SEMESTER–VI PAPER–I

Subject Title Semester VI

MOBILE COMPUTING

Subject 21UCSE04 Specialization NA

Code
Type Elective: Theory L:T:P:C 86:6:0:4
Unit Contents Levels Sessions
Introduction-Mobile Computing – Mobile Computing Vs
wireless Networking – Mobile Computing Applications –
I Characteristics of Mobile computing – Structure of Mobile K1 11
Computing Application. MAC Protocols – Wireless MAC
Issues Fixed Assignment Schemes–Random Assignment
Schemes–Reservation Based Schemes

Mobile Internet Protocol and Transport Layer-Overview of

Mobile IP – Features of Mobile IP – Key Mechanism in
II Mobile IP – route Optimization. Overview of TCP/IP – K1,K2 15
Architecture of TCP/IP-Adaptation of TCP Window–
Improvement in TCP Performance.
Mobile Telecommunication System-Global System for
III Mobile Communication (GSM) – General Packet Radio
Service(GPRS)–Universal Mobile Telecommunication K3 15
System (UMTS).
Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks-Ad-Hoc Basic Concepts –
Characteristics – Applications – Design Issues – Routing –
IV Essential of Traditional Routing Protocols –Popular Routing K4 15
Protocols – Vehicular Ad Hoc networks ( VANET) –MANET
Vs VANET–Security.

Mobile Platforms and Applications-Mobile Device Operating

Systems – Special Constrains & Requirements – Commercial
Mobile Operating Systems –Software Development Kit: iOS,
V Android, BlackBerry, Windows Phone – M-Commerce – K5 15
Structure– Pros & Cons – Mobile Payment System – Security
Issues.

Learning
Resources

Text Books Prasant Kumar Pattnaik,Rajib Mall,―Fundamentals of Mobile Computing‖,

PHILearning Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi 2012.

1. JochenH. Schller, ―Mobile

Communications‖,Pearson Education,NewDelhi,
Reference 2007, 2ndEdition.
Books
2. DharmaPrakashAgarval,QingandAnZeng,"Introductionto Wireless
and Mobile systems", Thomson Asia Pvt Ltd.2005.
3. UweHansmann,LotharMerk,MartinS.NicklonsandThomasStober,
―PrinciplesofMobileComputing‖,Springer2003.
Website/ NPTEL&MOOC courses titledMobileComputing
Link 1. https://nptel.ac.in/courses/106/106/106106147/
2. https://www.smartzworld.com/notes/mobile-computing-pdf-notes-mc-notes-pdf/
 VIVEKANANDHA ARTS AND SCIENCE COLLEGE FOR WOMEN
Department of Computer Science & Computer Applications
Study Material–2024(Even Semester)

Sub: Mobile Computing Paper Code: 21UCSE04 Class:III B.Sc CS ‘A’

Sub I/c: T.Kavitha AP/CS&CA
UNIT –I
Introduction-Mobile Computing – Mobile Computing Vs wireless Networking – Mobile Computing
Applications – Characteristics of Mobile computing – Structure of Mobile Computing Application. MAC
Protocols – Wireless MAC Issues Fixed Assignment Schemes – Random Assignment Schemes – Reservation
Based Schemes.
INTRODUCTION

 A few important breakthroughs achieved over the last few decades have revolutionized the way people
use computers. First, about two decades ago the advancements made in the field of miniaturization of
electronic circuits made it possible to pack powerful processing units and significant memory into
portable laptops. More recently, the computing elements have become more powerful and at the same
time shrunk to fit into palmtops that people can carry effortlessly.
MOBILE COMPUTING

 Mobilecomputing(sometimescalledubiquitouscomputingandalsoattimescalled nomadic computing) is

widely described as the ability to compute remotely while on the move.

 This is a new and fast emerging discipline that has made it possible for people to access information from
anywhere and at anytime.
 We can also view mobile computing as encompassing two separate and distinct concepts: mobility and
computing. Computing denotes the capability to automatically carry out certain processing related to
service invocations on a remote computer.

MOBILE COMPUTING VS WIRELESS NETWORKING

 We must distinguish between mobile computing and wireless networking. These two terms are not
synonymous.
 While mobile computing essentially denotes accessing information and remote computational services
while on the move, wireless networking provides the basic communication infrastructure necessary to
make this possible.
 Thus, we can say that mobile computing is based on wireless networking and helps one to invoke
computing services on remote servers while on the move: be it be office, home, conference, hotel, and so
on.
 Mobile computing also requires the applications themselves—their design and development, and the
hardware at the client and server sides.
 Wireless networking is increasingly replacing traditional networks because of the low setup time and low
initial investment required to set up the wireless network. As we discuss later in this chapter, wireless
networks appear in various forms such as WLANs (Wireless LANs), mobile cellular networks, personal
area networks (PANs),and ad hoc networks, etc.
 Wireless networks can be classified into two basic types. One is an extension of wired networks. It uses
fixed infrastructures such as base stations to provide essentially single hop wireless communication with a
wired network as illustrated in Fig. 2.1 or a two-hop wireless cellular communication with another mobile
as explained earlier in Fig. 1.4.
 The other type of wireless network is an ad hoc network. An ad hoc network does not use any fixed
infrastructure and is based on multi-hop wirelesscommunicationasshowninFig.2.2.
 One popular example of a fixed infrastructure wireless network is a Wireless LAN (WLAN) that
implements the IEEE 802.11protocol. Observe from Fig. 2.1thatonlythe last hop is through the wireless
medium. An access point (AP) provides the last hop connectivity of the mobile nodes to a wired network.
All communication goes through APs which perform bridging between the wireless and the wired
mediums.

Figure2.1 Wireless network based on fixed infrastructures.

Figure2.2 wireless network having no fixed infrastructures.

 A station must be recognized by an AP to be able to connect to the network. The AP may require
authentication and this in turn is used as the basic means to keep out the unauthorized users.
 In an infrastructure less network, the communication between hosts occurs directly or via a few
intermediate nodes that form the hops. For example, station A inFig. 2.2 can communicate with station C
using either the hops A–B, B–C or A–D, D–C.

MOBILE COMPUTING APPLICATIONS

 Mobile computing technology makes it possible for people to send or extract information while on the
move. For example, a stock broker travelling in a car may wish to issue stock transaction orders from a
mobile phone or to receive share price quotations.
 When data is being transmitted on air, all the wireless devices present in the transmission range can
receive the data. This, therefore, opens up very difficult security issues that must be overcome to ensure
privacy of data.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MOBILE COMPUTING

• A computing environment is said to be “mobile”, when either the sender or the receiver of information
can be on the move while transmitting or receiving information. The following are some of the important
characteristics of a mobile computing environment.
• Ubiquity: The dictionary meaning of ubiquity is present everywhere.
• Location awareness:A hand-held device equipped with global positioning system(GPS) can transparently
provide information about the current location of a user to a tracking station.
• Adaptation: Adaptation in the context of mobile computing implies the ability of a system to adjust to
bandwidth fluctuation without inconveniencing the user. In a mobile computing environment, adaptation
is crucial because of intermittent disconnections and bandwidth fluctuations that can arise due to a
number of factors such as handoff, obstacles, environmental noise, etc.

• Broadcast: Due to the broadcast nature of the underlying communication network of a mobile computing
environment, efficient delivery of data can be made simultaneously to hundreds of mobile users. For
example, all users at a specific location, such as those near a railway station, may be sent advertising
information by a taxi service operator.
• Personalization: Services in a mobile environment can be easily personalized according to a user’s
profile. This is required to let the users easily avail information with their hand-held devices. For
example,a mobile user may need only a certain type of information from specific sources. This can be
easily done through personalization.

STRUCTURE OF MOBILE COMPUTING APPLICATION.

 A mobile computing application is usually structured in terms of the functionalities implemented.
The simple three-tier structure of a mobile computing application is depicted
Presentation(Tier-1)
Application(Tier-2) Data(Tier-3)

Figure2.3The three tier structure of a mobile computing application.

 Presentation Tier

Application Tier

DATA TIER

Presentation tier

🞓The topmost level of a mobile computing application concerns the user interface. A good user interface
facilitatestheuserstoissuerequestsandtopresenttheresultstothethemmeaningfully.

🞓Obviously,the programs at this layer run on the client’s computer. This layer usually includes web browsers
and customized client programs for dissemination of information and for collection of data from the user.
Application tier

🞓This layer has the vital responsibility of making logical decisions and performing calculations. It also
moves and processes data between the presentation and data layers.
Data tier

🞓Thedatatierisresponsibleforprovidingthebasicfacilitiesofdatastorage,access, and manipulation.

Often this layer contains a database.

