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Data Communication & Computer Networks Notes for BCA 6th semester VBSPU

Semester-6

BCA 601

Data Communication
& Computer Networks
(According to Purvanchal University Syllabus)

“Full Line By Line Notes”

On June 25/08/2020

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Data Communication & Computer Networks Notes for BCA 6th semester VBSPU

Unit – 1
Digital Communication
Fundamentals of Digital Communication–
 Digital communication is the process of devices communicating
information digitally.
 A system of interconnected computers and computerized peripherals
such as printers is called computer network. This interconnection among
computers facilitates information sharing among them. Computers may
connect to each other by either wired or wireless media.
 Data Communications provides the rules and regulations that allow
computers with different operating systems, languages, cabling, and
locations to share resources.

Communication Channel–
A communication channel refers either to a physical transmission medium such
as a wire, or to a logical connection over a multiplexed medium such as a radio
channel in telecommunications and computer networking. ... Cable or wire line
media use physical wires of cables to transmit data and information.

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Data Communication & Computer Networks Notes for BCA 6th semester VBSPU

Transmitter–
A transmitter is an electronic device used in telecommunications to produce
radio waves in order to transmit or send data with the aid of an antenna. The
transmitter is able to generate a radio frequency alternating current that is
then applied to the antenna, which, in turn, radiates this as radio waves.

Channel Noise–
Noise is an unwanted signal which interferes with the original message signal
and corrupts the parameters of the message signal. This alteration in the
communication process, leads to the message getting altered. It is most likely
to be entered at the channel or the receiver.

Frequency modulation–
Frequency modulation (FM) is the encoding of information in a carrier wave by
varying the instantaneous frequency of the wave. The term and technology are
used in computing, signal processing and telecommunications.

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Data Communication & Computer Networks Notes for BCA 6th semester VBSPU

Sampling pulse modulation–

The Pulse modulation techniques, deals with discrete signals. Let us see how to
convert a continuous signal into a discrete one. The process called Sampling
helps us with this.

Sampling
 The process of converting continuous time signals into equivalent
discrete time signals, can be termed as Sampling. A certain instant of
data is continually sampled in the sampling process.
 The following figure indicates a continuous-time signal x(t) and a
sampled signal xs(t). When x(t) is multiplied by a periodic impulse train,
the sampled signal xs(t) is obtained.
 A sampling signal is a periodic train of pulses, having unit amplitude,
sampled at equal intervals of time Ts, which is called as the Sampling
time. This data is transmitted at the time instants Ts and the carrier
signal is transmitted at the remaining time.

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Data Communication & Computer Networks Notes for BCA 6th semester VBSPU

PCM–
Modulation is the process of varying one or more parameters of a carrier
signal in accordance with the instantaneous values of the message signal.
The message signal is the signal which is being tr
transmitted
ansmitted for communication
and the carrier signal is a high frequency signal which has no data, but is used
for long distance transmission.
There are many modulation techniques, which are classified according to the
type of modulation employed. Of them al
all,l, the digital modulation technique
used is Pulse Code Modulation PCM.
A signal is pulse code modulated to convert its analog information into a
binary sequence, i.e., 1s and 0s.. The output of a PCM will resemble a binary
sequence. The following figure sho
showsws an example of PCM output with respect
to instantaneous values of a given sine wave.

Instead of a pulse train, PCM produces a series of numbers or digits, and

hence this process is called as digital.. Each one of these digits, though in
binary code, represent
resent the approximate amplitude of the signal sample at that
instant.
In Pulse Code Modulation, the message signal is represented by a sequence of
coded pulses. This message signal is achieved by representing the signal in
discrete form in both time and aamplitude.

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Base Band Data Transmission

Synchronization and scrambler and unscramble–
Data synchronization technologies are designed to synchronize a single set of
data between two or more devices, automatically copying changes back and
forth. For example, a user's contact list on one mobile device can be
synchronized with other mobile devices or computers.

Scrambler
In telecommunications and recording, a scrambler (also referred to as a
randomizer) is a device that manipulates a data stream before transmitting.
The manipulations are reversed by a descrambler at the receiving side.
Scrambling is widely used in satellite, radio relay communications and PSTN
modems.

