’ is radius of the specimen, Hc is critical magnetic field.
This rule is known as silsbee’s rule.

5. Persistent current:

Once current is set up in a closed loop of superconductor it will continue to keep to flow.
Such a steady current which flows with undiminishing strength is called persistent current.
Calculations show that once the current flow is initiated it persists more than 10 5 years.
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Thermal Properties:

6. Entropy:
Entropy is the measure of disorder of a system.
In superconductors the entropy decreases below the
critical temperature. This means the superconducting
state is more ordered than the normal state.

Figuare shows the entropy versus temperature for

aluminium. For normal aluminium entropy varies
linearly with temperature. while for superconducting
aluminium, it decreases below the critical temperature.

7. Specific Heat:

The specific heat of the normal metal is of the form

Cv (T) = γT + βT3 -----------(1)

The first term in the above equation gives specific

heat of electrons in the metal and the second term
gives specific heat due to lattice vibrations at low
temperatures.

Lattice vibrations part remains unaffected in

superconducting state i.e., it has the same value βT3 in the normal and superconducting states.
The specific heat of the superconductor shows a jump at the transition temperature Tc as shown
in fig. because the superconductivity affects electrons mainly.

So electronic specific heat varies exponential manner.

Cv el(T) = A exp(-∆/KBT) ---------(2)

Where ∆ = bK BTc is called energy gap and

A and b are constants.

This exponential form is an indication of the existence of a finite gap in the energy spectrum of
electrons in superconducting state.

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ENERGY GAP:
The electrons of a Cooper pair have a lower energy
than two unpaired electrons in normal state. The
energy distribution (energy spectrum) of electrons
exhibits an energy gap, as shown in fig.b.
Cooper pairs occupy the lower state. The finite energy
2Δ must be expended to dissociate a Cooper pair. For a
superconductor at 0k, the width of the gap is
proportional to the critical temperature. Thus,
Eg = 2Δ = 2b(K BTc) = 3.52 KB Tc

ISOTOPE EFFECT ON SUPERCONDUCTIVITY:

In isotope effect the critical temperature of the superconductor varies with the isotopic
mass. The transition temperature T c is found to be proportional to the reciprocal of the square
root of their respective isotopic masses i.e.,

1
Tc α or Tc M1/2 = constant
M

MEISSNER’S EFFECT OR PERFECT DIAMAGNETISM :

Definition:”Expulsion of magnetic flux from a superconducting material when it is placed in

magnetic field is called Meissner’s Effect”.

In fig.a the sample is in its normal state and the

magnetic lines of force pass through the specimen.
If specimen is cooled below the transition
temperature Tc magnetic lines of force expelled
out of the specimen as shown in fig.b. What
happens is when the magnetic field is applied to
the superconductor this magnetic field generates
currents on the surface of the superconductor.
These surface currents generate magnetic field in
side the superconductor which is exactly opposite
to the direction of external magnetic field.
So the external magnetic field cannot penetrate through the specimen.
The effect is reversible if the temperature is increased (T>Tc) the magnetic flux suddenly
penetrate the specimen and the substance is in normal state. The magnetic induction inside the
specimen is given by
B = 0 (H + I) ---------- (1)
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Where 0 is permeability of air or free space, ‘I’ is intensity of magnetization

H is magnetic field intensity.
In superconducting state inside the material no magnetic flux is stored so B = 0 inside the
specimen.

from (1), H = -I that is the magnetization I is equal and opposite to the applied field H.
I
the medium is therefore diamagnetic and susceptibility = = -1
H
From the above condition susceptibility is negative only for diamagnetic materials. So
superconductor acts as a perfect diamagnet.

Fig.a&b show the behavior of superconductor in magnetic field.

Fig.c&d show the behavior of perfect conductor in magnetic field.

When the perfect conductor is cooled in presence of the external magnetic field, some part of
magnetic field is frozen inside the material.
The difference between a superconductor and a perfect conductor is that the perfect conductor is
only an ideal conductor while superconductor is both an ideal conductor and ideal diamagnet.

