1.

Introduction to Stones and Rocks

• Definition and classification of rocks
• Uses of stones in construction
2. Classification of Rocks
A. Geological Classification
o Igneous Rocks, Sedimentary Rocks, Metamorphic Rocks
B. Physical Classification
o Stratified, Unstratified, Foliated
C. Chemical Classification
o Siliceous Rocks, Argillaceous Rocks, Calcareous Rocks
3. Quarrying and Dressing of Stones
• Methods of quarrying
• Tools used in quarrying
• Explosives used in the quarrying
• Seasoning of Stone
• Dressing of Stone
• Types of stone dressing
4. Properties of Good Building Stones
• Strength
• Durability
• Hardness
• Porosity and Absorption
• Resistance to Fire
• Specific Gravity
• Texture and Structure
5. Common Building Stones and Their Uses
• Granite
• Basalt
• Limestone
• Sandstone
• Marble
• Slate
• Laterite
 • Gneiss
6. Testing of Stones
• Crushing Strength Test
• Water Absorption Test
• Hardness Test
• Impact Test
• Acid Test
7. Artificial Stones
• Types of artificial stones
• Manufacturing process
• Applications
1. Introduction to Stones and Rocks
Definition of Rocks and Stones
• Rocks: Rocks are naturally occurring solid aggregates of minerals found in the Earth's crust.
They form the basic foundation of the Earth's surface and serve as a primary source for
construction materials.
• Stones: Stones are small, naturally occurring pieces of rock, generally used in construction.
When rocks are quarried and processed, they are termed stones.

Uses of Stones in Construction

Stones have been widely used in construction due to their strength, durability, and availability.
Some common uses include:

• Foundation Material: Strong and durable stones like Granite and Basalt are used in
building foundations.
• Wall Construction: Sandstone, Limestone, and Laterite are used for constructing walls.
• Pavements and Roads: Hard stones like Granite and Basalt are used for road construction.
• Roofing and Flooring: Slate is used for roofing, while Marble and Quartzite are used for
flooring.
• Monuments and Decorative Works: Marble is extensively used in sculptures and
monuments.
• Dams and Bridges: Strong stones like Gneiss and Granite are used in heavy structures.

2. Classification of Rocks
Rocks are classified based on their origin, structure, and composition. The three main classifications
are:
A. Geological Classification (Based on origin)
B. Physical Classification (Based on structure)
C. Chemical Classification (Based on composition)
A. Geological Classification of Rocks
1. Igneous Rocks /Primary Rocks/unstratified or eruptive rocks are of volcanic origin
• Formation: These rocks are formed by the cooling and solidification of molten magma or
lava from volcanoes.
• Properties:
o Hard and durable
o Crystalline structure
o Non-porous and resistant to weathering
• Uses: Used in construction of foundations, bridges, roads, and monuments.
 • Types of Igneous Rocks: based on the place of solidification of molten magma
o Intrusive Plutonic Igneous Rocks – if magma solidifies below the earth surface, the
solid crystalline rock termed as deep-seated plutonic rock