🞓The information is stored and retrieved from this database. But, when only small amounts of data need to be
stored, a file system can be used. This layer is also implemented on a fixed server.

CELLULAR MOBILE COMMUNICATION

 In a cellular mobile system, the area of coverage is split into cells as shown in Fig. 2.5. Even though the
cells have been shown to be non-overlapping hexagons for simplicity, but in reality cell shapes are
irregular and do overlap to some extent.
 A base station(BS) is located at the centre of each cell. The BS in a cell receives communications from all
mobile hand sets in the cell and forwards the data to the appropriate handset.
 Thus, a base station keeps track of the calls of all handsets in its cell. When a mobile handset while still
continuing a call, moves to another cell, the BS “hands-off” the call to the BS in the new cell.
 When a cell covers a crowded area having too many users, then the users can experience frequent call
drops. To over come this problem, such cells are split into smaller cells.
 Figure2.5Cell structure in a cellular mobile communication system.

 Initially the focus of cellular mobile communication was voice communication. But today cellular
phones provide many services based on data communication too. These include electronic mail,
Internet access and running a variety of mobile applications.
Generations of Cellular Communication Technologies
 Mobile communication technology has advanced at a very rapid pace over the last five decades. The
gradual technology improvements over the last four decades can be roughly demarcated into four
generations. Each generation essentially provides higher data rate and additional capabilities, as
 This figure does not show the data rates of technologies before GSM, since these were analog
techniques that did not support the data communications facility.
 The fourth generation (4G) of technology provides a substantial order of magnitude improvements in
data speeds, but is not yet widely implemented.

Figure2.6Summaryofmobiletechnologyadvancements.

First generation

 The first generation(1G)cellular system was designed in the late 1960s, but was commercially deployed in
the early 1980s. The first commercial 1G system in the United States was known as Advanced Mobile
Phone System (AMPS).
 Though for simplicity, we have shown the different channels to be adjacent to each other, each channel
was separated from the adjacent channels by a spacing of about 30 kHz. This was called a guard
band.The use of guard bands was one of the causes of inefficient spectrum usage and resulted in the
reduced number of simultaneous calls that could be supported. This problem was overcome in the
subsequent generations of technologies.

Sub-
band1
Band
Sub-
band2
Sub-
band3
Time

Figure2.71G frequency band split into five sub-bands.

Different 1G standards were used in different countries:

 AMPS(Advanced Mobile Phone System) in the USA

 NMT 450 (Nordic Mobile Telephone) in various European countries
 TACS (Total Access Communications System) in the UK

 The1G systems were of multiple access type, since once a caller hanged up, another caller could use
the same frequency. For this reason, the1G technology was also called Frequency Division Multiple
Access (FDMA).

Figure2.8 Cell structure and frequency allocation of 1G systems.

Second generation
 As already pointed out, the 1G technology had many disadvantages. The major drawback was the
small number of simultaneous calls that could be made and the high risk of call drops during
handoffs.
 The disadvantages of 1G systems were over come by the second generation(2G)cellular systems.

 The 2G systems encoded voice and other information digitally before transmitting them. Digital
transmission has many advantages over analog transmissions.

 The 2G mobile system deployment started in the 1990s, and two competing standards existed. In North
America, the IS-95 standard was adopted which used Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
 2.5 Generation

 General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) is an extension of GSM and is considered to be the 2.5
generation technology.

 As indicated by the name, it is based on packet switching compared to circuit switching used in 2G.
This was a significant improvement over 2G and helped to reduce call costs dramatically.
Third generation

 The 3G systems are often referred to as IMT-2000 (International Mobile Telecommunications-2000)

systems since this was made a global standard by ITU. The 3G systems support much higher data
transmission rates and offer increased bandwidth, which makes them suitable for high-speed data
applications as well as for high quality traditional voice calls.

 The 3G systems can be considered to be purely data networks, since voice signals are converted to
digital data, this resultsinspeechbeingdealtwithinmuchthesamewayasanyotherformofdata.

 The3Gsystemsuse packet-switching technology, and provide cheaper calls while giving better average
call quality than that of the 2G systems, but they do require a some what different infrastructure
compared to the 2G systems.

 Now many different versions of 3G systems have come into existence and each one evolved from some
existing 2G system.
Fourth generation

 A 4G system provides a faster data rate than that of 3G (at least 10 times faster) and makes mobile
broadband Internet access possible.

 The 4G system has made possible high speed Internet access from smart phones and laptops with USB
wireless modems.
Global System for Mobile Communications(GSM)

 GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) is at present being used in India. It is possibly the
most successful digital mobile system to have ever been used till now. An important characteristic of the
GSM system is that it provides data services in addition to voice services, and yet is compatible to 1G
systems.
GSM Services
GSM provides three main categories of services. These are:

• Bearer services

• Tele services
• Supplementary services
Bearer services

 Bearer services give the subscribers the capability to send and receive data to/from remote computers or
mobile phones. For this reason, bearer services are also known as data services (see Box 2.1).

 Bearer services permit either transparent or non-transparent, and either synchronous or asynchronous
modes of data transmission. We elaborate these in the following.
Teleservices:

 GSM provides both the voice-oriented tele-services and the non-voice tele-services, as discussed below.
Telephony:

 The main goal of GSM was to provide high quality digital voice transmission, offering the bandwidth
of 3.1 kHz of analog phone systems.
Emergency number:
 The same number is used throughout an area. This service is free of cost and mandatorily provided
by all service providers. Short message services:.
Fax:
 In this service, using modem fax data is transmitted as digital data over the analog
telephone network according to the ITU-T Standards T.4 and T.30.
Supplementary services

 GSM provides certain supplementary services such as user identification, call redirection, and
forwarding of ongoing calls. In addition, standard ISDN features such as ‘close user groups’ and
‘multiparty’ communication are available.
General Packet Radio Service(GPRS)

 GPRS when integrated with GSM, significantly improves and simplifies Internet access. It transfers
data packets from GSM mobile stations to external packet data networks (PDNs). Packets can be
directlyrouted fromthe GPRS mobile stations to packet switched networks making it easyto connect
to the Internet.
 GSM uses a billing system based on the time (duration) of connection, whereas GPRS uses a billing
system based on the amount of transmitted data rather than the duration of the connection. So, users
can remain continuously connected to the system, and yet get charged only for the amount of
transmitted data.
GPRS Services
 GPRS offers end-to-end packet-switched data transfer services which can be categorized into the
following two types:
• Point-to-Point(PTP)service

• Point-to-Multipoint(PTM)service.
 The PTP service is between two users and can either be connectionless or connection-oriented.
 The PTM is a data transfer service from one user to multiple users.
GPRS Architecture
 GPRS architecture introduces two new network elements, called GPRS Support Node (GSN)and
the Gateway GPRS Support Node(GGSN). A GSN is essentially a router. All GSNs are integrated
into a standard GSM architecture.

 The GGSN is the interworking unit between the GPRS network and the external packet data
network (PDN). The GGSN contains routing information for GPRS users, performs address
connection and tunnels data to a user through encapsulation.

WIRELESS MAC ISSUES FIXED ASSIGNMENT SCHEMES

Figure2.10GPRS architecture reference model.

 SGSN (Serving GPRS Support Node) helps support MS. The SGSN is connected to BSC through
frame relay and it is at the same hierarchy level as the MSC. The GPRS Register(GR)is a part of
HLR which stores all the relevant GPRS data.

RANDOM ASSIGNMENT SCHEMES

Random Assignment Schemes

 There are a number of random assignment schemes that are used in MAC protocols. A few
important ones are the following:
• ALOHA
• Slotted ALOHA
• CSMA
• CSMA/CD
• CSMA/CA
ALOHA Scheme
 It is a simple communication scheme that was developed at the University of Hawaii.

 The basic (also called pure) ALOHA scheme, is as imple protocol. If a node has data to send,
itbegins to transmit.

The CSMA Scheme

 A popular MAC arbitration technique is the Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA). In this
technique, a node senses the medium before starting to transmit. If it senses that some
transmission
 is already underway, it defers its transmission. Two popular extensions of the basic CSMA
technique are the collision detection (CSMA/CD) and the collision avoidance (CSMA/ CA)
techniques.

RESERVATION BASED SCHEMES

 A basic form of the reservation scheme is the RTS/CTS scheme. In an RTS/CTS scheme, a sender
transmits an RTS( Ready to Send) packet to the receiver before the actual data transmission. On
receiving this, the receiver sends a CTS (Clear to Send) packet, and the actual data transfer commences
only after that. When the other nodes sharing the medium sense the CTS packet, they refrain from
transmitting until the transmission from the sending node is complete.
 by sending an RTS to the receiver. Since radio signals propagate Omni-directionally, every terminal
within the sender’s radio range will heart his and then refrain from transmitting. As soon as the receiver
is ready to receive data, it responds with a CTS.