Unscramble
 Descramble in cable television context is the act of taking a scrambled or
encrypted video signal that has been provided by a cable television
company for premium television services, processed by a scrambler and
then supplied over a coaxial cable and delivered to the household where
a set-top box reprocesses the signal, thus descrambling it and making it
available for viewing on the television set.
 A descrambler is a device that restores the picture and sound of a
scrambled channel. A descrambler must be used with a cable converter
box to be able to unencrypt all of the premium & pay-per-view channels
of a Cable Television System.

Band pass data transmission system–

 Passband Data Transmission concerns the Transmission of the Digital
Data over the real Passband channel.
 In passband transmission, the amplitude, phase or frequency of the
carrier signal is regulated to transmit the bits. The incoming data stream
is modulated onto a carrier and then transmitted over a band-pass
channel.

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The types of passband transmission are illustrated as −

Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
In ASK, the amplitude of the signal is varied to represent the signal levels, while
frequency and phase remains constant. In order to represent 0 and 1, two
different amplitudes are used.

Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

In FSK, the frequency of the signal is modulated to represent the signal levels,
while amplitude and phase remains constant. To represent the signal levels 0
and 1, two different frequencies are used.

Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

In PSK, the phase of the carrier signal is modulated to represent the signal
levels, while amplitude and frequency remains constant. Binary Phase Shift
Keying (BPSK) is the simplest form of PSK where there are two signal elements
represented by two different phases. In Quadrature PSK (QPSK), two bits of
information are transmitted per symbol by using four different phases.

Modulation Registrars–
Bandpass Modulation or Passband Modulation refers to modulation of signal
over a carrier frequency. In these techniques the signal to be transmitted is
sent by modulating either one or more of the three properties of carrier wave.

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Unit – 2
Introduction
Uses of computer networks–
Computer Networks: Business Applications
Following are some business applications of computer networks:

1. Resource Sharing:
The goal is to make all programs, equipments(like printers etc), and especially
data, available to anyone on the network without regard to the physical
location of the resource and the user.
2. Server-Client model:
One can imagine a company's information system as consisting of one or more
databases and some employees who need to access it remotely. In this model,
the data is stored on powerful computers called Servers. Often these are
centrally housed and maintained by a system administrator. In contrast, the
employees have simple machines, called Clients, on their desks, using which
they access remote data.
3. Communication Medium:
A computer network can provide a powerful communication medium among
employees. Virtually every company that has two or more computers now has
e-mail (electronic mail), which employees generally use for a great deal of daily
communication
4. eCommerce:
A goal that is starting to become more important in businesses is doing
business with consumers over the Internet. Airlines, bookstores and music
vendors have discovered that many customers like the convenience of
shopping from home. This sector is expected to grow quickly in the future.

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The most popular forms are listed in the below figure:

Computer Networks: Home Applications

Some of the most importan
importantt uses of the Internet for home users are as follows:

 Access to remote information

 Person-to-person
person communication
 Interactive entertainment
 Electronic commerce

Computer Networks: Mobile Users

Mobile computers, such as notebook computers and Mobile phones, is one of
the fastest-growing
growing segment of the entire computer industry. Although
wireless networking and mobile computing are often related, they are not
identical, as the below figure shows.

Network Architecture
Architecture–
Computer Network Architecture is defined as the physical and logical design of
the software, hardware, protocols, and media of the transmission of data.
Simply we can say that how computers are organized and how tasks are
allocated to the computer.

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The two types of network architectures are used:

o Peer-To-Peer network
o Client/Server network

Peer-To-Peer network
o Peer-To-Peer network is a network in which all the computers are linked
together with equal privilege and responsibilities for processing the
data.
o Peer-To-Peer network is useful for small environments, usually up to 10
computers.
o Peer-To-Peer network has no dedicated server.
o Special permissions are assigned to each computer for sharing the
resources, but this can lead to a problem if the computer with the
resource is down.

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Client/Server Network
o Client/Server network is a network model designed for the end users
called clients, to access the resources such as songs, video, etc. from a
central computer known as Server.
o The central controller is known as a server while all other computers in
the network are called clients.
o A server performs all the major operations such as security and network
management.
o A server is responsible for managing all the resources such as files,
directories, printer, etc.
o All the clients communicate with each other through a server. For
example, if client1 wants to send some data to client 2, then it first
sends the request to the server for the permission. The server sends the
response to the client 1 to initiate its communication with the client 2.

Reference Model (ISO-OSI, TCP/IP Overview, IP

Address Classes, Subneting)–
OSI Model
OSI or Open System Interconnection model was developed by International
Standards Organization (ISO). It gives a layered networking framework that
conceptualizes how communication should be done between heterogeneous
systems. It has seven interconnected layers.