Rock Type Composition Properties Uses

Used in buildings,
Quartz, Feldspar, Hard, durable,
Granite bridges, monuments,
Mica weather-resistant
flooring, countertops
Used in roads, building
Plagioclase Feldspar, Medium hardness,
Diorite construction, and
Amphibole coarse-grained
decorative stones
Dark-coloured, Used in railway ballast,
Pyroxene, Olivine,
Gabbro heavy, coarse- road construction, and
Calcium Feldspar
grained countertops
Extremely coarse-
Large Quartz and Used in ceramic and
Pegmatite grained, contains
Feldspar crystals gemstone production
rare minerals
Light-coloured,
Feldspar, Minor similar to granite Used in construction
Syenite
Quartz but with less and decorative purposes
quartz
Peridotite Rich in Olivine and Dense, greenish in Used as a source of
Pyroxene colour, high nickel, chromium, and
magnesium and platinum
iron content
o Intrusive Hypabyssal igneous rocks
formed at intermediate depths (between plutonic and volcanic rocks), typically at shallow depths
within the Earth's crust.They cool faster than plutonic (intrusive) rocks but slower than
volcanic (extrusive) rocks, resulting in medium-sized crystals.
Rock Type Composition Properties Uses
Hard,
Used in flooring,
Fine-grained durable,
Microgranite monuments, and
Quartz, Feldspar resistant to
road construction
weathering
Used in decorative
Quartz, Feldspar, Hard, dense,
Felsite stone and
Mica fine-grained
construction
Used in
Large Quartz Strong,
ornamental work
Quartz Porphyry crystals in fine decorative
and as dimension
matrix appearance
stone
Medium
Plagioclase Used in road and
hardness,
Micro diorite Feldspar, building
dark-
Amphibole construction
coloured
Used as crushed
Pyroxene, Olivine, Hard, dense, stone, in road
Dolerite (Diabase)
Plagioclase tough construction, and
for railway ballast
Used in
Large feldspar Strong, pavements,
Basaltic Porphyry crystals in basaltic weather- construction, and
matrix resistant as a decorative
stone
 o Extrusive /Volcanic/effusive Igneous Rocks – Formed on the surface of the Earth (e.g.,
Basalt, Pumice, Obsidian).
extrusive igneous rocks, are formed when molten lava erupts onto the Earth's surface and cools
rapidly. Due to fast cooling, these rocks are fine-grained or even glassy (no visible crystals).
• Cooling rate: Very fast (on the surface)
• Grain size: Fine-grained or glassy
• Location: Found in lava flows, volcanic cones, and ash deposits
• Texture: Aphanitic (fine-grained) or vesicular (contains gas bubbles)
Rock Type Composition Properties Uses
Used in road
Hard, brittle, fine-
Rhyolite Quartz, Feldspar construction and
grained
decorative stones
Used in surgical
Obsidian Volcanic Glass Glassy, sharp edges scalpels, jewelry, and
decorative items
Used in cosmetics,
Frothy volcanic glass, Very porous,
Pumice abrasives, and
Silica lightweight
lightweight concrete
Used in road
Andesite Feldspar, Amphibole Grayish, fine-grained construction and
building stones
Used as construction
Quartz, Plagioclase
Dacite Hard, durable material and crushed
Feldspar
stone
Used in road
Pyroxene, Olivine, Dark-colored, strong, construction, railway
Basalt
Feldspar dense ballast, and concrete
aggregate
Used in landscaping
Porous, reddish or
Scoria Vesicular Basalt and drainage
black
applications
Classification of Igneous Rocks Based on Silica (SiO₂) Content
Type Silica Content (%) Example Rocks Characteristics
Felsic (Acidic) Rocks >65% Granite, Rhyolite, Light-coloured, high
Obsidian, Pumice viscosity magma, rich
in quartz and feldspar
Intermediate Rocks 52%–65% Diorite, Andesite, Medium-coloured
Dacite (Gray), moderate
silica, mix of felsic
and mafic minerals
Mafic (Basic) Rocks 45%–52% Gabbro, Basalt, Dark-coloured, low
Dolerite silica, high in
pyroxene and olivine,
high density
Ultramafic Rocks <45% Peridotite, Dunite, Very dark-coloured,
Komatiite very low silica, rich in
olivine, very dense
Igneous rocks are classified based on their silica (SiO₂) content, as silica significantly influences
their mineral composition, colour, density, and viscosity of magma. The classification is as
Notes: Pumice
• Forms when magma cools rapidly, causing expansion due to trapped gases.
• Rapid cooling results in a glassy, porous structure.
• Uses:
o Lightweight concrete aggregate
o Heat insulation material
o Active mineral admixture in lime and cements
Volcanic Tuff
• Forms when volcanic ashes and sands mix with molten lava and solidify.
• Cemented tuff lava is called volcanic tuff.
• Due to rapid cooling, it has a glassy structure.
• Uses:
o Lightweight concrete and mortar aggregate
o Active admixture in air-setting lime or cement
MAGMA; The principal constituents of magma are quartz, mica and felspar. The texture of the rock is greatly
influenced by the rate of cooling of the magma.
2. Sedimentary Rocks (Secondary Rocks) are also known as aqueous or stratified rocks.
The various weathering agencies break up the surface of earth, Rain water carries down these broken pieces to the
rivers. Due to the seasonal variation, sedimentation takes place in layers. With time, the sediments get
consolidated in horizontal beds due to the pressure exerted by overlying material.
The properties of the sedimentary rocks vary considerably depending upon the nature of the sediment and type of
bond between the sediment and grains.
Well stratified and show well defined bedding planes
soft and can be easily split up along the bedding as well as normal planes.
Classification of Sedimentary Rocks
1. Chemical Deposits (Evaporites)
• Formed by the precipitation of salts when water evaporates in drying basins.
• Examples:
o Gypsum – Used in cement, plaster, and drywall.
o Anhydrite – Used in fertilizers and industrial applications.
o Magnesite – Used in refractory materials and as a source of magnesium.
o Dolomite – Used in construction and as an ornamental stone.
o Lime Tufas – Formed by lime deposits in water bodies, used in decoration.
2. Organogenous (Organic) Rocks
• Formed by the accumulation of plant or animal remains over time.
• Examples:
o Limestone – Used in cement, construction, and lime production.
o Shale – Used in bricks, tiles, and as a source of oil and gas.
o Chalk – Used in blackboard chalk, cement, and as a soil conditioner.
o Diatomite – Used in filtration, insulation, and abrasives.
o Tripoli – A fine-grained silica rock used in polishing compounds.
3. Mechanical /Fragmental (Clastic) Rocks
• Formed by the breakdown (deterioration) of older magmatic or sedimentary rocks.
• Examples:
o Sandstone – Used in buildings and paving.
o Sand – Used in concrete, glassmaking, and construction.
o Gravel – Used in road construction and drainage systems.
o Carbonate Conglomerate – A cemented mass of rock fragments, used in construction.
o Breccia – A rock with angular fragments, used in decorative stones and road base.
Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks are formed when pre-existing igneous or sedimentary rocks undergo transformation due
to heat, pressure, and chemically active fluids. This process, called metamorphism, alters the mineral
composition, texture, and structure of the original rock.
Types of Metamorphism
1. Contact Metamorphism
o Occurs due to heat from magma intruding into surrounding rocks.
o Example: Formation of marble from limestone.
2. Regional Metamorphism
o Occurs over large areas due to high pressure and temperature, often associated with mountain
formation.
o Example: Formation of schist and gneiss from shale.
3. Dynamic Metamorphism
o Occurs due to intense pressure along fault zones, crushing rocks without significant
temperature changes.
o Example: Formation of mylonite.