Figure3.6Hidden terminal solution in MAC A.

 Figure 3.6 schematically shows how MACA avoids the hidden terminal problem. Before the start of its
transmission, it sends a Request To Send (RTS). B receives the RTS that contains the sender’s name and
the receiver’s name, as well as the length of the future transmission.

 The CTS contains the names of the sender and receiver, and the length of the planned transmission. This
CTS is heard by C and the medium is reserved for use by A for the duration of the transmission.
 Though this is a collision avoidance protocol, a collision can occur during the sending of an RTS. Both
A and C could send an RTS at same time. But an RTS occurs over a very small duration compared to the
duration of data transmission. Thus the probability of collision remains much less. B resolves this
contention problem by acknowledging only one station in the CTS. No transmission occurs without an
appropriate CTS.
 the exposed terminal problem is solved in MACA. Assume that B needs to transmit to A. B has
to transmit an RTS first. The RTS would contain the names of the receiver (A) and the sender (B). C
does not act in response to this message as it is not the receiver, but A responds with a CTS. C does not
receive this CTS and concludes that A is outside the detection range.
  Figure3.7Exposed terminal solution in MAC A.

 The IEEE 802.11 is the most widely used standard for WLANs today. Low cost WLAN cards can be
easily purchased from the market to set up a WLAN. The IEEE 802.11 standard defines the functional
aspects.
 Incase, the channel is sensed to be busy when it tries to transmit, then the transmission will be deferred
for a “random” interval, thereby reducing the probability of further collisions on the channel. CSMA/CA
is used in the 802.11-based wireless LANs.
 The RTS/CTS (Request to Send/Clear to send) is an optional mechanism used by the 802.11 to reduce
frame collisions caused by the hidden node problem. As we discussed, a Request to Send (RTS) packet
is sent by a sender and a Clear to Send (CTS) packet is sent by the intended receiver.

UNIT–I– END
 UNIT – II

Mobile Internet Protocol and Transport Layer – Overview of Mobile IP – Features of Mobile IP – Key
Mechanism in Mobile IP – route Optimization. Overview of TCP/IP – Architecture of TCP/IP- Adaptation of
TCP Window – Improvement in TCP Performance

MOBILE INTERNET PROTOCOL AND TRANSPORT LAYER

 The Internet is built on top of a collection of protocols, called the TCP/IP protocol suite. Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP) are the core protocols in this suite.
 IP is responsible for routing a packet to any host, connected to the Internet, uniquely identified by an
assigned IP address. This raises one of the most vexing issues caused by host mobility. In the traditional
IP addressing scheme, each LAN is assigned an address.
 The nodes in the LAN are assigned an address based on the LAN address. In the traditional IP
addressing scheme, when a host moves to a different location, it may move to another network. As a
result, it needs to change its IP address.

OVERVIEW OF MOBILE IP
 The goal of mobile IP is to enable packet transmission efficiently without any packet loss and disruption
in the presence of host and/or destination mobility. Consider a scenario adapted from that discussed by
Kozierok to explain the mobile IP.
 Suppose a person working as a business development executive for a company needs to take care of
many regional offices in India A problem that arises in this context is: how does he make arrangements
so that he would continue to receive postal mails regardless of his location? If we can answer this, we
can easily understand how IP works in the context of a mobile device.
 Mobile IP works in a manner very similar to the postal mail forwarding system. Each network can be
considered like a different “city”, and the internetwork of routers is like the postal system. The router
that connects any network to the Internet is like that network’s “post office”, from an IP perspective.

FEATURES OF MOBILE IP
 The packet delivery to and from a mobile node has been schematically shown in Fig. 4.1. In this figure,
a correspondent node (CN) is connected via a router to the Internet, and the home network and the
foreign network are also connected via a router, i.e. the home agent (HA) and foreign agent (FA),
respectively, to the Internet.
 Therefore, home agent (HA) is implemented on the route connecting the home network with the
Internet, a foreign agent (FA) is also implemented on the route connecting the foreign network with the
Internet.
 Figure 4.1 Packet delivery to and from a mobile node.

Terminologies—Mobile IP
Various terminologies associated with mobile IP and used in Fig. 4.1 are explained below:
Mobile Node (MN):
 A mobile node is a hand-held equipment with roaming capabilities. It can be a cell phone, personal
digital assistant, laptop, etc.

Home Network:
 The home network of a mobile device is the network within which the device receives its
identifying IP address (home address).
Home Address (HA):
 The home address of a mobile device is the IP address assigned to the device within its home
network. The IP address on the current network is known as home address.
Foreign Agent (FA):
 The foreign agent is a router in a foreign network that functions as the point of attachment for a
mobile node when it roams to the foreign network. The packets from the home agent are sent to the
foreign node which delivers it to the mobile node.

Foreign Network:
 The foreign network is the current subnet to which the mobile node is visiting. It is different from
home network. In other words, a foreign network is the network in which a mobile node is
operating when away from its home network.

Correspondent Node (CN):

 The home agent is a router on the home network serving as the anchor point for communication
with the mobile node. It tunnels packets from a device on the Internet, called a correspondent node
(CN), to the roaming mobile node.

Care-of-Address (COA):
 It is the address that is used to identify the present location of a foreign agent. The packets sent to
the MN are delivered to COA.

The COA can be any of the following two types:

o Foreign agent COA: The COA is an IP address of foreign agent (FA).

o Co-located COA: When the mobile node (MN) acquires a temporary IP address, that address
acts as the COA.
 Home Agent (HA):
 It is located in home network and it provides several services for the MN. HA maintains a location
registry. The location registry keeps track of the node locations using the current care-of-address of
the MN.
Agent Discovery:
 During call establishment it is necessary for a mobile node to determine its foreign agent. This task
is referred to as agent discovery.
o The following two discovery methods are popularly used:
 Agent advertisement, and (2) Agent solicitation.
 In the following, we briefly explain these two agent discovery methods.
Agent advertisement:
 Generally the foreign and the home agents advertise their presence through periodic agent
advertisement messages. An agent advertisement message, lists one or more care- of-addresses and a
flag indicating whether it is a home agent or a foreign agent. Agent advertisement is a popularly
used method in agent discovery.
Agent solicitation:
 In case a mobile node (MN) does not receive any COA, then the MN should send an agent
solicitation message. But it is important to monitor that these agent solicitation messages do not
flood the network.
Tunneling and encapsulation
 Tunneling establishes a virtual pipe for the packets available between a tunnel entry and an end b
point.
Transparency:
 A mobile end-system should continue to keep its IP address and there should not be any
disruption of communication after any movement. In other words, the IP address is to be
managed transparently and there should not be any effect of mobility on any ongoing
communication.

Compatibility:
 Mobile IP should be compatible with the existing Internet protocols.
Security:
 Mobile IP should, as far as possible, provide users with secure communications over the
Internet.

KEY MECHANISM IN MOBILE IP

 Mobile IP is associated with the following three basic mechanisms:

o Discovering the care-of-address
o Registering the care-of-address
o Tunneling to the care-of-address
 A schematic diagram of Mobile IP is shown Fig. 4.2. The specific protocols used by the basic
mechanisms have also been shown. Observe that the registration process works over UDP and
the discovery protocol over ICMP.
 Figure 4.2 A schematic model of Mobile IP.
Discovering the care-of-address
 Each mobile node uses a discovery protocol to identify the respective home and foreign agents.
The discovery of the care-of-address consists of four important steps.

1. Mobile agents advertise their presence by periodically broadcasting the agent

advertisement messages.
2. The mobile node receiving the agent advertisement message observes whether the
message is from its own home agent and determines whether it is on the home network
or on a foreign network.
 The process of agent advertisements, involves the following activities:
i. Foreign agents send messages to advertise the available care-of-
ii. addresses.
iii. Home agents send advertisements to make themselves known.
Registering the care-of-address
 If a mobile node discovers that it is on the home network, it operates without requiring any
mobility services.
 The routing table is updated and it sends back the registration reply to the mobile node. the

Figure 4.3 Registration process in Mobile IP.

 The registration process shown in Fig. 4.3 consists of the following steps:
 If the mobile node is on a new network, it registers with the foreign agent by sending a
registration request message which includes the permanent IP address of the mobile host
and the IP address of its home agent.
 The foreign agent in turn performs the registration process on behalf of the mobile host by
sending a Registration Request containing the permanent IP address of the mobile node and
the IP address of the foreign agent to the home agent.
  When the home agent receives the Registration Request, it updates the mobility binding by
associating the care-of-address of the mobile node with its home address.
 The home agent then sends an acknowledgement to the foreign agent.