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The seven layers of the OSI Model are a physical layer, data link layer, network
layer, transport layer, session layer, presentation layer, and application layer.
The hierarchy is depicted in the following figure −

TCP / IP PROTOCOL SUITE

TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol, while IP stands for Internet
Protocol. It is a suite of protocols for communication structured in four layers.
It can be used for communication over the internet as well as for private
networks.
The four layers are application layer, transport layer, internet layer and
network access layer, as depicted in the following diagram −

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IP Address Classes
 Internet Protocol hierarchy contains several classes of IP Addresses to
be used efficiently in various situations as per the requirement of hosts
per network. Broadly, the IPv4 Addressing system is divided into five
classes of IP Addresses. All the five classes are identified by the first
octet of IP Address.
 Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers is responsible
for assigning IP addresses.
The first octet referred here is the left most of all. The octets numbered as
follows depicting dotted decimal notation of IP Address −

The number of networks and the number of hosts per class can be derived by
this formula −

When calculating hosts' IP addresses, 2 IP addresses are decreased because

they cannot be assigned to hosts, i.e. the first IP of a network is network
number and the last IP is reserved for Broadcast IP.

Class A Address
 The first bit of the first octet is always set to 0 (zero). Thus the first octet
ranges from 1 – 127, i.e.

 Class A addresses only include IP starting from 1.x.x.x to 126.x.x.x only.

The IP range 127.x.x.x is reserved for loopback IP addresses.
The default subnet mask for Class A IP address is 255.0.0.0 which implies that
Class A addressing can have 126 networks (27-2) and 16777214 hosts (224-2).

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Data Communication & Computer Networks Notes for BCA 6th semester VBSPU

Class A IP address format is

thus: 0NNNNNNN.HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH

Class B Address
An IP address which belongs to class B has the first two bits in the first octet
set to 10, i.e.

Class B IP Addresses range from 128.0.x.x to 191.255.x.x. The default subnet

mask for Class B is 255.255.x.x.
Class B has 16384 (214) Network addresses and 65534 (216-2) Host addresses.
Class B IP address format
is: 10NNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH

Class C Address
The first octet of Class C IP address has its first 3 bits set to 110, that is −

Class C IP addresses range from 192.0.0.x to 223.255.255.x. The default

subnet mask for Class C is 255.255.255.x.
Class C gives 2097152 (221) Network addresses and 254 (28-2) Host addresses.
Class C IP address format
is: 110NNNNN.NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.HHHHHHHH

Class D Address
Very first four bits of the first octet in Class D IP addresses are set to 1110,
giving a range of −

Class D has IP address range from 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255. Class D is

reserved for Multicasting. In multicasting data is not destined for a particular

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Data Communication & Computer Networks Notes for BCA 6th semester VBSPU

host, that is why there is no need to extract host address from the IP address,
and Class D does not have any subnet mask.

Class E Address
This IP Class is reserved for experimental purposes only for R&D or Study. IP
addresses in this class ranges from 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.254. Like Class D,
this class too is not equipped with any subnet mask.
Subneting
Subnetting is a process of dividing a single large network in multiple smaller
networks. A single large network is just like a town without any sector and
street address. In such a town, a postman may take 3 to 4 days in finding a
single address. While if town is divided in sectors and streets, he can easily find
any address in less than one hour.

Domain Name Registration–

Domain registration is the process of registering a domain name, which
identifies one or more IP addresses with a name that is easier to remember
and use in URLs to identify particular Web pages. The person or business that
registers domain name is called the domain name registrant.

Physical Layer
Transmission media-Magnetic Media–
Transmission Media-
o Transmission media is a communication channel that carries the
information from the sender to the receiver. Data is transmitted through
the electromagnetic signals.
o The main functionality of the transmission media is to carry the
information in the form of bits through LAN(Local Area Network).
o It is a physical path between transmitter and receiver in data
communication.
o In a copper-based network, the bits in the form of electrical signals.
o In a fibre based network, the bits in the form of light pulses.

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o In OSI(Open
(Open System Interconnection) phase, transmission media
supports the Layer 1. Therefore, it is considered to be as a Layer 1
component.