Classification of Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic rocks are classified based on texture and mineral composition.
1. Foliated Metamorphic Rocks
• Have a layered or banded appearance due to mineral alignment.
• Examples:
o Slate – Derived from shale, used for roofing and flooring.
o Schist – Contains visible mineral grains, used in decoration.
o Gneiss – Forms from granite, used as building stone.
2. Non-Foliated Metamorphic Rocks
• Do not have a distinct layered structure.
• Examples:
o Marble – Forms from limestone, used in sculptures and buildings.
o Quartzite – Forms from sandstone, used in construction and road material.
o Hornfels – Forms due to contact metamorphism, used in construction.

Engineering Properties of Metamorphic Rocks

• Hardness & Strength: Generally stronger than the parent rocks.

• Durability: Resistant to weathering, making them suitable for construction.
• Brittleness: Some, like slate, can split into thin sheets (useful for tiles and roofing).

Parent Rock
S.No Parent Rock Metamorphic Rock
Type
1 Sedimentary Shale Slate
2 Sedimentary Limestone, Dolomite, Marl Marble
3 Sedimentary Sandstone Quartzite
4 Sedimentary Conglomerate Metaconglomerate
5 Sedimentary Mudstone, Claystone Hornfels
Sedimentary,
6 Shale, Felsite, Tuff Schist
Igneous
Igneous,
7 Granite, Shale, Syenite, Felsite Gneiss
Sedimentary
Metamorphic,
8 Slate, Shale, Tuff Phyllite
Sedimentary
9 Igneous Basalt, Gabbro, Dolerite Amphibolite
10 Igneous Basalt, Gabbro Eclogite
B. Physical Classification of Rocks

1. Stratified Rocks

• These rocks are arranged in distinct layers or strata.