Tunneling to the care-of-address

 Tunneling takes place to forward an IP datagram from the home agent to a care-of-
address. This involves carrying out the following steps:
o When a home agent receives a packet addressed to a mobile host, it forwards
the packet to the care-of-address using IP-within-IP (encapsulation).
o Using IP-within-IP, the home agent inserts a new IP header in front
o of the IP header of any datagram.
o Destination address is set to the care-of-address.
o Source address is set to the home agent’s address.
o After stripping out the first header, IP processes the packet again.

OPTIMIZATION
o In the mobile IP protocol, all the data packets to the mobile node go through the
home agent. Because of this there will be heavy traffic between HA and CN in
the network, causing latency to increase.
o Direct tunneling from the corresponding host to the mobile host
 The mobile IP scheme needs to support the four messages shown in Table 4.1.

Figure 4.4 IP encapsulation in mobile IP

 .
OVERVIEW OF TCP/IP
 The TCP/IP protocol suite was developed by DARPA in 1969 to provide seamless communication
services across an internetwork consisting of a large number of different networks.
 The TCP/IP protocol suite is a collection of a large number of protocols.
 The application programmers and end-users are mainly concerned with the application layer
protocols.The application layer protocols, in turn, make use of the services provided by the lower
layer protocols.
 An application layer protocol requiring to send a message to another application (that may possibly be
running on a different host either in the same local network or in some remote network) makes use of a
transport layer protocol and passes it with the message to be transmitted.

TELNET
DN
SMTP Application
FT Layer Message
SNMP
HTTP

Transport
TCP UD
Layer Segment

IGMP ICMP
Internet
IP Layer
ARP RARP Packet

Network Interface Protocols Network Interface

Layer Frame

Figure 5.1 TCP/IP protocol stack.

 The application programmers and end-users are mainly concerned with the application
layer protocols. The application layer protocols, in turn, make use of the services provided
by the lower layer protocols.
 An application layer protocol requiring to send a message to another application (that
may possibly be running on a different host either in the same local network or in some
remote network) makes use of a transport layer protocol and passes it with the message to
be transmitted.
Terminologies of TCP/IP
 In the following, we briefly discuss a few of the protocols and terminologies
associated with the TCP/IP protocol suite.
 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): On the sending side, TCP is responsible for
breaking a message into small parts, adding sequence numbers and certain other
information and after this, making them known as segments.
 IP (Internet Protocol): At the host machine of an application sending a message, IP
is responsible for constructing packets (also called data-grams) from the segments.
 HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol): The HTTP protocol is used for
communications between a web server and the client-side application running on a
web browser
 SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): The SMTP protocol is used for sending
and receiving e-mails by a mail client.
 MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions): The MIME protocol lets the
SMTP encode multimedia files such as voice, picture, and binary data in e-mails
and transmit them across TCP/IP networks. SMTP has been designed to handle only
 FTP (File Transfer Protocol): The FTP protocol is used to transfer files between
the computers
 SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol): The SNMP protocol is used for
administration and management of computer networks. The network manager uses
tools based on this protocol to monitor network performance.
 ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol): The ICMP protocol runs on all hosts
and routers and is mainly used for reporting errors such as a non- reachable host.
 ARP (Address Resolution Protocol): The ARP protocol is used by IP to find the
hardware address (also called the physical address) of a computer based on its IP
address. The hardware (physical) address is stored in the ROM (Read Only
Memory) of the computer’s network interface card. It is also known as MAC
(Media Access Control) address and also as an Ethernet hardware address (EHA).
 RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol): The RARP protocol is used by IP
to find the IP address based on the physical (MAC address) address of a computer.
 BOOTP (Boot Protocol): The BOOTP protocol is used for booting (starting) a
diskless computer over a network.
ARCHITECTURE OF TCP/IP
 As already stated the TCP/IP protocol consists of four layers as shown in Fig.
 These layers are: Application layer, Transport layer, Internet layer, and Network
access layer. The functionalities of each of these layers are discussed below:

Application Layer
Transport Layer
Internet Layer
Network Access
Layer
  Application layer: The protocols at this layer are used by applications to establish
communication with other applications which may possibly be running on separate
hosts. Examples of application layer protocols are http, ftp, and telnet.
 Transport layer: It provides reliable end-to-end data transfer services. The term
end-to-end means that the end points of a communication link are applications or
processes. Therefore, sometimes protocols at this layer are also referred to as host-
to-host protocols.
 Remember that there can be several applications or processes running on a host.
Thus, to identify the end point, it is not only the computer that needs to be
identified, but also the exact process or application that would receive the message
needs to be identified.
 This is efficiently accomplished by using the concept of a port number. The
transport layer provides its services by making use of the services of its lower layer
protocols. This layer includes both connection-oriented (TCP) and connectionless
(UDP) protocols.
 Internet layer: The Internet layer packs data into data packets that are technically
known as IP data grams. Each IP datagram contains source and destination address
(also called IP address) information that is used to forward the data grams between
hosts and across networks.

 Network access layer: The functions of this protocol layer include encoding data
and transmitting at the signaling determined by the physical layer. It also provides
error detection and packet framing functionalities.

ADAPTATION OF TCP WINDOW

 The TCP primarily deploys a flow control technique to control congestion in a
network. Traffic congestion occurs when the rate at which data is injected by a host
into the network exceeds the rate at which data can be delivered to the network.
 A flow control technique helps adapt the rate of data transmission by the TCP at the
sending host end. The flow control technique helps to prevent the build-up of congestion
in the network and at the same time helps to prevent buffer overrun at the slow
  The advertised window is usually set equal to the size of the receive buffer at the
receiver. The sender uses the advertised window size obtained from the receiver to
determine the maximum amount of data that it can transmit to the receiver without
causing buffer overflow at the receiver.
IMPROVEMENT IN TCP PERFORMANCE
 TCP was designed for traditional wired networks. If used as it is, a few
shortcomings become noticeable. We first review a few relevant aspects of
traditional TCP..
Traditional Networks

 In the wired networks, packet losses are primarily attributable to congestions that
get built-up in the network.
Slow start

 The slow-start mechanism is used when a TCP session is started. Instead of starting
transmission at a fixed transmission window size, the transmission is started at the
lowest window size and then doubled after each successful transmission.
Congestion avoidance

 The congestion avoidance algorithm starts where the slow start stops.
TCP in Mobile Networks

 In Internet, TCP is the de facto standard transport protocol. It has been remarkably
successful in supporting the diverse applications which drive the Internet’s
popularity.
TCP in Single-hop Wireless Networks

 We first discuss the modifications proposed to TCP to make it effective in single-

hop wireless networks.
Indirect TCP (I-TCP)
 This protocol was proposed by Bakre and Badrinath2. It segments the connection
between the fixed host and the mobile host into two different connections: the wired
part and the wireless part (Fig. 5.7).

Figure 5.7 A schematic of working of indirect-TCP.

 Thus, the base station maintains two separate TCP connections: one over the fixed
network and the other over the wireless link.
Fast retransmission
 This approach was suggested by Caceres et al.3 to overcome the delay in
transmissions caused due to intermittent disconnections such as those that occurs
when a mobile host (MH) moves to a foreign agent (FA) during a TCP
communication.
Snooping TCP (S-TCP)
 Bal krishnan et al.4 proposed a protocol that improves TCP performance by
modifying the software at the base station while preserving the end-to- end TCP
semantic. The modified software at the base station is known as snoop.
Mobile TCP (M-TCP)
 This protocol for mobile cellular networks was proposed by Kevin Brown et al.5 In
mobile wireless networks, users would badly suffer from unacceptable delays in TCP
communications and frequent disconnections caused by events such as signal fades,
lack of bandwidth, handoff, unless these are explicitly handled by the protocol.
 The M-TCP protocol tries to avoid the sender window from shrinking or reverting to
slow-start when bit errors cause a packet loss, as is attempted in I-TCP and snooping
TCP.
Snooping TCP (S-TCP)
 Balkrishnan et al.4 proposed a protocol that improves TCP performance by modifying the
software at the base station while preserving the end-to- end TCP semantic. The modified
software at the base station is known as snoop.

Mobile TCP (M-TCP)

 This protocol for mobile cellular networks was proposed by Kevin Brown et al.5 In mobile
wireless networks, users would badly suffer from unacceptable delays in TCP communications
and frequent disconnections caused by events such as signal fades, lack of bandwidth, handoff,
unless these are explicitly handled by the protocol.

Figure 5.8 A schematic of operation of the M-TCP protocol.