Magnetic media-
Any storage medium that utilizes magnetic patterns to represent information is
considered magnetic media. Good exemples of a magnetic media and
magnetic storage is a tape drive, floppy diskette, and hard drive.

Twisted Pair–
A twisted pair cable is a type of cable made by putting two seseparate
parate insulated
wires together in a twisted pattern and running them parallel to each other.
This type of cable is widely used in different kinds of data and voice
infrastructures.

Baseband Coaxial cable

cable–
 Baseband cables are not capable of transmitting mo more
re than one signal at
a time, and the transmissions are restricted to data and voice.
 Baseband
aseband cables exceeding 0.62 mile in length experience a steady drop
in transmission rates unless an amplifier is used.
 Advantages
dvantages of using baseband cable are the associated low cost and the
ease of use.

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Broadband Coaxial Cable–

 Broadband cables are capable of transmitting many signals
simultaneously because each signal, or channel, travels at a different
frequancy.
 These multiple channels make it possible for broadband cables to
transmit as much as 100 megabytes per second.

Fibre Cable–
 An optical fiber cable is a type of cable that has a number of optical
fibers bundled together, which are normally covered in their individual
protective plastic covers.
 Optical cables are used to transfer digital data signals in the form of light
up to distances of hundreds of miles with higher throughput rates than
those achievable via electrical communication cables.

Structured Cabling–
 It plays an important role in dealing with the complicated and specific
cabling. As a data transmission system, structured cabling support data,
multiple voices, videos, and various management systems such as
security access and energy system.
 Structured cabling is define as building or campus telecommunications
cabling infrastructure. Typically, it consists of a number of standardized
smaller elements. In a structured cabling system, there is a structure
created by a series of patch panels and trunks. It allows for a connection
from hardware ports to a patch panel at the top of the rack.

Cable Mounting–
 The role of cable mounting is insttaling the cable into a size. When cable
is use in a device, then start to transfor the data from one computer to
another computer.

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Cable Testing–
 Whether installing new cable, or troubleshooting existing cable,
ethernet network cable testing plays an important role in the process.
 Common network tests for datacom cabling include length, wiremap,
attenuation, NEXT, DC loop resistance, and return loss. As networks
avolve, so do the requirements of the cabling infrastructure to support
them.
 New network cabling standards are continuosly being developed to
provide guidelines for cabling professionals when installing, testing,
troubleshooting, and certifying either copper and fiber cable network
network.

Wireless Transmission–
 Wireless comminucation technology has developed significantly over the
past few decades and has because one of the most important types of
media transmission from one device to another.
 Without the use of wires or electronic conductors, information can be
transmitted by using electromagnetic waves. The various types of
wireless communication include radio broadcast (RF) Infrared (IR),
satellite, microwave, and Bluetooth.
 Mobile phones, GPS, WiFi, and cordless telephones are devices that use
wireless transmission to exchange data and information.

The Telephone System–

The telephone system model is organized as a highly redundant, multilevel
hierarchy. It comprises of the following components –

 Telephone of the subscriber or end user

 End office − Local central office directly connected to end user at a
distance of 1 – 10km.
 Local loop − A two-way connection between the telephone and the end
office.
 Toll office − switching centres which are called tandem offices when
located within the same local area.

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 Toll connecting trunk − Lines that connect end offices with toll offices.
offices

Narrowband ISDN
ISDN–
 There are a set of communication standards for simultaneous digital
transmission of voice, vvideo,
ideo, data, and other network services over the
traditional circuits of the public switched telephone network.
 Before Integrated Service Digital Network (ISDN), the telephone system
was seen as a way to transmit voice, with some special services available
for data. The main feature of ISDN is that it can integrate speech and
data on the same lines, which were not available in the classic telephone
system.

Broadband ISDN and ATM

ATM–
Two standards exist for ISDN: Narrowband
Narrowband-ISDN
ISDN (NISDN) which is already in
operation
ation and Broadband
Broadband-ISDN (B-ISDN). This B-ISDN
ISDN is planned to support
multimedia applications (video, audio, etc.) because of its high performance.
Thus, a B-ISDN
ISDN is able to connect the following devices for example even if they
are very distant:

The challenge in developing BB-ISDN

ISDN is to combine network services that vary
not only in performance requirements but also in delay sensitivity (e. g. even
short breaks in videos will be realized immediately). To reach this goal
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is the technology that will be used. ATM
takes advantage of the very low rates of error and the reliability of modern
networks. So, ATM reduces the error control overhead as much as possible.
Short packets of data with a fixed length (53 Byte) are us
used,
ed, called cells (this
technique in general is referred to as Cell Relay).