• They have planes of cleavage or bedding planes, making them easy to split into thin slabs.
• Examples: Limestone, Sandstone, Shale

2. Unstratified Rocks

• These rocks do not show any distinct layers or strata.

• They have a compact and massive structure without cleavage planes.
• Examples: Granite, Marble, Basalt

3. Foliated Rocks

• These rocks exhibit a layered or banded appearance due to mineral alignment under heat and
pressure.
• Foliation occurs mostly in metamorphic rocks, and the layers can be split along certain
directions.
• Examples: Gneiss, Schist, Slate

C. Chemical Classification of Rocks

1. Siliceous Rocks

• Composed mainly of silica (SiO₂).

• Hard, durable, and resistant to weathering.
• Examples: Granite, Quartzite, Sandstone, basalt, trap, gneiss, syenite

2. Argillaceous Rocks

• Contain a high proportion of clay minerals (alumina and silica).

• Generally soft but can become hard and brittle when exposed to heat.
• Examples: Shale, Slate, Claystone

3. Calcareous Rocks

• Composed mainly of calcium carbonate (CaCO₃).

• React with acids and are widely used in construction.
• Examples: Limestone, Marble, Chalk
Quarrying of Stones

Quarrying is the process of extracting stones from natural rock beds for use in construction and
engineering projects. It involves cutting, blasting, or chiselling stones from a quarry site.

2. Methods of Quarrying

Quarrying methods are classified into two main categories:

A. Manual Quarrying (Traditional Methods)

• Heating and Wedging:

o A heap of fuel (wood, coal, or other combustible material) is burnt on the surface of the
rock in a small area.
o The uneven expansion due to heating causes the rock layers to separate.
o The loosened rock is then broken into desired pieces using pick-axes and crowbars.
o When intermediate layers need separation, they can be electrically heated, leading to
expansion and detachment from the surrounding layers.
Advantages:

o Suitable for coarse rubble masonry.

o Works well for granite and gneiss.
o No need for explosives or complex machinery.

• Wedging:

o Holes (10–15 cm deep, spaced ~10 cm apart) are drilled vertically into the rock.
o Steel pins, wedges (plugs), and feathers are inserted into these holes.
o Simultaneous hammering on the plugs helps split the rock along the weakest lines.
o For softer rocks, dry wooden pegs are used instead, which expand upon wetting,
creating pressure and cracking the rock.
o Wedges are placed along the plane of cleavage and hammered to fully detach the
slab.

• Chiselling and Hammering: Manual chisels and hammers are used to carve out stone
blocks.

B. Machine Quarrying (Modern Methods)

• Channeling: Machines cut deep grooves in the rock to separate stone blocks.
• Blasting: Explosives like dynamite are used to break massive rock formations into smaller
pieces.
• Wire Sawing: Diamond wire saws cut through stone with precision.
• Flaming: High-temperature flames weaken and fracture the rock surface.
Here are some commonly used tools in quarrying:

1. Hand Tools

a. Pickaxes – Used for loosening compacted earth and breaking smaller rocks.

b. Crowbars – Used for lifting and moving heavy stone blocks.

c. Chisels – Used for cutting and shaping stones manually.
d. Hammers (Mallets and Sledgehammers) – Used with chisels to break or shape stone.
e. Wedges and Feathers – Used for splitting rock slabs along natural cracks.

f.
g. Jumper (Drill Rod) – Used for drilling holes into the rock manually.

2. Drilling Tools

• Hand Drills (Jumpers, Churn Drills) – Used for creating holes in softer rock manually.
• Percussion Drills – Used for drilling into hard rock.
• Pneumatic Drills – Compressed air-powered drills for faster hole-making.
• Diamond-Tipped Drill Bits – Used for precise and deep drilling.

3. Blasting Tools

• Explosives (Dynamite, Gunpowder, Cordite, Blasting Gelatin, ANFO, etc.) – Used for
breaking large rock masses.
• Detonators – Copper tubes filled with fulminate of mercury for initiating explosions.
• Tamping Rods – Used for compacting explosive charges in drilled holes.
• Fuses (Bickford Fuse, Electrical Fuse, Detonating Cord) – Used to ignite explosives
safely.