 When a packet is sent to FH by MH using SH, the wired part uses the normal unmodified TCP
and the wireless part uses the modified version of TCP known as M-TCP to deliver data to MH.
Freeze-TCP

 The basic idea in this scheme is to “freeze” the TCP senders’ streams, little before a
disconnection is to occur. This is done by artificially sending a “Zero Windows Advertisement”
informing the sender that the receiver cannot receive data at the moment.
TCP in Multi-hop Wireless Networks

 The TCP-F (TCP feedback) protocol has been proposed for extending TCP to multiple-hop
networks. In a mobile ad hoc network, a sender MH sends a packet to destination MH through
the intermediate MH, since all the nodes of networks are MH.

UNIT – II – END
 UNIT III
Mobile Telecommunication System-Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) – General Packet
Radio Service (GPRS) – Universal Mobile Tele communication System (UMTS).

MOBILE TELECOMMUNICATION SYSTEM

 Digital cellular networks are the segment of the market for mobile
and wireless devices which are growing most rapidly.
 These systems are mainly used for voice traffic. However, data traffic is
continuously growing.
 The basic versions typically implement a circuit-switched service, focused on voice, and only offer data
rates of up to, e.g., 9.6 kbit/s.
 However, service is provided up to a speed of 250 km/h (e.g., using GSM in a car) where most other
wireless systems fail the most popular digital system is GSM,
 The digital market is split into TDMA, CDMA, and GSM systems with 107 million TDMA, 135 million
CDMA, and only 16 million GSM users (North America only).
 The main focus is always on data service,
 so the evolution of GSM offering higher data rates and packet-oriented transfer is also presented

GSM (GLOBAL SYSTEM FOR MOBILE COMMUNICATION)

 GSM is the most successful digital mobile telecommunication system in the

world today.
 GSM is a typical second generation system, replacing the first generation analog systems, but not
offering the high worldwide data rates that the third generation
systems, such as UMTS, are promising.
 Special features of this system are, e.g., emergency calls with acknowledgements, voice group call
service (VGCS), voice broadcast service(VBS).
 These so-called advanced speech call items (ASCI) resemble features typically available in trunked radio
systems.
Goal:
 provide a mobile phone system that allows users to roam throughout Europe and provide voice services
compatible to ISDN and PSTN.
Generation:
 GSM is in the second generation.
(i.e.,) replacing the I generation analog systems does not offer the data rates as that of 3rd generation systems.
Mobile Services:
 GSM allows the integration of voice and data services and also the internetworking with the existing networks.
3 Types of Services:
o Bearer Services
o Tele Services
o Supplementary Services
Reference Model for GSM Services:

 A mobile station MS is connected to the GSM public land mobile network PLMN via u interface
 PLMN is the infrastructure needed for the GSM networks.
 This network is connected to transit networks.
 There will be additional network the Source/Destinations network before another terminal TE is connected
Bearer Services
 Bearer services comprises of all services that enable the transparent transmission of data between the interface
to the network.
 Bearer services permit transparent/non transparent, synchronous and asynchronous data transmission.
 Transparent Bearer Services:
 This service uses the functions of physical layer to transmit data.
 Data transmission has a constant delay and throughput if no error occurs .
 Non-Transparent Bearer Services:
 Uses the protocols of layers data link and network to transmit data.
 These services uses transparent bearer service radio link protocol(RPL).
Tele Services
 Tele Services are application specific and need all the 7 layers of ISO/OSI reference model
 Services are specified end to end.
 Important service is
i.Telephony Services
ii.Emergency Number
iii.Short Message
Service
Supplementary Services
 GSM offer supplementary services.
 They are
i. User Identification
ii. Call Redirection/Forwarding

iii.Closed User Group

System Architecture:
 The architecture of GSM comes in hierarchy, consisting of many entities, interfaces and subsystem.
 The GSM system consist of three subsystems
(1) The Radio Subsystem (RSS)
(2) Network and Switching Subsystems(NSS)
(3) Operation Subsystem (OSS).

Radio Subsystem
 The Radio System consists of all radio specific entities
 The mobile stations and base station subsystems.
 As they are in the same radio frequency they form a cell.
 Components of RSS:
(i) Mobile Station
(ii) Base Transceiver Station
(iii) Base Station Subsystem
(iv) Base Station Controller.
1. Base Station Subsystem (BSS)
 A GSM network comprises many BSSs, each controlled by a base station controller (BSC).
 The BSS carries out transcending of speech channels, allocation of radio channels to mobile phones,
paging, quality management of transmission and reception over the Air interface and many other tasks related to the
radio network.
2. Base Transceiver Station (BTS)
 A BTS comprises all radio equipment, i.e., antennas, signal processing, amplifiers necessary for radio
transmission.
 A GSM cell can measure between some 100 m and 35 km depending on the environment but also expected
traffic.
3. Base Station Controller (BSC)
 The BSC provides classically, the intelligence behind the BTSs.
 The BSC handles allocation of radio channels, receives measurements from the mobile phones, and controls
handovers from BTS to BTS.
 A key function of the BSC is to act as a concentrator where many different low capacity connections to BTSs.
4. Mobile Station:
 MS has all user equipment and software needed for mobile communication.
 MS has user independent hardware and software.
 Subscriber Identity Module(SIM)- Stores all user specific data.
 International Mobile Equipment Identity -Mobile station can be identified with IMEI.
 Constituents of Sim card:
(i) Have identifiers and tables.
(ii) Personal identity number (PIN)
(iii) PIN unblocking key(PUK)
(iv) Authentication key.
(v) International mobile subscriber Identity (IMSI)
 Location Area Identification: (LAI) - With the TMSI and LAI the current location can be identified.
Network and Switching Subsystem:
 This subsystem is the heart of GSM.
 Functions:
 Connects wireless network with standard public network.
 Performs handover between different BSS.
 Localization
 Charging, accounting and roaming of users.
 Components - The NSS contains the following switches and databases.
Mobile Services Switching Center (MSSC)
 They are digital ISDN switches.
 Establish connections with other MSC and BSC via A interface.
(i) Home Location Register HLR:
 Important data base.
 Static Information:
 Mobile subscriber ISDN number.
 Subscribed services for that number.
 Dynamic Information:
 Current Location Area (LA) of MS.
 Mobile subscriber roaming number (MSRN).
(ii) Visitor Location Resister:
 VLR is associated to each MSC.
 Dynamic data base.
Operation Subsystem
 This subsystem contains the functions needed for network operation and maintenance.
 The network entities present are
 Operation Maintenance Center:
 The OMS monitors and controls all other network entities via 0 interface.
  Functions
 Traffic monitoring.
 Status reporting of network entities.
 Security management.
 OMC uses the concept of telecommunication management and network.
 Authentication Center:
 The radio interface is vulnerable to attacks.
 AUC is to protect the user identity and data transmission.
 AUC has the algorithm for authentication, encryption.
 Equipment Identity Register:
 Stores the device identification.
 EIR has a data base of stolen devices.
 As the mobile stations can be stolen, this ERI is used to trace the MS.
Radio Interface:
 This interface is the interesting interface.
 This is interesting because it does multiplexing and media access.
Burst:
 Data is transmitted in small portion called bursts.
 The guard space is used to avoid overlapping with other bursts due to different delays.
 The TDMA frame:
 Types of Bursts:
 Frequency Correction Burst: This allows the MS correct the local oscillator to avoid interference with
neighboring channel.
Logical Channels and Frame Hierarchy:
 GSM specifies two groups of logical channels.
 Traffic Channels
 Control Channels
Traffic Channels (TCH)
 GSM uses this Traffic Channel to transmit user data.
 Two types of TCH are there
i. Full-rate TCH (TCH/F) – data rate = 22.8 kBPs
ii. Half-rate TCH (TCH/H) – data rate = 11.4 kBPs
 Speech quality decreases when TCH/H is used.
 The standard codec are used.
Control Channels
 Many control channels are used to control the medium access, allocate traffic channels, mobility management.
 Three control channels are available.
 Broadcast Control Channel:
 This channel is used to broadcast information to all the MS with in a cell.
  Information transmitted are
 e.g. Called, options for the cell etc.
 The sub channels are
(a) FCCH: Frequency Correction Channel - This channel is used for sending information about frequency
correction
(b) SCH: Synchronization Channel -This channel is used for sending information about time synchronization.
(c)Common Control Channel: CCCH - This channel is used for transmitting information related to establishment of
a channel between MS and BS. Sub channels are
Paging Channel:
 When there is a call to the MS, the BTS uses paging channel for paging the correct MS.
Random Access Channel: (RACH)
 If the MS wants to setup a call this channel is used to send data to BTS.
Access Great Channel: AGCH
 This channel is used to signal an MS that it can use the TCH or SDCCH for further connection setup.
(i) Dedicated Control Channel: DCCH
 This channel is alone bi-directional.
Sub channels
 Stand alone dedicated control channel: SDCCH
 Until the MS has not established a TCH with BTS the SDCCH is used for low data rate for signaling.
 Slow associated dedicated control channel: SACCH
 Each TCH and SDCCH has SACCH
 Fax associated dedicated control channel: FACCH
 When more signaling information needs to be transmitted this channel is used.
Protocols Architecture
The layers are
Physical Layer: (RADIO)
 The physical layer handles all radio specific functions.
 Functions:
(1) Creation of burst in any one of 5 formats.
(2) Multiplexing burst into a TDMA frame.
(3) Synchronization with BTS.
Layer 2: LAPD
 For signaling between entities in a GSM network this layer is used.
 The protocol used in LAPDM.
 Functions are
i. Reliable data transfer,
ii.Resequencing of data,
iii.Flow control.
Layer 3: Network Layer: RR
 The Network layer has sub layers.
 They are
(i) Radio Resource Management:
 This is the lowest sub layer.
 A part of RR is RR’ is implemented in BTS, remaining is implemented by BSC.
 Function of RR
(1) Setup
(2) Maintenance
(3) Release of Radio Channels.
 RR directly access the physical layer.
 The function of RR’ are supported by the BSC via this BTSM.
(ii) Mobility Management: MM
 Functions:
(1) Registration
(2) Authentication
(3) Identification
(4) Location updating
(5) Providing TMSI, IMSI.
Layer 4: Call Management. CM
 This layer contains 3 entities.
(1) Call control
(2) SMS
(3) Supplementary services.
Call Control:
 Provides point to point connection between two terminals.
 Used for call clearance, change of call parameters.
 Short Message Services:
 Functions:
 To send in band tone called dual tone multiple frequencies over GSM.
Localization and Calling:
 The important feature of GSM is worldwide localization of users.
 The system always knows where the user is currently and the same phone number valid worldwide.
 To provide this service the GSM periodically updates even if the user does not use the mobile station.
 The Roaming can take place within inter-provider or intra-provider.
 For the localization of the MS the following numbers are needed.
(1) Mobile Station International ISDN Number.
(2) International Mobile Subscriber Identity.
(3) Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity.(TMSI)
Mobile Station Roaming Number:
 This is another temporary address.
 This is used to hide identity and location of a subscriber.
Mobile Terminated Case:
 Here the end receiver is a mobile station.
 The steps needed to establish a call is as follows:
1. The user dials a GSM subscriber phone number.
2. The PSTN identifies that the number dialed number belongs to GSM network and forwards the call to Gateway
MSC.
3. The gateway MSC identifies the HLR of the subscriber and signals the call setup to the HLR.
4. The HLR checks whether the number exists and the services are permitted services and requests
MSRN from the current VLR.
5. The HLR receives the MSRN.
6. The HLR determines the MSC responsible for the MS and forwards the information to the GMSC.
7. The GMSC forwards the call setup request to the MSC indicated.
Mobile Originated Call:
1. The MS transmits a request for a connection.
2. The BSS forwards the request to MSC.
Handover:
 Handover means handling over the mobile from one cell to another cell.
 Types of Handover in GSM:

1. Intra cellhandover:
 With in a cell,narrow band interference can cause transmission at a certain frequency impossible.
2. Inter cell, Intra BSC handover:
 The mobile station moves from one cell to another but remains within the same BSC.
3. Inter BSC, Intra MSC handover:
 The BSC controls only limited cells.
 Handover needs to be done between different BSC.
 This is controlled by MSC.
4. Inter MSC handover:
 A handover is needed between 2 cells which belong to difference MSC.
 Both MSC performs the handover together.
Message involved when Intra MSC handover takes place:
 The MS sends the measurement report to the BTS.
 The BTSold forwards to BSCold.
 The MSC has the HO-Request, transmits to BSCnew.
Security:
 GSM offers security services with the confidential information stored in AUC and in the SIM.
 The Security services offered by GSM are
(i) Access Control and Authentication:
o The authentication of the valid user for the SIM.
o The user needs a PIN to access sim.
(ii) Confidentiality:
o User related data are encrypted.
o After authentication the BTS and MS apply encryption on to the data.
o Confidentiality exists between MS and BTS only.
 (iii) Anonymity:
o To provide user anonymity the data is encrypted and transmitted.
o User ID is not transmitted.
o The algorithms to provide security in GSM are
A3 – Authentication
A5 – Encryption
A8 – Generation of Cipher key.
Authentication:
 To use a GSM service the user should be authenticated.
 Authentication is based on SIM.
 SIM stores the Individual Authentication key the user identification IMSI, algorithm for authentication A3.
 Authentication uses challenge response method.
Encryption:
 To have privacy all the user related information messages are encrypted.
 After authentication MS and BSS encrypt using Ki.
 Ki is generated using Ki and a random value using A8.
New Data Services:
 When GSM was developed, not many people anticipated the tremendous growth of data communication
compared to voice communication 9.6 kbit/s was o lot, or at least enough for standard group 3 fax machines.

GPRS-General Packet Radio Services

 General packet radio service
 This mechanism is flexible and powerful.
 This method provides packet mode for data transfer for small volumes of data, to increase the data transfer.
Expectations:
 Should use the existing network resources efficiently.
 Should provide the selection of QoS parameters.
Concepts of GPRS:
 The GSM can allocate between 1 to 8 slots in a TDMA frame for the new GPRS radio channels.
 Time slots are not allocated in a fixed, predetermined manner.
 The time slots are shared by the active users.
Types of packet transfer services
 point to point packet transfer service
 point to multipoint service
Architecture:
 Two network elements
 GGSN(Gateway GPRS Support Nodes)
 SGSN(Serving GPRS Support Nodes)
GGSN:
 The GGSN are the internetworking unit present between GPRS Network and Packet Data Networks.
 The GGSN contains routing information and does address conversions and tunneling.
 The GGSN is connected to the external network via a Gi interface and transfers packet to SGSN via Gn interface.
SGSN:
 This node support MS via Gb interface.
 The SGSN requests the user address from GPRS register( GR) and Keeps track of individual MS location.
Packet transmission:
 Packet is transmitted from a PDN via GGSN, SGSN, BSS to the MS.
In addition to the above the functions of mobility management are:
 Authentication
 Location Management
 Ciphering.
Modes of MS:
 Idle mode: in this mode the MS is not reachable and context is deleted.
Protocol Reference Model:
MS:
 All the data within the GPRS backbone (i.e) between GSN is transferred using GPRS Tunneling Protocol GTP).
 GTP uses 2 different transport layer protocols
 TCP
 UDP
BSS:
 The Base station Subsystem GPRS protocol is based(BSSGP) on specifying Routing and QoS related information
between BSS and SGSN.
 The BSSGP does not perform error correction and works on the top of frame relay.

UMTS – (UNIVERSAL MOBILE TELECOMMUNICATIONS SERVICE)

 UMTS – universal mobile telecommunications service is a third-generation(3G) broadband, packet-based

transmission of text, digitized voice, and multimedia at data rates up to 2 megabits per second(Mbps).
UMTS Releases and Standardization:
 UMTS offers a consistent set of services to mobile computer and phone users, no matter where they are located in
the world.
 Once UMTS is fully available, computer and phone users can be constantly attached to the internet wherever they
travel and, as they roam, will have the same set of capabilities.
 Previous cellular telephone systems were mainly circuit-switched, meaning connections were always dependent on
circuit availability. A packet switched connections uses the internet protocol (IP).
UMTS System Architecture:
Simplified UMTS Reference architecture

 The above figure the simplified UMTS reference architecture.