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Unit – 3
Data Link Layer
Data Link Layer Design Issues–
The data link layer in the OSI (Open System Interconnections) Model is in
between the physical layer and the network layer. This layer converts the raw
transmission facility provided by the physical layer to a reliable and error free
link. The main functions and the design issues of this layer are

 Providing services to the network layer

 Framing
 Error Control
 Flow Control

Error detection and correction–

Error Detection –
Errors in the received frames are detected by means of Parity Check and Cyclic
Redundancy Check (CRC). In both cases, few extra bits are sent along with
actual data to confirm that bits received at other end are same as they were
sent. If the counter-check at receiver’ end fails, the bits are considered
corrupted.

Error Correction –
In the digital world, error correction can be done in two ways:

 Backward Error Correction- When the receiver detects an error in the

data received; it requests back the sender to retransmit the data unit.
 Forward Error Correction- When the receiver detects some error in the
data received; it executes error correcting code, which helps it to auto-
recover and to correct some kinds of errors.

The first one, Backward Error Correction, is simple and can only be
efficiently used where retransmitting is not expensive. For example, fiber

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optics. But in case of wireless transmission retransmitting may cost too

much. In the latter case, Forward Error Correction is used.

Data Link Protocols–

The data link protocols operate in the data link layer of the Open System
Interconnections (OSI) model, just above the physical layer.

The services provided by the data link protocols may be any of the following –

 Framing − the stream of bits from the physical layer are divided into data
frames whose size ranges from a few hundred to a few thousand bytes.
These frames are distributed to different systems, by adding a header to
the frame containing the address of the sender and the receiver.
 Flow Control − through flow control techniques, data is transmi ed in
such a way so that a fast sender does not drown a slow receiver.
 Error Detection and/or Correction − these are techniques of detec ng
and correcting data frames that have been corrupted or lost during
transmission.
 Multipoint transmission − Access to shared channels and multiple points
are regulated in case of broadcasting and LANs.

Sliding Window protocols–

 Sliding window protocol is a flow control protocol. It allows the sender
to send multiple frames before needing the acknowledgements.
 Sender slides its window on receiving the acknowledgements for the
sent frames.
 This allows the sender to send more frames. It is called so because it
involves sliding of sender’s window.

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Examples of Data Link Protocols–

The data link protocols operate in the data link layer of the Open System
Interconnections (OSI) model, just above the physical layer.

The services provided by the data link protocols may be any of the following –

 Framing − the stream of bits from the physical layer are divided into data
frames whose size ranges from a few hundred to a few thousand bytes.
These frames are distributed to different systems, by adding a header to
the frame containing the address of the sender and the receiver.
 Flow Control − through flow control techniques, data is transmi ed in
such a way so that a fast sender does not drown a slow receiver.
 Error Detection and/or Correction − these are techniques of detec ng
and correcting data frames that have been corrupted or lost during
transmission.
 Multipoint transmission − Access to shared channels and mul ple points
are regulated in case of broadcasting and LANs.

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Unit – 4
The Medium Access Sub Layer
The Channel Allocation Problem
Problem–
 Channel allocation is a process in which a single channel is divided and
allotted to multiple users in order to carry user specific tasks. There are
user’s quantity may vary every time the process takes place.
 If there is N number of users and channel is divided into N equal
equal-sized
sub channels, each user is assigned one portion. If the number of users
are small and don’t vary at times, than Frequency Division Multiplexing
can be used as it is a simple and efficient channel bandwid
bandwidth allocating
technique.
 Channel allocation problem can be solved by two schemes: Static
Channel Allocation in LANs and MANs, and Dynamic Channel Allocation.

These are explained

d as following below.

1. Static Channel Allocation in LANs and MANs: It is the classical or traditional

approach of allocating a single channel among multiple competing users
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM). If there are N users, the bandwidth is
divided
ivided into N equal sized portions each user being assigned one portion. Since
each user has a private frequency band, there is no interface between users. It
is not efficient to divide into fixed number of chunks.

T = 1/(U*C-L)

T(FDM) = N*T(1/U(C/N)-L/N
L/N) Where,

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T = mean time delay, C = capacity of channel, L = arrival rate of frames, 1/U =

bits/frame, N = number of sub channels, T(FDM) = Frequency Division
Multiplexing Time.