4. Cutting and Splitting Tools

• Wire Saw (Diamond Wire Sawing Machines) – Used for precision cutting of large stone
blocks.
• Flaming Torch (Thermal Lances) – Used for cutting through tough rock using heat.
• Channeling Machines – Used for cutting channels in rock beds to extract large slabs.

5. Lifting and Transporting Tools

 • Derricks and Cranes – Used for lifting and moving heavy stone blocks.
• Rollers and Winches – Used for transporting quarried stones.
• Stone Tongs and Clamps – Used for gripping and lifting stone blocks.

Key Steps in Blasting Method:

1. Boring (Drilling Holes)

o Holes are drilled into the rock using jumpers for vertical holes and boring bars for
inclined/horizontal holes.
o Water is poured to soften the rock, and the muddy paste formed is removed.
o Machine drilling is used for hard rocks instead of hand drilling.
2. Charging the Holes
o The holes are completely dried before placing explosives.
o If water seeps into the holes, watertight sealing is ensured.
o The required amount of blasting charge (e.g., gunpowder, dynamite, cordite,
blasting cotton) is placed inside the holes.
3. Tamping (Sealing the Charge)
o A greased priming needle is inserted to create space for ignition.
o The hole is filled with damp clay or stone dust, and tamped well with a tamping
rod.
o The priming needle is rotated during tamping to ensure it remains loose and can be
removed easily.
4. Firing (Ignition of Explosives)
o After removing the priming needle, gunpowder is added, and a Bickford fuse (a
tar-coated cotton rope) is inserted.
o The fuse is ignited from a safe distance.
o Blasting powder and cordite ignite via the fuse, while gun cotton and dynamite
require detonation.

Applications of the Blasting Method:

• Used for hard rocks like granite, basalt, and trap.

• Common in large-scale quarrying and mining operations.
• Produces large quantities of stone quickly.

Precautions in blasting
1. Blasting should not be carried out in late evening or early morning hours. The blasting
hours should be made public and a siren should warn the workmen and nearby public
timely to retire to a safe distance.
2. The danger zone, an area of about 200 m radius, should be marked with red flags.
3. First aid should be available.
4. The number of charges fired, the number of charges exploded and the misfires should be
recorded.
5. Detonators and explosives should not be kept together.
6. Cartridges should be handled with rubber or polythene gloves.
7. A maximum of 10 bore holes are exploded at a time and that also successively and not
Simultaneously
Explosives used in the stone quarrying

Types of
S.No Composition Characteristics Suitability
Explosive
1. Great lifting power but
Blasting Saltpetre 65%,
little shattering effect. In quarrying large
1 powder or Sulphur 15%,
2. Easily ignited. blocks.
gun powder Charcoal 20%
3. Cheap.
1. Highly flammable when
dry.
Blasting Used where
Cotton saturated with 2. Can detonate by shock
2 cotton or demolitions are
nitric acid. or sunlight.
gun cotton required.
3. Good shattering effect
but no lifting power.
1. Sensitive to friction and
shock. 1. Small bore holes.
75% nitro-glycerine
2. Most shattering and 2. Small quarries.
3 Dynamite absorbed in 25%
powerful explosive. 3. Damp situations,
sandy earth or solids.
3. Unsuitable in cold small bore holes.
climates.
Gelatinized 1. Smokeless explosive.
combination of nitro- 2. Produces powerful
4 Cordite Underwater use.
glycerine and gases.
nitrocellulose. 3. Similar to dynamite.
1. Tough, rubber-textured
explosive.
1. Deep wells.
80% blasting gelatine 2. Most powerful nitro-
Gelatine 2. Underground
5 with nitrate of potash glycerine explosive.
dynamite works.
and wood pulp. 3. Very high water
3. Wet conditions.
resistance.
4. High plasticity.
1. Specific gravity 1.5.
65% blasting gelatine
2. Powerful explosive.
6 Gelignite and 35% absorbing Underwater use.
3. More convenient than
powder.
dynamite.
Nitro-glycerine 33%,
Nitrate of baryta
1. Similar to dynamite but
7 Lithofracteur 16%, Sulphur 26%, In tunnels.
lower power.
Kieselguhr 22%,
Charcoal 3%
Potassium chlorate
Rock-a- Most effective under
8 79%, Nitro benzol 1. High water resistance.
Rock water.
21%