 This is applied to UTRA, 3 GPP 2000
 The UTRA network UTRAN handles cell level mobility and has Radio Network sub System (RNS).
Functions of RNS:
 Channel Ciphering and Deciphering
 handover control
Functions of CN (Core Network)
 Inter system handover
 They are
 User Equipment Domain
 Infrastructure Domain
 Core Network Domain
 User Equipment Domain:
 The user equipment domain has (a) USIM domain and (b) mobile equipment domain.
USIM Domain
 The USIM domain contains the SIM for UMTS, performs encryption, authentication, stores user related data for
UMTS.
Mobile equipment domain:
 The end device is in the mobile equipment domain functions of Radio Transmission,. Interfaces are located in
mobile equipment domain.
Infrastructure Domain:
 This domain is shared among all users and offers UMTS services.
 This domain consists of
Access network Domains:
 This contains the access to network independent functions.
Core network Domain:
 The core network domain has 3 sub domains with specific tasks.
o Serving network domain: has all functions currently used by the user for accessing the UMTS services.
o Home Network Domain: all functions related to home network of a user are present.
UMTS Radio Interface:
 The difference between UMTS and GSM comes with radio interface (Uu).
 The duplex mechanisms are used from that of GSM and TDD.
 UMTS uses a chipping rate of 3.8 M chips/sec.
UTRA Mode (UNIVERSAL TERRESTRIAL RADIO ACCESS)
 UTRA – FDD (W-CDMA) – FDD – FREQUENCY DIVISION DUPLEX
 UTRA – TDD (TD-CDMA) – TDD - TIME DIVISION DUPLEX
UTRA-FDD (W-CDMA)
 The FDD mode for UTRA uses wide band CDMA (W-CDMA) with direct sequence spreading.
 Each frame has got logical and physical channel and their mapping.

Uplink Channels:
1. Dedicated Physical Data Channel:(DPDCH)
o This channel conveys user/signaling data.
o This spreading facture is between 4 and 256
2. Dedicated physical Control Channel(DPCCH)
o In each Connection layer 1 needs exactly one DPCCH.
o This channel conveys control data for the physical layer only.
o Spreading is constant at 256.
Downlink channel:
 Dedicated physical Channel: (DPCH)
o the downlink time multiplexes control data and user data
o Spreading factor is between 4 and 512
UTRA – TDD (TD-CDMA)
 This mode UTRA-TDD separate up and downlink in time using a radio frame.
 The TDD frame can be symmetrical or asymmetrical,
 The frame can contain the same number of uplink and downlink slots or any arbitrary combination
Frame Structure:

 The frame can have only one switching point from uplink to downlink or several switching points.
 The location of the spectrum for this UMTS mode, but it is unclear to what extend this system will be
deployed.

UTRAN: (UNIVERSAL TERRESTRIAL RADIO ACCESS NETWORKS)

 This consists of several radio network subsystems (RNS). Each RNS is controlled by a radio network
controller (RNC) and comprises several components that are called node B.
Frame Structure:

Radio network subsystems RNS

RNS is controlled by RNC (Radio Network Control)
1. Node B:
o The node B controls several antennas which make a radical via FDD/TDD.
o The mobile device UE can be Connected to one or more antenna.
2. User Equipment:
o UE is the nodes.
Functions
i) perform signal quality measurement
ii) UE has to co-operate during handover and cell selection.
 Functions of RNC:
 Call Admission Control:
 Congestion Control
 Encryption and Decryption
 Core Network:
CSD Protocol Stack:
 This used the ATM adaptation layers AAL2 for user data transmission.
 RNC implement the RLC and MAC layer.
CSD Protocol Stack:

PSD Protocol Stack:

Handover:
 UMTS has 2 classes of handover
 Hard handover:
 Switching between different antenna/system is performed at a certain point of time.
 Soft Handover
 Here the nodes receive the signals from many stations whereby making the handover soft.
 UE can receive signals from up to three antennas which may belong to different node B.
Handover Types in UMTS
 an overview of several common handover types in a combined UMTS/GSM network (UMTS specifies ten
different types which include soft and hard handover).

 Intra-node B, intra-RNC: UE1 moves from one antenna of node B1 to another antenna. This
type of handover is called softer handover. In node B1 performs combining and splitting of the
data streams.
 Inter-node B, intra-RNC: UE2 moves from node B1 to node B2.
 Inter-RNC: When UE3 moves from node B2 to node B3 two different types
of handover can take place.
i. The internal inter-RNC handover is not visible for the CN, RNC1 can act as SRNC, RNC2
will be the DRNC. The CN will communicate via the same interface Iu all the time.
ii. Relocation of the interface Iu takes place (relocation of the controlling RNC), the handover is
called an external inter-RNC handover.

-----------UNIT III COMPLETED --------------

 UNIT - IV
Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks-Ad-Hoc Basic Concepts –Characteristics – Applications – Design Issues – Routing –
Essential of Traditional Routing Protocols –Popular Routing Protocols – Vehicular Ad Hoc networks ( VANET)
– MANET Vs VANET–Security.

Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks

Introduction:
 Mobile Ad- hoc Network (MANET) is a wireless network made up of a collection of mobile nodes
connected wirelessly and free of any fixed infrastructure.
 A wireless ad hoc network (WANET) or mobile ad hoc network (MANET) is a decentralized type of
wireless network. The network is ad hoc because it does not rely on a pre-existing infrastructure, such as
routers or wireless access points.

A FEW BASIC CONCEPTS:

 A set of mobile devices can communicate with each other in the absence of any form of fixed networking
infrastructures such as hubs, routers, base stations, etc.
SCHEMATIC MODE OF MOBILE AD HOC NETWORK

CHARACTERISTICS OF MOBILE AD HOC NETWORKS(MANETs)

 There are several characteristics that distinguish a MANET from an infrastructure-based network.
 Lack of fixed infrastructure:
 Any fixed networking infrastructure, a pair of nodes can either communicate directly when they are in
the transmission range of each other, or they can communicate using a multi-hop communication
 Dynamic topologies:
 Network topology which is typically multi hop may change randomly and rapidly with time, it can form
unidirectional or bi-directional links.
 Bandwidth constrained, variable capacity links:
 Wireless links usually have lower reliability, efficiency, stability, and capacity as compared to a wired
network
 Autonomous Behavior:
 Each node can act as a host and router, which shows its autonomous behavior.
 Energy constrained operation:
 The nodes in a MANET rely on battery power. Energy conservation is usually considered to be an
important objective of MANET routing protocols.
 Limited Security:
 Wireless networks are more prone to security threats. A centralized firewall is absent due to the
distributed nature of the operation for security, routing, and host configuration.
 Increased vulnerability:
 Many of these threats arise due to the underlying wireless transmissions and the deployment of
collaborative routing techniques.
 Less Human Intervention:
 They require minimum human intervention to configure the network, therefore they are dynamically
autonomous in nature.
 Other characteristics:
 peer-to-peer mode of operation, multi-hop routing ,and relatively frequent changes
Pros and Cons of MANET
Pros:
 Separation from central network administration.
 Each node can play both the roles ie. of router and host showing autonomous nature.
 Self-configuring and self-healing nodes do not require human intervention.
 Highly scalable and suits the expansion of more network hub.
Cons:
 Resources are limited due to various constraints like noise, interference conditions, etc.
 Lack of authorization facilities.
 More prone to attacks due to limited physical security.
 High latency i.e. There is a huge delay in the transfer of data between two sleeping nodes.
Improvement in MANET:
1. Quality of Service (QoS): Researchers are working to improve the quality of service of MANET by
developing efficient routing protocols that provide better bandwidth, throughput, and latency.
2. Security: To ensure the security of the MANET, researchers are developing efficient security
mechanisms that provide encryption, authentication, and authorization facilities.
3. Power management: To enhance the lifetime of MANET nodes, researchers are working on developing
efficient power management techniques that reduce the energy consumption of nodes.
4. Multimedia support: Researchers are working to provide multimedia support to MANET by developing
efficient routing protocols that can handle multimedia traffic efficiently.
5. Standardization: To ensure the interoperability of different MANET devices, researchers are working on
developing standard protocols and interfaces that can be used by different MANET devices.
BENEFITS AND DISADVANTAGES OF MANET
 Mobile Adhoc Network (MANET) is a wireless network made up of a collection of mobile nodes
connected wirelessly and free of any fixed infrastructure.
Advantages:
 Flexibility: MANETs are highly flexible, as they can be easily deployed in various environments and can
be adapted to different applications and scenarios.
 Scalability: MANETs can easily scale to accommodate a large number of nodes, making them suitable
for large-scale deployments.
  Cost-effective: Since MANETs do not require any centralized infrastructure, they are often more cost-
effective than traditional wired or wireless networks. They can also be used to extend the range of existing
networks without the need for additional infrastructure.
Disadvantages:
 Security: MANETs are vulnerable to security threats, such as attacks by malicious nodes, eavesdropping,
and data interception. Since the network is decentralized, there is no central authority to ensure the security of
the network.
 Reliability: MANETs are less reliable than traditional networks, as they are subject to interference, signal
attenuation, and other environmental factors that can affect the quality of the connection.
 Bandwidth: Since MANETs rely on wireless communication, bandwidth can be limited. This can lead to
congestion and delays, particularly when multiple nodes are competing for the same channel..
Problems :
There are several problems that Ad Hoc network faces –
 Limited wireless range
 Packet losses
 Energy conservation because of limited batteries.
 Low-quality communications.
 Hidden-node problem creates collision if two device try to communicate with same receiver.