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LONDON PENETRATION DEPTH:

When the magnetic field is applied to the superconductor, the

magnetic field enters at the surface of the superconductor and
decreases exponentially as shown in figure.
Due to the existence of surface currents the magnetic field
penetrates some distance in to superconductor and decaying
exponentially to zero over length ‘ ’. The length is called
London penetration depth.
It may be defined as the effective depth to which a magnetic
field penetrates a superconductor. The decrease of magnetic field penetration is given by London
equation proposed by F.London and H.London in 1935

x
H(x) = H (0) e

Where H(0) is field on the surface at x = 0

is order of 103 to 104 A0 . It is independent of frequency of the magnetic field but it strongly
depends on temperature, is given by
2
T 1
= 4
0 T
1
Tc
Where T and 0 are penetration depths at T and 0k.

TYPE I & TYPE II SUPERCONDUCTORS:-

Based on the magnetic behavior superconductors a re classified into two categories

namely soft or type I, hard or type II superconductors.

Type I or Soft: They exhibit complete Meissener effect. This is

they are completely diamagnetic.
In type I transition from superconducting to normal state
proceeds when the applied magnetic field exceeds Hc. Let us
consider a cylindrical specimen with its axis coinciding with
the direction of magnetic field. In type I materials as Hc is
reached the entire specimen enters the normal state as a result

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resistivity returns and the superconductor is no longer diamagnetic.

Al, lead, indium are the examples for type I superconductors. The critical field relatively low for
type I superconductors. The critical field relatively low for type I superconductors. They would
generate fields of about 0.01 tesla to 0.2 tesla.
Type II or Hard: In type II superconductors the transition to a completely normal state occurs
gradually. For applied field below Hc1 the material is
diamagnetic and hence field is completely repelled,
Hc1 is called lower critical field. At Hc1 the flux
begins to penetrate the specimen and penetration
increases until Hc2 is reached. At Hc2 the
magnetization vanishes and the specimen becomes
normal. Hc2 is called upper critical field. Thus the
magnetization of type II superconductor vanishes
gradually as the field is increased but in type I
magnetization vanishes suddenly.
In type II superconductor due to arising of super currents, the magnetic field can flow not
only over the surface of a conductor but also in its bulk. Between Hc1 and Hc2 the state of the
material is called mixed state or vortex state. In this state even though the material has zero
resistance, flux penetration takes place via normal filaments of the material.(normal filaments
mean magnetic field is wrapped around the +ve ions of the material.) As the field strength
increased these normal filaments no. increases. At H=Hc2 these normal filaments spread over the
entire body and the whole material changes over to the normal state.
Niobium, silicon, vanadium are the examples for type II.

BCS THEORY OF SUPERCONDUCTIVITY:

The fruitful approach to a microscopic theory of superconductivity has been given by

Bardeen, cooper, Schrieffer in 1957. The basic information behind
the BCS theory is isotopic effect and specific heat of superconductor.
Suppose an electron with wave vector K1 approaches a positive ion
core, it suffers attractive coulomb interaction. Due to this attraction ion
core is set into vibration and consequently distorts the lattice. This

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distortion in the lattice then travels away as mechanical wave called phonon q. In this process
electron 1 looses its momentum to lattice. So momentum of first electron decreases. Another
electron with wave vector K2 absorbs energy from the phonon and gains momentum. Thus two
electrons interact via the mechanical wave phonon and these two electrons pair up by means of
phonon called cooper pair.
This interaction is called electron-lattice-electron interaction. This interaction is strongest when
the two electrons have equal land opposite momenta and spins. As a result of interaction, we
have two electrons with wave vectors K1 -q and k2 +q shown in fig.
Explanation for superconductivity: when current flows in a normal conductor total linear
momentum of free electrons is transferred to the lattice via electron –ion collisions.
The electrical resistivity of superconductor is zero because cooper pairs loose no energy to the
lattice due to no collisions between the cooper pair and lattice. All cooper pairs move with
identical velocity in superconducting state.
When energy is supplied to the superconductor these cooper pairs gain enough energy and break
up. So material offer resistivity as the temperature increases.
BCS theory gives two important results, namely existence of energy gap and flux quantization.

FLUX QUANTIZATION :
Superconductor in the form a ring is placed in the magnetic field, the magnetic flux that passes
through the ring is the sum of the flux from the applied field and the flux from the
superconducting currents which flow in the ring. However the total flux is quantized.
Flux enclosed by a superconducting ring ∅ is given by
h
∅= n n = 1, 2, 3…
2e
or ∅ = n∅0
h
where ∅0 = is called fluxon. Its value is ∅0 = 2.07x10-15 weber
2e
Here ‘2e’ is charge of an electron pair. It confirms that the
existence of electron pair in superconductor.