Storage Guidelines for Explosives

1. Storage Location
o Explosives should be stored in a magazine (a specially designed storage building).
o The magazine should be located away from residential areas, petrol depots, and
other hazardous sites.
2. Structural Requirements
o The magazine should have ventilators at high levels to allow proper air circulation.
o Concealed wiring should be used to prevent electrical hazards.
o It must be protected from lightning to avoid accidental ignition.
3. Safety Measures
o No smoking or fire should be allowed in the surrounding area.
 o Explosives should be kept away from extreme heat, cold, and moisture to
maintain stability.
o They should be handled carefully and gently to prevent accidental detonation.
4. Security Precautions
o The magazine should be enclosed with barbed wire to prevent unauthorized access.
o Entry should be restricted to authorized personnel only.

Factors Affecting the Quantity of Explosives Required

The quantity of explosive required depends on multiple factors, including:
1. Strength of the explosive – Different explosives have varying power.
2. Method of blasting – The technique used affects the amount needed.
3. Number of boreholes – Their size, position, and depth influence explosive
requirements.
4. Type and mass of rock – Denser or harder rocks require more explosives.
Estimation Formula
Since incorporating all factors into a single expression is difficult, a rough estimate can be
made using the formula:

𝐿2
𝐴=
0.008
Where:
• A = Quantity of gunpowder or dynamite (grams)
• L = Length of the line of least resistance (meters)
Natural Bed of Stone
The natural bed of a stone refers to its original position in a sedimentary rock
formation. Understanding and correctly placing stones according to their natural bed
is essential in construction to ensure durability and strength.
• Placement Guidelines:
Sedimentary Rocks: Stones should be placed so that the load line is at right angles
to the natural bed.
Metamorphic Rocks: The plane of foliation or cleavage is considered the natural
bed.
Igneous Rocks: Identifying the natural bed is difficult, so it is not given significant
attention during construction.
Correct orientation of stones with respect to the load line ensures stability and
resistance to weathering.
Seasoning of Stone
Definition:
Seasoning of stone refers to the process of allowing freshly quarried stone to dry out and harden by
losing its natural moisture, known as quarry sap.
Process:
1. Freshly cut stones contain quarry sap, making them soft and workable.
2. When exposed to the atmosphere, the quarry sap evaporates, causing a chemical
reaction with the mineral constituents.
3. This process results in the stone becoming harder and more compact over 6 to 12 months.
4. The evaporation leaves behind a crystalline film on the stone surface, improving its
weather resistance.
Importance:
• Dressing, carving, and moulding should be done soon after quarrying, as the stone is
softer and easier to work with.
• Proper seasoning enhances durability and reduces susceptibility to weathering.
Dressing of Stone
Dressing of stone refers to the process of shaping and finishing rough quarried stones to obtain a
regular shape and smooth surface for construction purposes.
Process:
• Performed immediately after quarrying and before seasoning to reduce the stone's
weight for easy transportation.
• Helps in achieving a pleasing appearance and proper bedding with good mortar joints.
• Stones can be shaped for specific architectural elements such as arches, copings, and
pillars.
Types of Dressed Stones:
• Different types of stone dressing are used based on construction needs (Refer to Fig. 3.8).
• Dressing improves the strength, durability, and aesthetic value of the stone.
Dressing of Stone
Definition:
Dressing of stone refers to the process of shaping and finishing rough quarried stones to obtain a
regular shape and smooth surface for construction purposes.
Process:
• Performed immediately after quarrying and before seasoning to reduce the stone's
weight for easy transportation.
• Helps in achieving a pleasing appearance and proper bedding with good mortar joints.
• Stones can be shaped for specific architectural elements such as arches, copings, and
pillars.
Types of Dressed Stones:
• Different types of stone dressing are used based on construction needs (Refer to Fig. 3.8).
• Dressing improves the strength, durability, and aesthetic value of the stone.