Dynamic Channel Allocation:

Possible assumptions include:
1. Station Model: Assumes that each of N stations independently produce
frames. The probability of producing a packet in the interval IDt where I am the
constant arrival rate of new frames.

2. Single Channel Assumption: In this allocation all stations are equivalent and
can send and receive on that channel.

3. Collision Assumption: If two frames overlap in time-wise, then that’s

collision. Any collision is an error, and both frames must re transmitted.
Collisions are only possible error.

4. Time can be divided into Slotted or Continuous.

5. Stations can sense a channel is busy before they try it.

Multiple Access Protocols–

 Multiple access protocol is used to coordinate access to the link.
 Nodes can regulate their transmission onto the shared broadcast
channel by using multiple access protocol.
 It is used both wired and wireless local area network and satellite
network.
 All nodes are capable of transmitting frame; more than two nodes can
transmit frames at the same time.
 If so, the transmitted frames collide at all of the receivers.

IEEE Standard 802 for LANS and MANS–

 The IEEE 802 LAN/MAN Standards Committee is chartered by the IEEE
Computer Society Standards Activities Board to develop and maintain
networking standards recommended practices for local, metropolitan,

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and other area networks, using an open and accredited process, and
advocates them on a global basis.
 The most widely used standards are for Ethernet, Bridging and Virtual
Bridged LANs Wireless LAN, Wireless PAN, Wireless MAN, Wireless
Coexistence, Media Independent Handover Services, and Wireless RAN.
An individual Working Group provides the focus for each area.

High speed LANs–

 LAN protocols according to IEEE standard 802 are all based on copper
transmission media (that is twisted pair or coaxial cable), which allows
data rates of up to 15 Million bits per second (Mbps).
 This is too little if special applications (like picture or video processing)
are running or mainframes or minicomputers should be integrated into
the LAN.
 To get higher transmission rates (up to 100 Mbps and more) it is often
necessary to switch to optical fibre media. This is often done in addition
to copper media: according to the needed performance, devices are
connected to different tiers of LANs, not to a single local network.

FDDI and FDDI-2:

 Fibre Distributed Data Interface can be used in the same way as the
common LANs but is often used as a backbone to connect copper LANs
because of its high speed. FDDI always uses the topology of a ring and a
MAC protocol similar to token ring.

FDDI-II supports protocols for real time transmission of data.

 Fibre Channel
 Fiber net II
 S-Net
 Fas net and Express net

Satellite Networks–
 There are two basic types of satellite system that are used for satellite
communication. First in the discussion are low earth orbit satellites, or

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Data Communication & Computer Networks Notes for BCA 6th semester VBSPU

LEO satellites. These are satellites that orbit at an altitude between 400
and 1000 miles above the earth.
 LEO satellite systems consist of a number of satellites orbiting the earth
to provide a net of coverage over all or most of the planet.

Network Devices:
Repeaters–
A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to regenerate the signal
over the same network before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted so as
to extend the length to which the signal can be transmitted over the same
network.

Hubs–
A hub is basically a multiport repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming
from different branches, for example, the connector in star topology which
connects different stations.

Switches–
A switch is a network device used for electrical or optical signal forwarding. It
provides an exclusive electrical signal path for any two network nodes that
access the switch.

It has multiple ports, each with a bridge function that can be connected to LAN
or a high-performance server or workstation.

Bridges–
Bridge, known as Network Bridge, is a network interconnection device used to
connect two or more local area networks.

It is responsible for network bridging, which receives and amplifies signals from
a network cable, and then sends them to the next cable.

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Data Communication & Computer Networks Notes for BCA 6th semester VBSPU

Unit – 5
Network Layer
Network Layer Design issue–
A number of design issues exist for the layer to layer approach of computer
networks. Some of the main design issues are as follows:

Reliability: Network channels and components may be unreliable, resulting

in loss of bits while data transfer. So, an important design issue is to make sure
that the information transferred is not distorted.

Scalability: Networks are continuously evolving. The sizes are continually

increasing leading to congestion. Also, when new technologies are applied to
the added components, it may lead to incompatibility issues. Hence, the design
should be done so that the networks are scalable and can accommodate such
additions and alterations.