 Deployment Considerations
APPLICATIONS OF MANETS
 A few example applications are defence related operations and disaster management applications.
Communication among portable computers
 Miniaturization has allowed the development of many types of portables and computerized equipment,
Environmental monitoring
 Continuous data collection from remote locations is considered important for several applications
Military
 The present-day military equipment have become quite sophisticated, have many automated parts and
contain one or more computers.
 Emergency applications
 Medical Application – It can use to monitor patient.
 Environmental Application – It can be used to check weather condition, forest fire, tsunami etc.
MANET DESIGN ISSUES
 The design of a MANET is carried out primarily based on the anticipated node density, average rate of node
movements, and the expected traffic.
 MANET Designing is carried based on,
 Node density.
 Average rate of node movements.
 Expected Traffic.
 A few important issues that are relevant to the design of suitable MANET protocols.
Network size and node density
 Network size refers to the geographical coverage area of the network and network density refers to the
number of nodes present per unit geographical area.
Connectivity
 The term connectivity of a node usually refers to the number of neighbors. a neighbour of a node is one
that is in its transmission range.
Network topology
 Connectivity among the nodes is also known as topology.
 To provide Network size and node density.
 Network size - coverage area of the network.
 Connectivity
 Connectivity refers number of neighbour nodes.
 User Traffic
 The common traffic types are the following:
• Bursty Traffic.
• Large packets sent periodically.
 Operational Environment
 Environment may differ,
• Urban
• Rural
• Maritime.
 Energy Constraints
 No infrastructure so no reliable power source.
 Extra roles like routers.
.
 ROUTING
 The purpose of routing is to find the best path between the source and the destination for forwarding
packets in any store-and forward network.
 We can now state that whenever there is an incoming packet in a MANET:
(a) Forward the packet to the next node (hop).
(b) While forwarding the packet, the sender needs to ensure that:
(i) The packet moves towards its destination.
(ii) The number of hops/path length is minimized.
(iii) Delay is minimized.
Pro-active routing protocols:
 These are also known as table-driven routing protocols. Each mobile node maintains a separate routing
table which contains the information of the routes to all the possible destination mobile nodes.
Destination Sequenced Distance Vector Routing Protocol (DSDV):
 It is a pro-active/table driven routing protocol. It actually extends the distance vector routing protocol of
the wired networks
Global State Routing (GSR):
 It is a pro-active/table driven routing protocol. It actually extends the link state routing of the wired
networks.
Reactive routing protocols:
 These are also known as on-demand routing protocol.

Dynamic Source Routing protocol (DSR):

 It is a reactive/on-demand routing protocol.
 It consists of two phases:
1. Route Discovery:
 It determines the most optimal path for the transmission of data packets between the source and the
destination mobile nodes.

 Route discovery allows any host to dynamically discover the route to any destination in the ad hoc network.
 When a node has a data packet to send, it first checks its own routing cache. If it finds a valid route in
its own routing cache, it sends out the packet using this route.
2. Route Maintenance:
 This phase performs the maintenance work of the route as the topology in the mobile ad-hoc network is
dynamic in nature
Ad-Hoc On Demand Vector Routing protocol (AODV):
 It is a reactive/on-demand routing protocol. It is an extension of dynamic source routing protocol (DSR)
and it helps to remove the disadvantage of dynamic source routing protocol.
Hybrid Routing protocol:
 It basically combines the advantages of both, reactive and pro-active routing protocols One of the most
popular hybrid routing protocol is Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP).
Characteristics of MANET Routing Protocol:
 To avoid the problems with routing in MANET, routing protocols should have following characteristics:
 It should be widely distributed.
 It must be localized.
 Because of nodes mobility, it should be adjustable to frequent change in topology.

ESSENTIALS OF TRADITIONAL ROUTING PROTOCOLS

 To support the specific requirements of an Ad hoc network.

 Two important classes of routing protocols for traditional networks are the link state and the distance
vector.
Link State Protocols (LSP)
 The term link state denotes the state of a connection of one router with one of its neighbors.
  A basic characteristic of a link state routing protocol is that every router constructs a graph representing the
connectivity between the various nodes in the network based on the information received from other
routers

Schematic diagram of router

Features of Link State Routing Protocols
 Link State Packet: A small packet that contains routing information.
 Link-State Database: A collection of information gathered from the link-state packet.
 Shortest Path First Algorithm (Dijkstra algorithm): A calculation performed on the database results in
the shortest path
 Routing Table: A list of known paths and interfaces.
Characteristics of Link State Protocol
 It requires a large amount of memory.
 Shortest path computations require many CPU circles.
 If a network uses little bandwidth; it quickly reacts to topology changes
Distance Vector (DV) Protocols
 A distance-vector routing protocol in data networks determines the best route for data packets based on
distance.
 Distance-vector routing protocols measure the distance by the number of routers a packet has to pass;
 The DV protocol is, therefore, based on calculating the distance and the direction to any router in a
network.
Popular MANET Routing Protocols
 Based on the classification of the routing protocols
Destination-Sequenced Distance-Vector Routing Protocol
 Destination-Sequenced Distance-Vector Routing (DSDV) is an important
Important steps in the operation of DSDV
 The important steps in the operation of DSDV are summarized below:
1. Each router (node) in the network collects route information fromall its neighbours.
2. After gathering information, the node determines the shortest pathto the destination based on
the gathered information.
 This process continues till the routing information becomes stable.

5.The metric field in the routing table helps to determine the number of hops required for a packet to
traverse to its destination.

VEHICULAR AD HOC NETWORKS (VANETS)

 VANET is similar to MANET in terms, that is also do not need any infrastructure for data transmission.
 VANET play important role in aspect of safe driving, intelligent navigation, emergency and
entertainment applications.

A VANET use scenario

Uses of VANETs :
 Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS): VANETs can be used to enhance traffic flow, reduce congestion,
and improve road safety by enabling communication between vehicles and with road-side infrastructure.
 Navigation and Location-Based Services: VANETs can provide real-time traffic and navigation
information to drivers, allowing them to make informed decisions and avoid congestion.
 Emergency Services: VANETs can be used to quickly and efficiently relay emergency messages, such as
accidents and road closures, to other vehicles and to emergency services.
 Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) and Vehicle-to-Infrastructure (V2I) Communication: VANETs can facilitate
communication between vehicles and with road-side infrastructure
 Entertainment and Infotainment Services: VANETs can provide entertainment and information services,
such as streaming music and video, to passengers in vehicles.
 MANET vs VANET
 A MANET, as we have already defined, is a collection of mobile nodes that communicate with each
other over bandwidth constrained wireless links without any infrastructure support.
 The VANET nodes (vehicles) can communicate with certain roadside infrastructures or base stations

S.No MANET VANET

.

Production cost of MANET is cheap as compared to

1 Much Expensive
VANET

Mobility of MANET is low as it make bit difficult for High Mobility, as serving
2 network enables the serving networks to locate a networks to locate a
mobile subscriber’s point. mobile subscriber’s point
is easy.

Frequent and very fast

3 Change in network topology orientation is slow.
change of network topology,

Node density is
4 Sparse node density.
frequent variables.

VANET bandwidth is
5 MANET HAVE 100 Kps bandwidth available.
1000 Kps.

500 m range available

6 It ranges Upto 100 m.
in VANET.

7 MANET node lifetime depends on power resources. Depend on lifetime vehicle.

8 MANET have medium reliability. High reliability of VANET.

Movement of the nodes affects the operation of a MANET

Regular, moving pattern
9 as node movement MANETs need to rely on robust
of nodes.
routing protocols.And this MANET have random node
movement.

10 Attribute Based addressing scheme. Location Bases addressing

 S.No MANET VANET
.
scheme.

VANET maintain position

11 Position acquisition is obtained using Ultrasonic. acquisition by using GPS,
RADAR.

Weakly available Multi-hop

12 Availability of Multi-hop Routing
Routing.

SECURITY ISSUES IN A MANET

 A few important characteristics of ad hoc networks that can be exploited to cause security vulnerabilities
are the following:
Lack of physical boundary:
 Each mobile node functions as a router and forwards packets from other nodes
Low power RF transmissions:
 It is possible for a malicious node to continuously transmit and mono polise the medium and cause
its neighboring nodes to wait endlessly for transmitting their messages. signal jamming can lead to a
denial-of-service (DoS) attack.
Limited computational capabilities:
 Nodes in an ad hoc network usually have limited computational capabilities. to encrypt
messages invites a host of security attacks such as spoofing as well as several forms of routing
attacks.

--------------UNIT IV COMPLETED-----------------