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JOSEPHSON EFFECT :

Consider a sandwich arrangement consisting of two superconducting metal films separated by a

thin oxide layer of 10-20A0 thick. This arrangement is known as Josephson’s junction.
D.C.Josephson effect:

When no external voltage is applied to the sandwich arrangement, a direct current flows through
the superconductor Josephson junction and the potential difference at its ends is zero. That is
voltmeter shows no voltage drop. This is known as D.C.Josephson effect. This is due to
tunneling of cooper pairs from one film of the superconductor into the other through the narrow
insulator.
The current through the junction is given by
I = Icsin -------- (1)
Where is the phase difference between the wave functions describing cooper pairs on both
sides of barrier.
Ic is the critical current which the junction can support, it depends on the thickness and width of
the insulation layer. It is usually very small.

A.C.Josephson effect:

When I exceed Ic, large currents through the junction give rise to a potential difference V
between the superconducting films. And an electromagnetic radiation appears across the
junction. In this case the energies of cooper pairs on both sides of the barrier differ by 2eV. It
causes a frequency difference υ = E/h = 2eV/h and phase difference between the two waves is

2eV
= 2πνt = 2πt ---------- (2)
h

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4 eVt
From (1) and (2) I = Ic sin ---------- (3)
h

This current is alternating current. Thus when a d.c. voltage exists across a Josephson junction,
an A.C.current is produced. This is known as A.C.Josephson effect.

At V=1µv, a.c current 483.6 MHz is produced.

Applications of Josephson Effect:

2eV
1. Josephson effect is used to generate microwave radiation with frequency =

2. A.C Josephson effect is used to define standard Volt.
3. A.C Josephson effect is also used to measure very low temperature based on the variation of
frequency of the emitted radiation with temperature.
4. A.C Josephson effect is used for switching of signal from one circuit to other. The
switching time is the order of 1ps and hence very useful in high speed computers.

APPLICATIONS OF SUPERCONDUCTIVITY:

1. Transmission losses can be reduced: when the power is transmitted through the ordinary
cables, 1/5 th of the power generated is lost due I2 R losses.
When superconductors are used as cables, losses are avoided and electrical power transmission
can be done at low voltage level.
2. Size of the machines can be reduced: superconducting coils in transformers and electrical
machines generate much stronger magnetic fields than magnetic circuits of ferromagnetic
materials. Therefore the size of motors and generators will be drastically red uced.

3. High efficiency & low cost : high magnetic fields are required in many areas of research and
diagnostic equipments in medicine. The electromagnets are very big size, demand large electrical
power and require continuous cooling.
Superconducting solenoids produce very strong magnetic fields. They are small in size and does
not need power and less expensive.

4. Magnetic levitation: maglev coaches do not slide over steel rails but float on a four inch air
cushion over a strongly magnetized track. Superconducting coils produce the magnetic repulsion
in order to leviate the coaches. Because of no friction between rails and wheels more speed can
be easily achieved.

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5. In switching circuits: the transistor based switches can be operated at speeds of nano seconds.
In contrast logic elements based on Josephson junction can operate at a speed of a few pico
seconds.

6. SQUIDS: several medical diagnostic equipments are now employing SQUIDS:

Superconducting Quantum Interference Devices which detect very minute changes in the
magnetic field of human body.

7. Cryotron as switch:

The cryotron is a switch that

operates using superconductivity.
The cryotron works on the
principle that magnetic fields
destroy superconductivity. This
simple device consists of two
superconducting wires (e.g.
tantalum and niobium) with
different critical temperature (Tc). A straight wire of tantalum (having lower Tc) is wrapped
around with a wire of niobium in a single layer coil. Both wires are electrically isolated from
each other.
When this device is immersed in a liquid helium bath both wires become
superconducting and hence offer no resistance to the passage of electric current. Tantalum in
superconducting state can carry large amount of current as compare to its normal state. Now
when current is passed through the niobium coil (wrapped around tantalum) it produces a
magnetic field, when this magnetic field reaches critical value, it kills the superconductivity of
the tantalum wire and hence reduces the amount of the current that c an flow through the tantalum
wire. Hence one can control the amount of the current that can flow in the straight wire with the
help of small current in the coiled wire. We can think tantalum straight wire as a "Gate" and
coiled niobium as a "control".

P.SRINIVASARAO

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