Routing algorithms–
o In order to transfer the packets from source to the destination, the
network layer must determine the best route through which packets can
be transmitted.
o Whether the network layer provides datagram service or virtual circuit
service, the main job of the network layer is to provide the best route.
The routing protocol provides this job.
o The routing protocol is a routing algorithm that provides the best path
from the source to the destination. The best path is the path that has
the "least-cost path" from source to the destination.
o Routing is the process of forwarding the packets from source to the
destination but the best route to send the packets is determined by the
routing algorithm.

The Routing algorithm is divided into two categories:

o Adaptive Routing algorithm

o Non-adaptive Routing algorithm

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Data Communication & Computer Networks Notes for BCA 6th semester VBSPU

Congestion Control algorithm

algorithm–
A state occurring in network layer when the message traffic is so heavy that it
slows down network response ttime known as congestion.
Effects of Congestion:
 As delay increases, performance decreases.
 If delay increases, retransmission occurs, making situation worse.

Congestion control algorithms

 Leaky Bucket Algorithm
Let us consider an example to understand
Imagine a bucket with a small hole in the bottom.No matter at what rate water
enters the bucket, the outflow is at constant rate.When the bucket is full with
water additional water entering spills over the sides and is lost.

Similarly, each network interface contains a leaky bucket and the

following steps are involved in leaky bucket algorithm:
1. When host wants to send packet, packet is thrown into the bucket.
2. The bucket leaks at a constant rate, meaning the network interface
transmits packets at a constant rate.
3. Bursty traffic is converte
convertedd to a uniform traffic by the leaky bucket.

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Data Communication & Computer Networks Notes for BCA 6th semester VBSPU

4. In practice the bucket is a finite queue that outputs at a finite rate.

Token bucket Algorithm

Need of token bucket Algorithm:-
The leaky bucket algorithm enforces output pattern at the average rate, no
matter how bursty the traffic is. So in order to deal with the bursty traffic we
need a flexible algorithm so that the data is not lost. One such algorithm is
token bucket algorithm.
Steps of this algorithm can be described as follows:
1. In regular intervals tokens are thrown into the bucket. ƒ
2. The bucket has a maximum capacity. ƒ
3. If there is a ready packet, a token is removed from the bucket, and the
packet is sent.
4. If there is no token in the bucket, the packet cannot be sent.
Internetworking–
A network of networks is called an internetwork, or simply the internet. It is
the largest network in existence on this planet.
The internet hugely connects all WANs and it can have connection to LANs
and Home networks. Internet uses TCP/IP protocol suite and uses IP as its
addressing protocol.
Present day, Internet is widely implemented using IPv4. Because of shortage
of address spaces, it is gradually migrating from IPv4 to IPv6.
Internet enables its users to share and access enormous amount of
information worldwide. It uses WWW, FTP, email services, audio and video
streaming etc. At huge level, internet works on Client-Server model.
Internet is widely deployed on World Wide Web services using HTML linked
pages and is accessible by client software known as Web Browsers. When a
Internet is serving many proposes and is involved in many aspects of life.
Some of them are:

 Web sites
 E-mail
 Instant Messaging
 Blogging
 Social Media
 Marketing

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Data Communication & Computer Networks Notes for BCA 6th semester VBSPU

 Networking
 Resource Sharing
 Audio and Video Streaming
The network layer in the Internet–
The internet layer is a group of internetworking methods, protocols, and
specifications in the Internet protocol suite that are used to
transport network packets from the originating host
across network boundaries; if necessary, to the destination host specified by
an IP address.

 The Network Layer is the third layer of the OSI model.

 It handles the service requests from the transport layer and further
forwards the service request to the data link layer.
 The network layer translates the logical addresses into physical.
 It determines the route from the source to the destination and also
manages the traffic problems such as switching, routing and controls the
congestion of data packets.
 The main role of the network layer is to move the packets from sending
host to the receiving host.

The network layer in ATM networks–

 ATM is based on the efforts of the ITU-T Broadcast Integrated Services
Digital Network (BISDN) standard. ATM uses both switching
and multiplexing, and it can provide very high bandwidth with few
delays. Instead of using frames like Ethernet uses, ATM uses 53-byte,
fixed-size cells.
 The layers of the ATM model do not map onto the OSI layers especially
well, which leads to ambiguities. The OSI data link layer deals with
framing and transfer protocols between two machines on the same
physical wire (or fiber).
 The lowest layer that goes from source to destination, and thus involves
routing and switching (i.e., is multichip), is the network layer.

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